0% found this document useful (0 votes)
20 views24 pages

Unit 1- Bridge Types and Bridge Terminology

The CCE 2533E Design of Bridges course focuses on the principles of bridge engineering, including design, construction, and maintenance, enabling students to design medium span bridges. Students will learn to identify various bridge types, design and detail them, and understand maintenance procedures. The course includes assessments through continuous tests and end-of-semester exams, covering topics such as bridge terminology, design principles, and relevant Eurocodes.

Uploaded by

Gloria Cherotich
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
20 views24 pages

Unit 1- Bridge Types and Bridge Terminology

The CCE 2533E Design of Bridges course focuses on the principles of bridge engineering, including design, construction, and maintenance, enabling students to design medium span bridges. Students will learn to identify various bridge types, design and detail them, and understand maintenance procedures. The course includes assessments through continuous tests and end-of-semester exams, covering topics such as bridge terminology, design principles, and relevant Eurocodes.

Uploaded by

Gloria Cherotich
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 24

CCE 2533E DESIGN OF BRIDGES

Prerequisites: CCE 2320 Structural Timber Design, CCE 2421 Theory of structures V, CCE
2411 Structural Steel Design, CCE 2422 Reinforced Concrete Design

Purpose of the course


To understand the principles of bridge engineering, design, construction and maintenance of
the bridges. The course enables the student to design medium span bridges.

Expected Learning outcomes


At the end of the course, student should be able to
1. Identify and differentiate the different types of bridges
2. Design and detail commonly applied bridge types
3. Describe the maintenance procedures of existing bridges

Course content
Definitions, Bridge design principles, Types of bridges: truss bridges, composite bridge, plate
and Box girder bridges, Arch bridges, cable stayed bridges, suspension bridges, Box culverts,
Planning and Location for bridge construction, Types of Bridge decks; Design of bridges:
Reinforced concrete bridges, Steel bridges and composite bridges (composite construction),
Construction methods, Inspection, Maintenance and repair of bridges; Emphasis shall be laid
on design and detailing exercises; The design shall be based on relevant codes of practice.

Course Assessment
• Continuous assessments tests 50%
• End of Semester exams 50%

Course breakdown

UNIT 1: BRIDGE TYPES AND BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY


UNIT 2: DESIGN AND DETAIL OF BRIDGES

1
UNIT 1: BRIDGE TYPES AND BRIDGE TERMINOLOGY

PART A: BRIDGE ENGINEERING TERMINOLOGY


PART B: CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES AND BRIDGE TYPES

PART A: BRIDGE ENGINEERING TERMINOLOGY

1.0 Introduction
The bridge engineer needs to be conversant with the bridge engineering terminology. Just like
any other profession, the bridge engineering field has its own terminology. In Kenya, bridge
designs have previously been done to the British Standards (BS 5400). The current bridge
design standards are Eurocodes and the relevant terminology has been adopted in this course.
General references which give other definitions have been referred to as indicated.

1.1 The bridge: The New Oxford American Dictionary defines the noun bridge as a
structure carrying a road, path, railroad, or a canal across a river, road, railroad, or
other obstacle; something that makes a physical connection between two other things.

1.2 Terminology related to bridge parts and appurtenances: The bridge parts are
mainly classified into superstructures and substructures. The Digital Engineering
Library @ McGraw-Hill (Highway Bridge Structures) has the following definitions for
the various bridge parts which I find comprehensive:

1.2.1 Superstructure. The bridge structure that receives and supports traffic loads and, in turn,
transfers those loads to the substructure. It includes the bridge deck, structural members,
parapets, handrails, sidewalk, lighting, and drainage features. It simply comprises all the
components of a bridge above the supports. The basic superstructure components consist of
the following:

+ Wearing Surface. The wearing surface (course) is that portion of the deck cross section
which resists traffic wear. In some instances, this is a separate layer made of bituminous
material, while in some other cases it is an integral part of concrete deck (Ref 1). In Kenya the
bituminous wearing course usually 50mm thick. The thickness, however, increases with

2
subsequent overlays during maintenance of the road over the life of the bridge.

+ Deck. The deck is the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction to be bridged.
In Kenya the deck in most cases is constructed with reinforced concrete but there are some
cases when the deck is a stiffened steel plate. The main function of the deck is to distribute
loads transversely along the bridge cross section. The deck either rests on or is integrated with
a frame or other structural system designed to distribute loads longitudinally along the length
of the bridge. A deck includes the deck slab and the deck girders according to Eurocodes.

+ Primary Members. Primary members distribute loads longitudinally and are usually
designed principally to resist flexure and shear. In Kenya these are principally
beams/girders/stringers mostly in reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete, plate girders or
rolled steel sections.

+ Secondary Members. Secondary members are bracing between primary members designed
to resist cross-sectional deformation of the superstructure frame and help distribute part of the
vertical load between stringers. They are also used for the stability of the structure during
construction.

1.2.2 Substructure. The bridge structure that supports the superstructure and transfers loads
from it to the ground or bedrock. The main components are abutments, piers, footings, and
pilings. The basic substructure components consist of the following:

+ Abutments. Abutments are earth-retaining structures, which support the superstructure and
roadway at the beginning and end of a bridge. Like a retaining wall, the abutments resist the
longitudinal forces of the earth and vehicle surcharge.

+ Piers. Piers are structures, which support the superstructure at intermediate points between
the end supports (abutments). From an aesthetic standpoint, piers are one of the most visible
components of a highway bridge and can make the difference between a visually pleasing
structure and an unattractive one.

+ Bearings. Bearings are mechanical systems, which transmit the vertical and horizontal loads
of the superstructure to the substructure, and accommodate movements between the

3
superstructure and the substructure. Bearings allowing both rotation and longitudinal
translation are called expansion/movable bearings, and those, which allow rotation, only are
called fixed bearings.

+ Pedestals. A pedestal is a short column on an abutment or pier under a bearing, which directly
supports a superstructure primary member. The term bridge seat is also used to refer to the
elevation at the top surface of the pedestal. Normally pedestals are designed with different
heights to obtain the required bearing elevations. In Kenya pedestals have been used
extensively on the bridges of Thika Highway.

+ Backwall. A backwall, sometimes called the stem, is the primary component of the abutment
acting as a retaining structure at each approach. It forms the abutment’s front face to the river
or to an underpass.

+ Wingwall. A wingwall is a sidewall to the abutment backwall or stem designed to assist in


confining earth behind the abutment. The wingwalls can be monolithic with the backwall or
disjoint.

+ Footing. As bearings transfer the superstructure loads to the substructure, so in turn do the
abutment and pier footings transfer loads from the substructure to the subsoil or piles. A footing
supported by soil without piles is called a spread footing. A footing supported by piles is known
as a pile cap.

+ Piles. When the soil under a footing cannot provide adequate support for the substructure (in
terms of bearing capacity, overall stability, or settlement), support is obtained through the use
of piles, which extend down from the footing to a stronger soil layer or to bedrock.

The figure below gives the basic parts of a bridge in summary.

4
Legend
1. Deck slab
2. Deck Girder
3. Bearing
4. Pedestal
5. Footing
6. Piles

Fig 1: Bridge Parts, source-Highway Bridge Structures, Mc Graw-Hill Co.

1.2.3 Other terminology

+ Cantilever: A structural member that projects beyond a supporting column or wall and is
supported at only one end.

+ Carriageway: The part of the road surface, supported by a single structure (deck, pier etc)
which includes all physical traffic lanes (i.e. as may be marked on the road surface), hard
shoulders, hard strips and marker strips.

+ Construction Load: Live load and superimposed dead load during construction of the bridge

+ Construction Works: Everything that is constructed or results from construction operations.

+ Dead load: The static load imposed by the weight of materials that make up the bridge
structure itself. Referred to as permanent action/load in Eurocodes.

+ Design Working Life: Assumed period for which a structure or part of it is to be used for its
intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but without major repair being necessary.

+ Diaphragm: Bracing that spans between the main girders or girders of a bridge and assists
in the distribution of loads.

5
+ Execution: All activities carried out for the physical completion of the work including
procurement, the inspection and documentation thereof

+ Girder: A horizontal structural member supporting vertical loads by bending.

+ Live load: Operational or temporary loads such as vehicular traffic, impact, wind, water, or
earthquake. Referred to as variable load/action in Eurocodes.

+ Loaded Length: The base length of the area which when loaded produces and adverse effect.
Where there is more than one adverse area as in the case of continuous construction, the loaded
length is the sum of the base lengths of each adverse area

+ Method of Construction: Manner in which the execution of works is carried out

+ Nondestructive evaluation: Also referred to as nondestructive testing or nondestructive


inspection, this evaluation does not damage the test object. Technologies for nondestructive
evaluation include x-ray and ultrasound, which may be used to detect such defects as cracking
and corrosion.

+ Notional lane: Strip of the carriageway, parallel to an edge of the carriageway which is
deemed to carry a line of cars and/or lorries. Notional lanes are used in application of bridge
variable loads/actions for design purposes.

+ Traffic lane: A traffic lane is the portion of pavement allocated to a single line of vehicles;
it is indicated on the pavement by painted longitudinal lines or embedded markers.

+ Piles. When the soil under a footing cannot provide adequate support for the substructure (in
terms of bearing capacity, overall stability, or settlement), support is obtained through the use
of piles, which extend down from the footing to a stronger soil layer or to bedrock

+ Span: The horizontal space between two supports of a structure. A simply supported span
rests on two supports, one at each end, the stresses on which do not affect the stresses in the
adjoining spans. A continuous span comprises a series of consecutive spans (over three or more
supports) that are continuously or rigidly connected (without joints) so that bending moment
may be transmitted from one span to the adjacent ones.

6
+ Specifications: A document that explains material and construction requirements of the
bridge structure.

+ Structural Analysis: Procedure or algorithm for determination of load effects in every point
of the structure.

+ Structural System: Load bearing Members and the way in which these members function
together

+ Structure: Organized combination of connected parts designed to carry loads and provide
adequate rigidity

+ Walkway: The pedestrian travelled path on the bridge

+ Web: The vertical portion of an I-beam or girder.

1.2.4 Appurtenances and Site-related Features.


An appurtenance is any part of the bridge or bridge site, which is not a major structural
component, yet serves some purpose in the overall functionality of the structure. The bridge
site, as an entity, possesses many different components, which, in one way or another,
integrates with the structure. The major appurtenances and site-related features are as follows:

+ Embankment and Slope Protection. The slope needs slope protection, which should be
both aesthetically pleasing and provide for proper drainage and erosion control.

+ Approach (~ road). The section of a roadway, which leads up to and away from the bridge
abutments is called the approach or approach roadway. In order to compensate for potential
differential settlement at the approaches, a reinforced concrete slab or approach slab is
sometimes used for a given distance back from the abutment. The approach slab helps to evenly
distribute traffic loads on the soil behind the abutment, and minimizes impact to the abutment,
which can result from differential settlement between the abutment and the approach. An
approach slab is typically supported by the abutment at one end, and supported by the soil
along its length.

+ Traffic Barriers. A traffic barrier is a protective device used to shield motorists from

7
obstacles or slopes located along either side of roadway. Traffic barriers can range from a
guardrail made of corrugated steel to reinforced concrete parapets. On bridges, they are usually
called bridge railings or crash barriers.

1.3 More terminology to Eurocodes


It is important to note that just like any other field of engineering bridge design has been
progressive and there has been successive bridge design codes including BS 5400 and currently
to Structural Eurocodes. The Structural Eurocode programme comprises of the following
standards generally consisting of a number of Parts each:

§ EN 1990 Eurocode 0: Basis of Structural Design


§ EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
§ EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
§ EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
§ EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
§ EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
§ EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
§ EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
§ EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance
§ EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures

This section captures a few of the terminology according to BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005 EN


1990:2002+A1:2005 (E), that is, EN 1990 Eurocode and which are common terms in EN 1990
to EN 1999.

1.3.1 Special terms relating to design in general

+Structure: organized combination of connected parts designed to carry loads and provide
adequate rigidity

+Structural member: physically distinguishable part of a structure, e.g. a column, a beam, a


slab, a foundation pile

8
+Transient design situation: design situation that is relevant during a period much shorter
than the design working life of the structure and which has a high probability of occurrence

+Persistent design situation: design situation that is relevant during a period of the same order
as the design working life of the structure

+Maintenance: set of activities performed during the working life of the structure in order to
enable it to fulfil the requirements for reliability

+Repair: activities performed to preserve or to restore the function of a structure that fall
outside the definition of maintenance

+Nominal value: value fixed on non-statistical bases, for instance on acquired experience or
on physical conditions

1.3.2 Terms relating to actions

+Action (F):
a) Set of forces (loads) applied to the structure (direct action); b) Set of imposed deformations
or accelerations caused for example, by temperature changes, moisture variation, uneven
settlement or earthquakes (indirect action).

+Effect of action (E): effect of actions (or action effect) on structural members, (e.g. internal
force, moment, stress, strain) or on the whole structure (e.g. deflection, rotation)

+Permanent action (G): action that is likely to act throughout a given reference period and
for which the variation in magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the variation is always
in the same direction (monotonic) until the action attains a certain limit value

+Variable action (Q): action for which the variation in magnitude with time is neither
negligible nor monotonic

+Accidental action (A): action, usually of short duration but of significant magnitude, that is
unlikely to occur on a given structure during the design working life

9
+Seismic action (AE): action that arises due to earthquake ground motions

+Geotechnical action: action transmitted to the structure by the ground, fill or groundwater

+Fixed action: action that has a fixed distribution and position over the structure or structural
member such that the magnitude and direction of the action are determined unambiguously for
the whole structure or structural member if this magnitude and direction are determined at one
point on the structure or structural member

+Free action: action that may have various spatial distributions over the structure

+Single action: action that can be assumed to be statistically independent in time and space of
any other action acting on the structure

+Static action: action that does not cause significant acceleration of the structure or structural
members

+Dynamic action: action that causes significant acceleration of the structure or structural
members

+Quasi-static action: dynamic action represented by an equivalent static action in a static


model

+Characteristic value of an action (Fk): principal representative value of an action

+A leading variable action: An action that is not a combination value in combination of


actions

+Accompanying action: An action in a combination that is not the leading variable action

+Tandem System: Assembly of two consecutive axles considered to be simultaneously loaded

10
+Characteristic value: A value that may be derived statistically with a probability of not being
exceeded during a reference period. The value corresponds to a specified fractile for a particular
property of material or product. The characteristic values are denoted by subscript ‘k’ (e.g. Qk
etc). It is the principal representative value from which other representative values may be
derived.

+Representative value: Value used for verification of a limit state. It may be the characteristic
value, combination value, frequent value or quasi-permanent value.

+Design value: Refers to representative values modified by partial factors. They are denoted
by subscript ‘d’ (e.g. fcd ; Qd).

+Combination of actions: Set of design values used for the verification of the structural
reliability for a limit state under the simultaneous influence of different and statistically
independent actions.

1.3.3 Other terminology

+Limit states: states beyond which the structure no longer fulfils the relevant design criteria

+Ultimate limit states: states associated with collapse or with other similar forms of structural
failure

+Serviceability limit states: states that correspond to conditions beyond which specified
service requirements for a structure or structural member are no longer met

+Execution: Construction of the works.

+Hard shoulder: Surfaced strip, usually of one traffic lane width adjacent to the outermost
physical traffic lane, intended for use by vehicles in the event of difficulty or during the
obstruction of the physical traffic lanes

11
+Hard strip: Surfaced strip, less or equal to 2m wide located alongside a physical traffic lane,
and between this traffic lane and safety barrier or vehicle parapet

+Form of structure: arrangement of structural members

+Remaining area: Difference where relevant, between the total area of the carriageway and
sum of the areas of the notional lanes.

Hard strip Hard strip


Crash barrier

Crash barrier
Carriageway

Pedestrian Pedestrian
Walkway Walkway
Traffic lane Traffic lane

Deck beam
Deck slab

12
Fig 2. Bridge elevation and cross section for a 2-way carriageway road, dimensions are in
millimeters.

Note: Traffic lanes are not to be confused with notional lanes.

PART B: CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES AND BRIDGE TYPES

1.0 Introduction

Bridges are classified according to:


1. Uses
2. Sites
3. Materials used
4. Position of road surfaces
5. Plane geometry of the bridges
6. Supporting methods
7. Style
8. Others: movable and fixed

1.1 Classification by uses


These are:
1. Road/highway bridge: a bridge carrying one or more roadways
2. Railroad bridge: a bridge carrying one or more railroads
3. Pedestrian bridge: a bridge for pedestrians only but sometimes including cyclists
4. Aqueduct bridge: a bridge carrying aqueducts for waterworks, electricity and irrigation
5. Combined bridge: a bridge simultaneously carrying a road and a railroad or a road and
an aqueduct and so on

1.2 Classification by sites


These are:
1. Over-the-water bridge: a bridge to secure passage across a river, a marsh, a lake or the
sea
2. Viaduct: a bridge to secure passage through a city area or mountainous area

13
3. Over bridges: these include a). Over-the-road bridge- a bridge to secure passage over
an existing road; b). Over-the-railroad bridge- a bridge to secure passage over an
existing railroad

Examples

Nyali Bridge: Over-the- water bridge

Viaduct: The Uhuru Highway expressway

1.3 Classification by materials


These are:
1. Wooden bridge: a bridge principally made of wood
2. Stone bridge: a bridge principally made of stone
3. Steel bridge: a bridge principally made of steel
4. Concrete bridge: a bridge principally made of concrete-known as RC if reinforced by
steel rods and known as PC if prestressed by steel members
5. Composite bridge: a bridge having innovative structure in which
advantages/disadvantages of steel and concrete are positively compensated

14
Wooden bridge, superstructure. Chania river bridge within Aberdares’ National Park.

Steel superstructure bridge, Galana River bridge, Tsavo East National Park

1.4 Classification by the positions of road surfaces


These are:
1. Deck bridge: a bridge whose road surface is positioned on the plate girder.

15
Most bridges in Kenya are deck bridges.

2. Half-through bridge (Mid-height Deck Bridge): a bridge whose road surface is


positioned around the middle of the bridge structure.

3. Through bridge: a bridge whose road surface is positioned on the lower part of the
bridge structure

Through bridge: Example, Mbita Causeway (main truss bridge)

16
4. Double deck bridge: a bridge equipped with two-storied road surfaces

1.5 Classification by the plane geometry of bridges


1. Straight bridge: a bridge built straight
2. A curved bridge: a bridge built with curvature
3. A square bridge: a bridge whose bearing support line is perpendicular to the bridge
axis
4. Skew bridge: a bridge whose bearing support line is aslant the bridge axis

This figure gives clarity.

1.6 Classification by supporting methods


These are:
1. Simple girder bridge: a bridge whose girders (main trusses) are simply supported
across each of the spans
2. Continuous girder: a bridge whose girders (main trusses) extend over two or more
spans
3. Cantilever bridge (Gerber Girder Bridge):a bridge whose continuous girders are
provided with hinges at appropriate intervals

17
The figure below gives more details.

1.7 Classification by style (based on superstructure)


These are:
Example: Gerber Girder bridge, Flyover Bridge on Nairobi-Naivasha road

18
1. Plate girder bridge: a bridge composed of beam structure known as plate girder. The
girder is a built-up section fabricated using steel plates of various thicknesses. The
plate girder acts as the beam for the superstructure

Plate Girder bridge, Athi River bridge

Merile River Plate girder bridge, Marsabit/Isiolo border

19
2. Truss bridge: a bridge composed of truss structure

3. Arch bridge: a bridge composed of arch structure comprising arch ribs

Example, Ruiru arch river bridge, Ruiru

4. Rahmen bridge (rigid frame bridge): a bridge composed of T- or p -frames

20
Example, Bleu Post bridge, Thika.

5. Cable stayed bridge: a bridge configured with cables stretched aslant between the
tower and the girder

Example, Bura Stayed Bridge, Tana River

21
6. Suspension bridge: a bridge configured with cables stretched in-between towers to
suspend stiffening girders

Example: Thua River Suspension Bridge, Kitui

Masalani Suspension Bridge, Tana River

1.8 Classification by other ways


These are:
1. Fixed bridges: bridges which are not movable

22
2. Movable bridges: movable bridges provided with opening and shutting capability.
They are subdivided into the swing bridge, the lift bridge and bascule bridge based on
mechanisms used.
3. Monorail bridges: bridges used for monorail trains

23
TABLE OF THE DESIGN PARTS OF EUROCODES USED IN VARIOUS BRIDGE TYPES

Eurocode Eurocode Part Scope Applicability to bridge type


Concrete Steel Composite
EN 1990 Basis of design
EN 1990
EN1990/UK NA1 Bridges
EN 1991-1-1 Self-weight
EN 1991-1-3 Snow loads
EN 1991-1-4 Wind actions
EN 1991 EN 1991-1-5 Thermal actions
EN 1991-1-6 Actions during execution
EN 1991-1-7 Accidental actions
EN 1991-2 Traffic Loads
EN 1992-1-1 General rules
EN 1992
EN 1992-2 Bridges
EN 1993-1-1 General rules
EN 1993-1-5 Plated elements
EN 1993-1-7 Out-of-plane loading
EN 1993-1-8 Joints
EN 1993-1-9 Fatigue
EN 1993 EN 1993-1-10 Material toughness
EN 1993-1-11 Tension components
EN 1993-1-12 Transversely loaded plated
structures
EN 1993-2 Bridges
EN 1993-5 Piling
EN 1994 EN 1994-1-1 General rules
EN 1994-2 Bridges
EN 1997-1 General rules
EN 1997
EN 1997-2 Testing
EN 1998-1 General rules, seismic
action
EN 1998
EN 1998-2 Bridges
EN 1998-5 Foundations

Key: Applicable to the bridge type

You might also like