2023 - 2024 CAPE Pure Mathematics Unit I Module 2: Trigonometry, Geometry & Vectors

Trigonometrical Functions - Handout # 15

(A) Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations (all angles will be assumed to be in
radians unless otherwise stated)

Trigonometrical Functions
The figure shows a circle of unit radius (radius = 1 unit) with its centre at the origin of the xy-
plane. A rotating radius OP rotates through an angle θ from the x-axis. Note that θ is positive if it
is generated in an anticlockwise direction, and is negative in a clockwise direction.
y

B (0,1)
P (x, y)

C (–1, 0) A (1,0)
x x
angle θ

D (0, –1)

Let (x, y) be the coordinates of the point P. Notice that

(a) x and y exist for every θ  R and
(b) there is only one x and one y for each θ  R.
We define two functions sine and cosine of the angle θ as follows:
opp y adj x
Simply sin θ = hyp = 1 = y and cos θ = hyp = 1 = x, where θ  R.

Looking at the unit circle, it is clear that – 1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and – 1 ≤ y ≤ 1.

Thus, the ranges of sine and cosine functions are the same, given by [– 1, 1].
In terms of sine and cosine functions, we may define the tangent function as follows:
sin 
tan θ = cos , θ R and cos θ ≠ 0.
Page 1 of 20
 The corresponding reciprocal functions of sine, cosine and tangent functions are:
1 1
cosecant θ = sin  i.e., cosec θ = sin  , θ  R and sin θ ≠ 0
1 1
secant θ = cos i.e., sec θ = cos , θ  R and cos θ ≠ 0
cos cos
cotangent θ = sin  i.e., cot θ = sin  , θ  R and sin θ ≠ 0
The signs of each trigonometrical function and its reciprocal in different quadrants are shown
below.

900 or rad
2

Second Quadrant First Quadrant

Sin θ (+ ve)
All trigonometrical
cosec θ (+ ve)
functions (+ ve)
others (– ve)
1800 or
00 or 2π rad
π rad

Tan θ (+ ve)
Cos θ (+ ve)
cot θ (+ ve)
sec θ (+ ve)
others (– ve)
others (– ve)

Third Quadrant Fourth Quadrant

3
2700 or rad
2

Radian Measure
Two kinds of units commonly used for measuring angles are radian measure and degree
measure. At higher levels of mathematics and in many branches of science, the most satisfactory
unit for the measurement of an angle is the radian.
Page 2 of 20
A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius.

O 1 rad

Since the circumference of the circle is 2πr, the angle in the whole circle (3600) must be 2π
radians.
i.e., when r = 1, C = 2π
2π radians = 3600 turn
π radians = 1800

radians = 900
2
360 0 2
 57.30  0.01745
Accordingly, 1 radian = 2
0
AND 10 = 360 radians

.
To convert degrees into radians, multiply by 180
180
.
To convert radians into degrees, multiply by 

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The EXACT value of some common angles

In Trigonometry, it is useful to memorize (or be able to determine) the values of these functions
of some frequently encountered angles.
A

Consider the equilateral triangle ABC

1 1
  1
300

sin =   =
2 1
0
sin 30 OR 6 1 2
3
 3
  2
  2  3
cos = = 600 600

cos 300 OR 6 1 2 B
C
1 1 1
 
 2 2
tan =   =
2 1 3
or
tan 300 OR 6  3 3 3
 
 2 
 

3
 3
sin = 2 =
0
sin 60 OR 3 1 2
1
 2 1
cos = =
cos 600 OR 3 1 2

 3
 
 2 

tan =  = 3
0
tan 60 OR 3 1
 
2

Page 4 of 20
 P
Consider the isosceles triangle PQR

 1 2
sin = or 2
sin 450 OR 4 2 2
1
 1 2
cos = or
cos 450 OR 4 2 2
 1
tan = =1 450
Q
tan 450 OR 4 1
R
1

θ in degrees θ in radians sin θ cos θ tan θ

0 0 0 1 0

30  1 3 3 1
or
6 2 2 3 3
45  2 1 2 1 1
or or
4 2 2 2 2
60  3 1 3
3 2 2
90  1 0 undefined
2
120 2 3 1 − 3
−
3 2 2
135 3 2 2 –1

4
−
2 2
150 5 1 3 3 1
− − or −
6 2 2 3 3
180 π 0 –1 0

210 7 1 3 3 1
− − or
6 2 2 3 3
225 5 2 2 1

4
− −
2 2

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 240 4 3 1 3
− −
3 2 2
270 3 –1 0 undefined
2
300 5 3 1 − 3
3
− 2
2
315 7 2 2 –1

4
−
2 2
330 11 1 3 3 1
− − or −
6 2 2 3 3
360 2π 0 1 0

Practise Exercise 1
1) Sketch the following graphs for – 2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(a) f (θ) = sin θ
(b) f (θ) = cos θ
(c) f (θ) = tan θ

2) Sketch the following graphs for – 2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

(a) f (θ) = cosec θ
(b) f (θ) = sec θ
(c) f (θ) = cot θ

I. Properties of the Sine Function

The function f (θ)= sin θ is periodic, of period 3600. That is, sin (θ + 3600) = sin θ.
The function f (θ)= sin θ is an odd function since f (– θ) = sin (– θ) = – sin θ = – f (θ).
In other words, the graph has rotational symmetry about the origin of order 2.
The maximum value of f (θ)= sin θ is 1, and its minimum value is –1, i.e. –1 ≤ f (θ) ≤ 1.

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II. Properties of the Cosine Function
The function f (θ)= cos θ is periodic, of period 3600. That is, cos (θ + 3600) = cos θ.
The function f (θ)= cos θ is an even function since f (– θ) = cos (– θ) = cos θ = f (θ).
In other words, the graph of f (θ) is symmetrical about the y-axis.
The maximum value of f (θ) = cos θ is 1, and its minimum value is –1, i.e. –1 ≤ f (θ) ≤ 1.

sin( + ) = cos 𝜃
Note: 2

 
− 
That is, if the graph of y = sin θ is translated  0  , we obtain the graph of y = cos θ.
2


cos( − ) = sin 
Also, 2

III. Properties of the Tangent Function

The function f (θ)= tan θ is periodic, of period 1800. That is, tan (θ + 1800) = tan θ.
The function f (θ)= tan θ is an odd function since f (– θ) = – tan θ = – f (θ).
In other words, the graph of f (θ) = tan θ has rotational symmetry about the origin of order 2.
 3𝜋
2
The function f (θ) = tan θ is not defined when x = ± 90 , ± 270 , ± 450 ,…, i.e., ± 2 , ±
0 0 0
,
5𝜋
,…
2
±
Note that:

sin( )
(i) 2 = cos θ (Can be shown using compound angle formulae)
(ii) sin (π – θ) = sin θ (Can be shown using compound angle formulae)
Practise Exercise 2
2
1) Given that tan α = k , determine expressions for
 
(i) cos α (ii) sin ( 2 – α) (iii) cos ( 2 – α)
𝑘 𝑘 2
; ;
√4+𝑘 2 √4+𝑘 2 √4+𝑘 2
Ans.
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Trigonometric Identities (Check Formula Sheet)
Consider

x z

y
x
( )
x y sin  x
= z = = tan
(i) sin α = z , cos α = z , therefore cos ( y ) y
z
x 2 y 2 x2 + y2
( ) +( ) =
(ii) sin2 α + cos2 α = z z z 2 ,by Pythagoras, x2 +y2 = z2, so sin2 α + cos2 α = 1

sin  2 sin 2 
( ) =
(iii) From (i) tan 2 α = cos cos 2 

sin 2  cos2  + sin 2  1

1+ = = = sec2α
So, 1+ tan 2 α = cos 
2
cos 
2
cos 2 

1 cos cos 2 
=
(iv) cot α = tan  sin  , cot 2 α = sin 
2

cos 2  sin 2  + cos 2  1

1+ = = = cos ec 2
So, 1 + cot 2 α = sin 
2
sin 
2
sin 2 

Note also that: a) sin2 2α + cos2 2α = 1 etc.

b) sin2 3α + cos2 3α = 1 etc.
c) 1+ tan 2 2α = sec2 2α etc.
d) 1 + cot 2 2α = cosec2 2α etc.

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Compound Angle Formulae (Check Formula Sheet)

1. (a) sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

(b) sin (α – β) = sin α cos β – cos α sin β
i.e., sin (α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β
2. (a) cos (α + β) = cos α cos β – sin α sin β
(b) cos (α – β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
i.e., cos (α ± β) = cos α cos β  sin α sin β

Proof of the Addition Formulae using Rotation Matrices

The matrices which represent rotations about the origin through angles of α and β radians are,
 cos − sin    cos  − sin  
A =   B =  
respectively:  sin  cos  and  sin  cos  

Let us now find the matrix which represents the transformation AB, and describe this
transformation. This composite transformation is represented by
 cos − sin    cos  − sin  
AB =   =
 sin  cos   sin  cos  
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
( )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 ’

where the last expression has been obtained by the usual rule for matrix multiplication.

AB represents a rotation about the origin through an angle of β radians, followed by a rotation of
α radians, i.e., represents a single rotation through an angle of (α + β) radians. In this case, the
order of the transformation is immaterial since it can be shown that this transformation is
commutative; the order of the two successive rotations does not matter.

But the rotation matrix which represents a rotation through (α + β) radians about the origin is:

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  cos( +  ) − sin( +  ) 
K =  
 sin( +  ) cos( +  )  . Since K and AB are the same matrix, we can easily deduce, by
comparing corresponding elements, that cos (α + β) = cos α cos β – sin α sin β, and
sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β, the addition formulae for the sine and cosine of compound
angles. The corresponding formulae for the sine and cosine of the difference of angles can then
be obtained by replacing β everywhere with – β, and then using the fact that
cos (– β) = cos β, and sin (– β) = – sin β.
tan  + tan 
=
3. (a) tan (α + β) 1 − tan  tan 
tan  − tan 
=
(b) tan (α – β) 1 + tan  tan 

𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼±𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 1
=
i.e. (a) tan (α ± β) 1∓𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽 ,(α ± β) ≠ (k + 2 )π

tan  + tan 
=
(a) PROVE that tan (α + β) 1 − tan  tan 

PROOF: LHS
sin (𝛼+ 𝛽)

tan (α + β) = cos (𝛼+ 𝛽)

sin 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
=
cos 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

Divide both the Numerator and Denominator by cos 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

sin 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
+
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
= cos 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
−
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

sin 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
+
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
1−
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽
= 1 − tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽

= RHS
tan  − tan 
= .
(b) Similarly, we can show that tan (α – β) 1 + tan  tan 

Page 10 of 20
Multiple-Angle Formulae (or compound-angle formulae) (Check Formula Sheet)
1. Double-angle Formulae (use compound angle formulae), for any angle α
(a) sin 2α = sin (α + α) = sin α cos α + cos α sin α = 2sin α cos α
(b) cos 2α = cos (α + α) = cos α cos α – sin α sin α = cos2 α – sin2 α
= cos2 α – (1– cos2 α)
or = 2cos2 α – 1
or = 2(1– sin2 α) – 1
or = 1 – 2sin2 α
tan  + tan  2 tan 
= =
(c) tan 2α = tan (α + α) 1 − tan  tan  1 − tan 2 

2. Half-angle Formulae (use compound angle formulae), for any angle α

       
( + ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(a) sin α = sin 2 2 = sin 2 cos 2 + cos 2 sin 2 = 2sin 2 cos 2
       
( + ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(b) cos α = cos 2 2 = cos 2 cos 2 – sin 2 sin 2 = cos2 2 – sin2 2
 
( ) ( )
= cos2 2 – [1– cos2 2 ]

( )
or = 2cos2 2 – 1

( )
or = 2[1 – sin 2 ] – 12


( )
or = 1 – 2sin 2 2

  
tan( ) + tan( ) 2 tan( )
= 2 2 = 2
    
( + ) 1 − tan( ) tan( ) 1 − tan 2 ( )
(c) tan α = tan 2 2 2 2 2
 2t
Therefore, if t = tan 2 , then tan α = 1 − t
2

Page 11 of 20
(d) Recall: sin 2α = 2sin α cos α
2 sin  cos
=
cos 2  + sin 2 
Divide both Numerator & Denominator by cos2α
2 sin  cos 2 sin 
cos  2 tan 
= cos2
2 2t
sin 2 = = i.e., sin 2α = , where t = tan α
cos  + sin 
2 2
sin  1 + tan 
2
1+ t 2
1+
cos 2  cos 2 

2 tan
2 2t 
sin  = i.e., sin α = , where t = tan
 1+ t 2
2
Therefore, 1 + tan 2
2

(e) Recall: cos 2α = cos2 α – sin2 α

cos 2  − sin 2 
=
cos 2  + sin 2 
Divide both Numerator & Denominator by cos2α
cos 2  − sin 2  sin 2 
1−
cos 2  cos 2  = 1 − tan  i.e., cos 2α = 1 − t , where t = tan α
2 2
cos 2 = =
cos 2  + sin 2  sin 2  1 + tan 2  1+ t 2
1+
cos 2  cos 2 

1 − tan 2
2 i.e., cos α = 1 − t , where t = tan 
2
cos  =
 1+ t 2 2
Therefore, 1 + tan 2
2

3. Triple-angle Formulae (use compound angle formulae), for any angle α

(a) sin 3α = sin (2α + α) = sin 2α cos α + cos 2α sin α = (2sin α cos α)cos α + (1 – 2sin2 α) sin α
= 2sin α cos2 α + sin α – 2sin3 α
= 2sin α (1 – sin2 α) + sin α – 2sin3 α
= 2sin α – 2sin3 α + sin α – 2sin3 α
= 3sin α – 4sin3 α

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(b) cos 3α = cos (2α + α) = cos 2α cos α – sin2 α sin α
= (2cos2 α – 1) cos α – (2sin α cos α) sin α
= 2cos3 α – cos α – 2sin2 α cos α
= 2cos3 α – cos α – 2(1– cos2 α) cos α
= 2cos3 α – cos α – 2 cos α + 2cos3 α
= 4cos3 α – 3cos α
(c) tan 3α = tan (2α + α)
tan 2 + tan 
=
1 − tan 2 tan 
Substituting for tan 2α
2 tan 
( ) + tan 
= 1 − tan 2

2 tan 
1− ( ) tan 
1 − tan 2 
Writing both the Numerator & the Denominator as a Single Fraction
2 tan  + tan  (1 − tan 2  )
= 1 − tan 2 
(1 − tan 2  ) − 2 tan 2 
1 − tan 2 
Inverting and Multiplying
2 tan + tan (1 − tan 2  ) (1 − tan 2  )
=[ ]  [ ]
(1 − tan 2  ) (1 − tan 2  ) − 2 tan 2 

2 tan  + tan  (1 − tan 2  )

=
(1 − tan 2  ) − 2 tan 2 

3 tan  − tan 3 
=
1 − 3 tan 2 

4. Note also:
(a) sin 4α = sin (2α + 2α)
= sin 2α cos 2α + cos 2α sin 2α
= 2sin 2α cos 2α

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 (b) cos 4α = cos (2α + 2α)
= cos 2α cos 2α – sin 2α sin 2α
= cos2 2α – sin2 2α
= cos2 2α – (1– cos2 2α)
= 2cos2 2α – 1
or = 2(1 – sin2 2α) – 1
= 1– 2sin2 2α
(c) tan 4α = tan (2α + 2α)
tan 2 + tan 2
=
1 − tan 2 tan 2
2 tan 2
=
1 − tan 2 2

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I

1 + cot 2 

1) sec cos ec
(A) tan θ (B) cos θ (C) cot θ (D) cosec θ

2) Prove that (1 + sin A)(sec A – tan A) = cos A.

3) Prove that, for sin θ ≠ 1 or –1,

1 1
+  2 sec 2 
(i) 1 − sin  1 + sin  .
1 1
−  tan sec
(ii) 1 − sin  1 + sin 
2
.

1 − cos 2 x
 tan 2 x
4) Show that 1 + cos 2 x .

Page 14 of 20
5) (i) Using sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡1 show that cosec2 θ – cot2 θ ≡1.
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, prove that cosec4 θ – cot4 θ ≡ cosec2 θ + cot2 θ.

3
6) If cos A = 5 and A is acute, then sin 2A is equal to
6 8 12 24
(A) (B) (C) (D)
25 25 25 25
3 5
7) (a) Given that A and B are acute angles such that sin A = 5 and cos B = 13 , find,
without using tables or calculators, the EXACT values of
(i) sin (A + B) (ii) cos (A – B) (iii) cos 2A.
x 
tan( + ) = sec x + tan x
(b) Prove that 2 4 .
63 56 7
; ;
65 65 25
Ans.
  A
tan( − )
8) Show that for A ≠ 2 , sec A – tan A = 4 2 .

9) Using the identity sin (A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB, calculate the EXACT value of
5
sin 12 without tables or calculator.
1 √2+√6
(√3 + 1) or
Ans. 2√2 4

1 − cos 2 A + sin 2 A
= tan A
10) Prove that 1 + cos 2 A + sin 2 A .
sin 2 A
= cot A
11) Show that 1 − cos 2 A , for cos 2A ≠ 1.
 
( ) ( )
12) Prove that cos 2 – cos θ = sin2 2 .
2

2 1

13)* Given that θ is an obtuse angle such that sin θ = 3 , find the value of cos 2θ. Ans. 9

Page 15 of 20
 3
14) In the diagram shown, BC = 4x and AC = 4 BC.
A

B C
D

4√5
(i) Show that AD = x 5 (ii) Find the EXACT value tan 2θ. Ans.
1
x
15) Given that δ is an acute angle such that cos δ = 4 , find the expression for sin 2δ
in terms of x.
𝑥√16−𝑥 2

Ans. 8

3 A 1
2
16) (a) If cos A = 5 , find tan 2 . Ans.
(b) Prove that cos4 A – sin 4 A + 1 = 2cos2 A.
12 4
(c) Given that sin A = 13 and sin B = 5 , where A and B are acute angles,
find cos (A – B) and sin (A + B).
63 56
;
65 65
Ans.

17) (a) State in surd form, the values of tan 300 and tan 450.
(b) Express tan (A – B) in terms of tan A and tan B.

(c) Hence, or otherwise, without the use of calculators, show that tan 150 = 2 − 3 .
 𝑥+1
1−𝑥
(d) Given that tan (θ – 4 ) = x, express tan θ in terms of x. Ans.

Page 16 of 20
 1 − tan 2 
cos 2 
18) (i) Prove that 1 + tan 2  .

10
tan 67 = 1 + √2.
(ii) Hence show, without using calculators, that 2 .

19) (i) Prove that sin 2θ – tan θcos 2θ = tan θ.

(ii) Express tan θ in terms of sin 2θ and cos 2θ.

(iii) Hence show, without using tables or calculators, that tan 22.50 = 2 − 1 .
sin 2𝜃
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
Ans.

20) Show that cos 3θ ≡ 4cos 3θ – 3cos θ.

1
t = tan 
21) (i) If 2 , express cos θ and sin θ in terms of t. [6]
1 11 3 1
tan  ;
(ii) Hence, find 2 when cos θ + 2sin θ = 5 . Ans. 4 2 [7]

1 − cos 4
 tan 2
22) Prove that sin 4

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FACTOR FORMULAE
Making sums and differences of sine and cosine as the product of two trigonometric functions.
(See Formula Sheet), for any angles α and β,
 +  −
2 sin( ) cos( )
(a) sin α + sin β = 2 2
 +  −
2 cos( ) sin( )
(b) sin α – sin β = 2 2
 +  −
2 cos( ) cos( )
(c) cos α + cos β = 2 2
 +  −
− 2 sin( ) sin( )
(d) cos α – cos β = 2 2
 +  −
2 sin( ) [− sin( )]
or = 2 2
 +  −
2 sin( ) sin[ −( )]
= 2 2
 +  −
2 sin( ) sin( )
= 2 2
 +  −
2 sin( ) cos( )
(a) Proof that sin α + sin β = 2 2

Recall: sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (i)

and sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii) gives, sin (A + B) + sin (A – B) = 2sin A cos B (iii)
Letting (A + B) = α (iv)
and (A – B) = β (v)
 +
A=( )
Adding (iv) and (v) gives, 2A = α + β, therefore 2
 −
B=( )
Subtracting (v) from (iv) gives, 2B = α – β, therefore 2
 +  −
2 sin( ) cos( )
Substituting for A and B into (iii), sin α + sin β = 2 2

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  +  −
2 cos( ) sin( )
(b) Proof that sin α – sin β = 2 2

Subtracting (ii) from (i) gives, Recall sin (A + B) – sin (A – B) = 2cos A sin B (vi)
 +  −
2 cos( ) sin( )
Substituting for A and B {as in proof (a)} into (vi), sin α – sin β = 2 2

 +  −
2 cos( ) cos( )
(c) Proof that cos α + cos β = 2 2
Recall: cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B (vii)
and cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (viii)
Adding (vii) and (viii) gives, cos (A + B) + cos (A – B) = 2cos A cos B (ix)
As previously, substituting for A and B {as in proof (a)} into (ix),
 +  −
2 cos( ) cos( )
cos α + cos β = 2 2

 +  −
− 2 sin( ) sin( )
(d) Proof that cos α – cos β = 2 2

Subtracting (viii) from (vii) gives, cos (A + B) – cos (A – B) = – 2sin A sin B (x)
As previously, substituting for A and B {as in proof (a)} into (ix),
 +  −
− 2 sin( ) sin( )
cos α – cos β = 2 2
 +  −
2 sin( ) [− sin( )]
OR = 2 2
 +  −
2 sin( ) sin[ −( )]
= 2 2
 +  −
2 sin( ) sin( )
= 2 2

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SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS II

sin 3 + sin 
 tan 2 .
1) Prove the identity cos 3 + cos

2) Express cos 6x – cos 2x as the product of TWO SINES. Ans. – 2sin4xsin2x

End of handout # 15

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