SRI KRISHNA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum and Approved by AICTE)

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Microcontroller and embedded systems(21CS43)

Notes

MODULE – 1
Microcontroller and Embedded systems Module 1

MODULE 1
Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller

Microprocessor Microcontroller
Microprocessor is heart of computer system Micro controller is a heart of embedded system
It is just a processor. Memory and I/O components Micro controller has external processor along with
have to be connected externally internal memory and I/O components
Since memory and I/O has to be connected Since memory and I/O has to be connected
externally, the circuit becomes large. externally, the circuit becomes small.
Cannot be used in compact systems and hence Can be used in compact systems and hence it is in
inefficient efficient
Cost of the entire system high Cost of the entire system low
Due to external components, the entire power Since external components are low, total power
consumption is high. Hence it is not suitable to consumption is less and can be used with devices
used with devices running on stored power like running on stored power like batteries.
batteries.
Most of the microprocessor do not have power Most of the micro controller have power saving
saving features. modes like idle mode. This helps to reduce power
consumption even further.
Since memory and I/O components are all external, Since components are Internal, most of the
each instruction will need external operation, hence operation are internal instruction, hence speed is
it is relatively slower. fast.

Microprocessor have less number of registers, Microprocessor have more number of registers,
hence more operations are memory based. hence the programs are easier to write.

THE RISC DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

 RISC design philosophy is
o Aimed at simple but powerful instructions that execute within a single cycle at a high
clock speed.
o Concentrates on reducing the complexity of instructions performed by the hardware.
o Provides greater flexibility and intelligence in software rather than hardware.
 The RISC philosophy is implemented with four major design rules:
o Instructions: RISC has a reduced number of instruction classes. These classes provide
simple operations so that each is executed in a single cycle. Each instruction is a fixed
length to allow the pipeline to fetch future instructions before decoding the current
instruction.
o Pipeline: The processing of instructions is broken down into smaller units that can be
executed in parallel by pipelines.
o Register: RISC machines have a large general-purpose register set. Any register can
contain either data or an address.

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o Load-store architecture: The processor operates on the data held in registers. Separate
load and store instructions transfer data between the register bank and external memory.
 These design rules allow a RISC processor to be simpler, and thus the core can operate at higher
clock speed.
 Figure below shows the major difference between CISC and RISC processors, CISC emphasizes
on hardware complexity, whereas RISC emphasizes on compiler complexity.
CISC RISC
Greater
Compiler Complexity
Compiler

Code Code
Generation Generation

Greater
Complexity Processor Processor

Difference between RISC and CISC

RISC CISC

Emphasizes on compiler complexity Emphasizes on processor complexity

Simple but powerful instructions Instructions are more complicated
Executes instruction in single cycle Takes many cycles to execute
Instructions are of fixed length Instructions are of variable length
Have large set of general-purpose registers Have limited set of general-purpose registers
Any register can contain either data or an address Dedicated registers for specific purpose
Separate load and store instructions transfer data MOV instructions can be used to transfer between
between the register and external memory. register and memory.

THE ARM DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Following are the ARM design philosophy
 The ARM processor has been specially designed to be small to reduce power consumption and
extend battery operation- essentially for application such as mobile phones and personal digital
assistants.

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 High code density is major requirement since embedded systems have limited memory due to
cost and physical size restrictions. High code density is useful for applications that have limited
on-board memory, such as mobile phones.
 Embedded systems are price sensitive and use low-cost memory devices.
 Another requirement is to reduce the area of the die taken up by the embedded processor. For a
single-chip solution, the smaller the area used by the embedded processor, the more available
space for specialized peripherals.
 ARM has incorporated hardware debug technology within the processor so that software
engineers can view what is happening while the processor executing code.

Instruction Set For Embedded Systems

In the following ways that make the ARM instruction set suitable for embedded applications:

 Variable cycle execution for certain instructions—Not every ARM instruction executes in a
single cycle. For example, load-store-multiple instructions vary in the number of execution cycles
depending upon the number of registers being transferred.
 Inline barrel shifter leading to more complex instructions—The inline barrel shifter is a
hardware component that preprocesses one of the input registers before it is used by an
instruction. This expands the capability of many instructions to improve core performance and
code density.
 Thumb 16-bit instruction set—ARM enhanced the processor core by adding a second 16-bit
instruction set called Thumb that permits the ARM core to execute either 16- or 32-bit
instructions.
 Conditional execution— An instruction is only executed when a specific condition has been
satisfied. This feature improves performance and code density by reducing branch instructions.
 Enhanced instructions—The enhanced digital signal processor (DSP) instructions were added to
the standard ARM instruction set to support fast 16×16-bit multiplier operations.

EMBEDDED SYSTEM HARDWARE

Figure shown below shows a typical embedded device based on ARM core. Each box represents a feature
or function.

ARM ROM
Processor Memory Controller FLASH ROM
SRAM
DRAM
Interrupt Controller
AHB-external bridge External bus

AHB Arbiter

AHB-APB bridge

Ethernet
Real-time clock

Counter/timers
Console Serial UARTs

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 ARM processor based embedded system hardware can be separated into the following four main
hardware components:
o The ARM processor: The ARM processor controls the embedded device. Different
versions of the ARM processor are available to suits the desired operating characteristics.
o Controllers: Controllers coordinate important blocks of the system. Two commonly
found controllers are memory controller and interrupt controller.
o Peripherals: The peripherals provide all the input-output capability external to the chip
and responsible for the uniqueness of the embedded device.
o Bus: A bus is used to communicate between different parts of the device.
 ARM Bus Technology
o Embedded devices use an on-chip bus that is internal to the chip and that allows different
peripheral devices to be interconnected with an ARM core.
o There are two different classes of devices attached to the bus.
 The ARM processor core is a bus master—a logical device capable of initiating
a data transfer with another device across the same bus.
 Peripherals tend to be bus slaves—logical devices capable only of responding to
a transfer request from a bus master device.
 AMBA Bus Protocol
o The Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture (AMBA) was introduced in 1996 and
has been widely adopted as the on-chip bus architecture used for ARM processors.
o The first AMBA buses introduced were the ARM System Bus (ASB) and the ARM
Peripheral Bus (APB).
o Later ARM introduced another bus design, called the ARM High Performance Bus
(AHB).
o AHB provides higher data throughput than ASB because it is based on a centralized
multiplexed bus scheme rather than the ASB bidirectional bus design.
 MEMORY
o An embedded system has to have some form of memory to store and execute code.
o Figure below shows the memory trade-offs: the fastest memory cache is physically
located nearer the ARM processor core and the slowest secondary memory is set further
away.
o Generally the closer memory is to the processor core, the more it costs and the smaller its
capacity.

 PERIPHERALS
o Embedded systems that interact with the outside world need some form of peripheral
device.
o Controllers are specialized peripherals that implement higher levels of functionality
within the embedded system.

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o Memory controller: Memory controllers connect different types of memory to the

processor bus.
o Interrupt controller: An interrupt controller provides a programmable governing policy
that allows software to determine which peripheral or device can interrupt the processor
at any specific time.

Explain the AMBA bus protocol.

 The Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture (AMBA) was introduced in 1996 and
has been widely adopted as the on-chip bus architecture used for ARM processors.
 The first AMBA buses introduced were the ARM System Bus (ASB) and the ARM
Peripheral Bus (APB).
 Later ARM introduced another bus design, called the ARM High Performance Bus
(AHB).
 Using AMBA, peripheral designers can reuse the same design on multiple projects.
Because there are a large number of peripherals developed with an AMBA interface.
 A peripheral can simply be bolted onto the on-chip bus without having to redesign an
interface for different processor architecture.
 This plug-and-play interface for hardware developers improves availability and time to
market.
 AHB provides higher data throughput than ASB because it is based on a centralized
multiplexed bus scheme rather than the ASB bidirectional bus design.
 This change allows the AHB bus to run at higher clock speeds and to be the first ARM
bus to support widths of 64 and 128 bits.
 ARM has introduced two variations on the AHB bus: Multi-layer AHB and AHB-Lite.
 In contrast to the original AHB, which allows a single bus master to be active on the bus
at any time, the Multi-layer AHB bus allows multiple active bus masters.
 AHB-Lite is a subset of the AHB bus and it is limited to a single bus master. This bus
was developed for designs that do not require the full features of the standard AHB bus.

Embedded System Software

 An embedded system requires software to drive it. Figure below shows typical software
components required to control an embedded device.
 Each software components in the stack uses a higher level of abstraction to separate the code
from the hardware device.

Applications
Operating System
Initialization Divice drivers
Hardware device

Initialization (BOOT) code:

 Initialization code (or boot code) takes the processor from the reset state to a state where the
operating system can run.
 First code executed on the board and is specific to a particular target or group of targets.
 Handles a number of administrative tasks prior to handling control over to an operating system.

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 We can group these different tasks into three phases: initial hardware configuration, diagnostics
and booting.
 Initial hardware configuration involves setting up the target platform so it can boot an
image.
 Diagnostics: The primary purpose of diagnostic code is fault identification and isolation.
 Booting: involves loading an image and handling control over the image. Loading an
image involves copying an entire program including code and data into RAM.
The operating system
 An operating system organizes the system resources: the peripherals, memory and processing
time.
 ARM processors support over 50 operating systems.
 We can divide operating systems into two main categories: real time operating systems (RTOSs)
and platform operating systems.
 RTOSs provide guaranteed response times to events. Systems running an RTOS generally do not
have secondary storage.
 Platform operating systems require a memory management unit to manage large, non-real time
applications and tends to have secondary storage.

The device drivers:

 Device drivers are the third component that provides a consistent software interface to the
peripherals on the hardware device.
Applications:
 Finally, an application performs one of the tasks required for a device. For example, a mobile
phone might have diary application.
 There may be multiple applications running on the same device, controlled by the operating
systems.
 An embedded system can have one active application or several applications running
simultaneously.
 The software components can run from ROM or RAM. ROM code that is fixed on the device is
called firmware, for example the initialization code.

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ARM core data flow model

Figure1: ARM core dataflow model

 An ARM core as functional units connected by data buses, as shown in Figure1, where, the
arrows represent the flow of data, the lines represent the buses, and the boxes represent either an
operation unit or a storage area.
 The instruction decoder translates instructions before they are executed.
 The ARM processor, like all RISC processors, uses a load - store architecture.
 Load instructions copy data from memory to registers, and conversely the store instructions
copy data from registers to memory.
 There are no data processing instructions that directly manipulate data in memory.
 ARM instructions typically have two source registers, Rn and Rm, and a single destination
register, Rd. Source operands are read from the register file using the internal buses A and B,
respectively.
 The ALU (arithmetic logic unit) or MAC (multiply-accumulate unit) takes the register values Rn
and Rm from the A and B buses and computes a result.
 Data processing instructions write the result in Rd directly to the register file.
 Load and store instructions use the ALU to generate an address to be held in the address register
and broadcast on the Address bus.
 One important feature of the ARM is that register Rm alternatively can be preprocessed in the
barrel shifter before it enters the ALU.
 After passing through the functional units, the result in Rd is written back to the register file using
the Result bus.
 For load and store instructions the incrementer updates the address register before the core reads
or writes the next register value from or to the next sequential memory location.

REGISTERS
Figure shown below shows the active registers available in user mode. All the registers shown are 32 bits
in size.

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r0
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
r6
r7
r8
r9
r10
r11
r12
r13
r14
r15

cpsr
-
 There are up to 18 active registers: 16 data registers and 2 processor status registers. The data
registers are visible to the programmer as r0 to r15.
 The ARM processor has three registers assigned to a particular task: r13, r14 and r15.
 Register r13: Register r13 is traditionally used as the stack pointer (sp) and stores the head of the
stack in the current processor mode.
 Register r14: Register r14 is called the link register (lr) and is where the core puts the return
address whenever it calls a subroutine.
 Register r15: Register r15 is the program counter (pc) and contains the address of the next
instruction to be fetched by the processor.
 In addition to the 16 data registers, there are two program status registers: current program status
register (cpsr) and saved program status register (spsr).

CPSR (Current Program Status Register)

Figure below shows the basic layout of a generic program status register.

Fields Flags Status Extension Control

Bit 31 30 29 28 7 6 5 4 0

N Z C V I F T Mode

Function

Condition Interrupt Processor

flags Masks Mode
Thumb
state
 The cpsr is divided into four fields, each 8 bits wide: flags, status, extension and control.
 In current designs the extension and status fields are reserved for future use.

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 The control field contains the processor mode, state and interrupts mask bits.
 The flag field contains the condition flags.
 The following table gives the bit patterns that represent each of the processor modes in the cpsr.

Mode Mode[4:0]
Abort 10111
Fast interrupt request 10001
Interrupt request 10010
Supervisor 10011
System 11111
Undefined 11011
User 10000

 When cpsr bit 5, T=1, then the processor is in Thumb state. When T=0, the processor is in ARM
state.
 The cpsr has two interrupt mask bits, 7 and 6 (I and F) which control the masking Interrupt
request (IRQ) and Fast Interrupt Request (FIR).
 Condition flags are updated by comparisons and the result of ALU operations that specify the S
instruction suffix.
 For example, if SUBS subtract instruction results in a register value of zero, then the Z flag in the
cpsr is set.

 The following table shows the conditional flags:

Flag Flag Name Set when

N Negative Bit 31 of the result is a binary 1
Z Zero The result is zero, frequently used to indicate equality
C Carry The result causes an unsigned carry
V Overflow The result causes a signed overflow

Processor Mode

 Each processor mode is either privileged or nonprivileged.

 A privileged mode allows read-write access to the cpsr.
 A nonprivileged mode only allows read access to the control field in the cpsr but allows read-
write access to the conditional flags.
 There are seven processor modes: six privileged modes and one nonprivileged mode.
 The privilege modes are abort, fast interrupt request, interrupt request, supervisor, system and
undefined. The nonprivileged mode is user.
1. The processor enters abort mode when there is a failure to attempt to access memory.
2. Fast interrupt request and interrupt request modes correspond to the two interrupt levels
available on the ARM processor.
3. Supervisor mode is the mode that the processor is in after reset and is generally the mode
that an operating system kernel operates in.

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4. System mode is a special version of user mode that allows full read-write access to the cpsr.
5. Undefined mode is used when the processor encounters an instruction that is undefined or
not supported by the implementation. User mode is used for program and applications.
Banked Registers
 Figure below shows all 37 registers in the register file.
 Of these, 20 registers are hidden from a program at different times. These registers are called
banked registers.
 They are available only when the processor is in a particular mode, for example, abort mode has
banked registers r13_abt, r14_abt and spsr_abt.
 Banked registers of a particular mode are denoted by an underline character post-fixed to the
mode mnemonic.

Figure 1: Complete ARM register set

 Every processor mode except user mode can change mode by writing directly to the mode bits of
the cpsr.
 All privileged modes except system mode have a set of associated banked registers that are subset
of the main 16 registers.
 If the processor mode is changed, a banked register from the new mode will replace an existing
register.
 The processor mode can be changed by a program that writes directly to the cpsr when the
processor core is in privilege mode.
 The following exception and interrupts causes a mode change: reset, interrupt request, fast
interrupt request, software interrupt, data abort, prefetch abort and undefined instructions.

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 Exceptions and interrupts suspend the normal execution of sequential instructions and jump to a
specific location.
 Following figure 2 illustrates the happening when an interrupt forces a mode change.
 The figure 2 shows the core changing from user mode to interrupt request mode, which happens
when an interrupt request occurs due to an external device raising an interrupt to the processor
core. This change causes user registers r13 and r14 to be banked.

Figure 2: changing mode on an exception

 The user registers are replaced with registers r13_irq and r14_irq respectively.
 r14_irq contains the return address and r13_irq contains the stack pointer for interrupt request
mode.
 The saved program status register (spsr), which stores the previous mode’s cpsr.

PIPELINE

 Pipeline is the mechanism to speed up execution by fetching the next instruction while other
instruction are being decoded and executed.
 Figure 1 shows the ARM7 three-stage pipeline.

Fetch Decode Execute

Figure 1: ARM7 Three-stage pipeline
 Fetch loads an instruction from memory.
 Decode identifies the instruction to be executed.

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 Execute processes the instruction and writes the result back to a register.
 Figure 2 illustrates the pipeline using a simple example. It shows a sequence of three instructions
being fetched, decoded and executed by the processor.
 Each instruction takes a single cycle to complete after the pipeline is filled.
o In the first cycle, the core fetches the ADD instruction from the memory.
o In the second cycle, the core fetches the SUB instruction and decode the ADD
instruction.
o In the third cycle, the core fetches CMP instruction from the memory, decode the SUB
instruction and execute the ADD instruction.
o The ADD instruction is executed, the SUB instruction is decoded, and the CMP
instruction is fetched. This procedure is called filling the pipeline.

Fetch Decode Execute

Cycle 1 ADD

Time
Cycle 2 SUB ADD

Cycle 3 CMP SUB ADD

 The pipeline design for each ARM family differs. For example, the ARM9 core increases the
pipeline length to five stages as shown in the figure below.

Fetch Decode Execute Memory Write

 The ARM10 increases the pipeline length still further by adding a sixth stage as shown in the
figure below.

Fetch Issue Decode Execute Memory Write

 As the pipeline length increases the amount of work done at each stage is reduced, which allows
the processor to attain a higher operating frequency. This in turn increases the performance.
 Pipeline Executing Characteristics
a. The ARM pipeline has not processed an instruction until it passes completely through the
execute stage. For example, an ARM7 pipeline (with three stages) has executed an instruction
only when the fourth instruction is fetched. Figure below shows an instruction sequence on an
ARM7 pipeline.

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Microcontroller and Embedded systems Module 1

Figure 1: ARM instruction sequence

b. In the execute stage, the pc always points to the address of the instruction plus 8 bytes. In
other words, the pc always points to the address of the instruction being executed plus two
instructions ahead as shown in figure 2 below

Figure 2: Example: pc = address + 8

c. The execution of a branch instruction or branching by the direct modification of the pc causes
the ARM core to flush its pipeline.
d. ARM10 uses branch prediction, which reduces the effect of a pipeline flush by predicting
possible branches and loading the new branch address prior to the execution of the
instruction.
e. An instruction in the execute stage will complete even though an interrupt has been raised.

Exceptions, Interrupts, and the Vector Table

 When an exception or interrupt occurs, the processor sets the program counter (pc) to a specific
memory address.
 The address is within a specified address range called the vector table.
 The entries in the vector table are the instructions that branch to specific routines designed to
handle particular exception or interrupt.
 The memory map address 0x00000000 is reserved for the vector table, a set of 32-bit words.
 On some processors, the vector table can optionally located at higher address in memory starting
at the 0xffff0000.
 When an exception or interrupt occurs, the processor suspends normal execution and starts
loading instructions from the exception vector table.
 Each vector table entry contains a form of branch instruction pointing to start of a specific
routine.

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 Following is the vector table:

Exception/Interrupt Shorthand Address High address
Reset RESET 0x00000000 0xffff0000
Undefined instruction UNDEF 0x00000004 0xffff0004
Software interrupt SWI 0x00000008 0xffff0008
Prefetch abort PABT 0x0000000c 0xffff000c
Data abort DABT 0x00000010 0xffff0010
Reserved --- 0x00000014 0xffff0014
Interrupt request IRQ 0x00000018 0xffff0018
Fast interrupt request FIQ 0x0000001c 0xffff001c

 Reset vector is the location of the first instruction executed by the processor when power is
applied. This instruction branches to the initialization code.
 Undefined instruction vector is used when the processor cannot decode the instruction.
 Software interrupt vector is called when SWI instruction is executed. The SWI is frequently
used as the mechanism to invoke an operating system routine.
 Prefetch abort vector occurs when the processor attempts to fetch an instruction from an address
without the correct access permissions.
 Data abort vectors is similar to a prefetch abort but is raised when an instruction attempts to
access data memory without the correct access permissions.
 Interrupt request vector is used by external hardware to interrupt the normal execution flow of
the processor.
 Fast interrupt request vector is similar to the interrupt request but is reserved for hardware
requiring faster response times.
Core Extensions
There are three core extensions wrap around ARM processor: cache and tightly coupled memory,
memory management and the coprocessor interface.
1. Cache and tightly coupled memory: The cache is a block of fast memory placed between
main memory and the core. With a cache the processor core can run for the majority of the time
without having to wait for data from slow external memory.
o ARM has two forms of cache. The first found attached to the Von Neumann-style cores.
It combines both data and instruction into a single unified cache as shown in the figure 1
below.

Figure 1: A simplified Von Neumann architecture with cache.

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o The second form, attached to the Harvard-style cores, has separate cache for data and
instruction as shown figure 2

Figure 2: A simplified Harvard architecture with TCMs.

o A cache provides an overall increase in performance but will not give predictable
execution.
o But for real-time systems it is paramount that code execution is deterministic.
o This is achieved using a form of memory called tightly coupled memory (TCM).
o TCM is fast SRAM located close to the core and guarantees the clock cycles required to
fetch instructions or data.
o By combining both technologies, ARM processors can behave both improved
performance and predictable real-time response. The following diagram shows an
example of core with a combination of caches and TCMs as shown in figure 3

Figure 3: combining both technologies

2. Memory management:

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 Embedded systems often use multiple memory devices. It is usually necessary to have a method
to help organize these devices and protect the system from applications trying to make
appropriate accesses to hardware.
 This is achieved with the assistance of memory management hardware.
 ARM cores have three different types of memory management hardware- no extensions provide
no protection, a memory protection unit (MPU) providing limited protection and a memory
management unit (MMU) providing full protection.
o Nonprotected memory is fixed and provides very little flexibility. It normally used for
small, simple embedded systems that require no protection from rogue applications.
o Memory protection unit (MPU) employs a simple system that uses a limited number of
memory regions. These regions are controlled with a set of special coprocessor registers,
and each region is defined with specific access permission but don’t have a complex
memory map.
o Memory management unit (MMU)are the most comprehensive memory management
hardware available on the ARM. The MMU uses a set of translation tables to provide
fine-grained control over memory.
 These tables are stored in main memory and provide virtual to physical address
map as well as access permission. MMU designed for more sophisticated system
that supports multitasking.

Briefly explain how coprocessors can be attached to ARM processor.

3. Coprocessors:
 A coprocessor extends the processing features of a core by extending the instruction set or by
providing configuration registers.
 More than one coprocessor can be added to the ARM core via the coprocessor interface.
 The coprocessor can be accessed through a group of dedicated ARM instructions that provide a
load-store type interface.
 The coprocessor can also extend the instruction set by providing a specialized instructions that
can be added to standard ARM instruction set to process vector floating-point (VFP) operations.
 These new instructions are processed in the decode stage of the ARM pipeline. If the decode
stage sees a coprocessor instruction, then it offers it to the relevant coprocessor.
 But, if the coprocessor is not present or doesn’t recognize the instruction, then the ARM takes an
undefined instruction exception.

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