LENGTH

1. A rule (ruler) is used to measure length for distances between

2. 1mm and 1meter

3. SI unit for length is the meter (m)

4. To find out volume of regular object, use mathematical formula

5. To find out volume of irregular object, put object into measuring

6. cylinder with water. When object added, it displaces water,

7. making water level rise. Measure this rise. This is the volume.

MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

a. Used to measure very small distances

b. Determination of the diameter 'd' of a wire

c. Place the wire between the anvil and spindle end as indicated in the diagram.

d. Rotate the thimble until the wire is firmly held between the anvil and the spindle.

e. The ratchet is provided to avoid excessive pressure on the wire. It prevents the spindle from

further movement - squashing the wire

TIME

a. Interval of time is measured using stop watch

b. SI unit for time is the second(s)

c. To find the amount of time it takes a pendulum to make an oscillation,

time ~20 oscillations and then divide by the same number as the number of oscillations.

SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

FORCES
EFFECTS OF FORCES

1. A force may produce a change in size and shape of a body, give an acceleration or deceleration or a change in

direction depending on the direction of the force.

2 If there is no resultant force acting on a body, it either remains at rest or continues at constant speed in a

straight line

FRICTION

Friction: the force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating

HOOKE’S LAW

Springs extend in proportion to load, as long as they are

under their proportional limit.

Limit of proportionality: point at which load and extension are no longer

proportional

Elastic limit: point at which the spring will not return to

its original shape after being stretched

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑁) = 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑭 = 𝒌𝒆

CIRCULAR MOTION

An object at steady speed in circular orbit is always accelerating as its direction is changing, but it gets no closer

to the center. Centripetal force is the force acting towards the center of a circle.

It is a force that is needed, not caused, by circular motion, For example, when you swing a ball on a string round

in a circle, the tension of the string is the centripetal force. If the string is cut then the ball will travel in a straight

line at a tangent to the circle at the point where the string was cut.

cting away from the center of a circle. This is what makes a slingshot go outwards

as you spin it.

MOMENT

𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏(𝑵𝒎) = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆(𝑵) × perpendicular 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑷𝒊𝒗𝒐𝒕(𝒎)

In equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment.

Levers are force magnifiers

Ex Turning a bolt is far easier with a wrench because distance from pivot is massively increased, and so is the

turning effect.

CENTRE OF MASS

Centre of mass: imaginary point in a body where total mass of body seems to be acting

Working out the center of mass:

Mark three points on the edge of the card, Make a hole using a pin on each point, Hang it on a cork board and

make a line, when it is stable, Do this for all three points, Where all three lines intersect, this is the

center of mass

STABILITY

An object will be in stable equilibrium when it returns to its original position given a small displacement

For an object to start rotating it needs to have an unbalanced moment acting on it

ENERGY

Energy type What it is Example

Kinetic Due to motion Car moving

Gravitational From potential to fall Book on shelf

Chemical In chemical bonds Bonds in starch (food)

Strain Compress/stretch Stretched elastic band

Nuclear Atoms rearranged/split Released in nuclear plant

Internal Motion of molecules In a glass of water

Electrical Carried by electrons Battery to bulb

Sound Carried in sound waves From speaker

THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS & GASES

Solids, liquids and gasses expand when they are heated as atoms vibrate more and this causes them to become

further apart, taking up a greater volume.

Due to differences in molecular structure of the different states of matter, expansion is greatest in gases, less so

in liquids and lowest in solids

Applications and consequences of thermal expansion:

Overhead cables have to be slack so that on cold days, when they contract, they don’t snap or detach.

Gaps have to be left in bridge to allow for expansion

Bimetal thermostat: when temperature gets too high, bimetal strip bends, to make contacts separate until

temperature falls enough, then metal strip will become straight again andcontacts touch, to maintain a steady

temperature

For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature

RADIATION

Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves

Thermal radiation is mainly infra-red waves, but very hot objects also give out light waves. Infra-red radiation is

part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Matt Black White Silver

An emitter sends out thermal radiation.

A reflector reflects thermal radiation, therefore is a bad absorber.

An emitter will cool down quickly, an absorber will heat up more quickly and a

reflector will not heat up quickly

APPLICATION OF ENERGY TRANSFER

Solar panel: the sun’s thermal radiation is absorbed by a matt black surface and warms up the pipes containing

water
Refrigerator: the freezer compartment is located at the top of the refrigerator. It cools down the air which then

sinks. Any warm air rises to the top and then is cooled. This creates a convection

current which maintains a cold temperature.

Metals used in cooking pans because they conduct heat well

CONSEQUENCES OF ENERGY TRANSFER

Metal spoon in a hot drink will warm up because it conducts heat

Convection currents create sea breezes. During the day the land is warmer and acts as heat source. During the

night the sea acts as the heat source.

A black saucepan cools better than a white one, white houses stay cooler than dark ones.

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter

REFRACTION

Speed and wave length is reduced but frequency stays the same and the wave changes direction

Waves slow down when they pass from a less to a more dense material and vice versa

When wave is slowed down, it is refracted towards normal (i > r)

When wave is sped up, it is refracted away from normal (i < r)

Deep water is denser than shallow water

When water wave travels from deep to shallow; speed

decreases, wavelength decreases and frequency remains constant

When water waves travel from shallow to deep; speed increases wavelength increases and frequency remains

constant