Microwave Engineering Lab

(ECP 301, B. Tech Vth Semester)

Lab Manual

Microwave, Antenna & Communication Laboratory

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur
Jaipur-India, 302017
Microwave Lab ECP 301 ECE MNIT JAIPUR

Vision and Mission of the Institute

Malaviya National Institute of Technology

Jaipur

Vision
To create a centre for imparting technical education of international standards
and conduct research at the cutting edge of technology to meet the current and
future challenges of technological development.

Mission
To create technical manpower for meeting the current and future demands of
industry: To recognize education and research in close interaction with industry
with emphasis on the development of leadership qualities in the young men and
women entering the portals of the Institute with sensitivity to social
development and eye for opportunities for growth in the international
perspective.

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Microwave Lab ECP 301 ECE MNIT JAIPUR

Vision and Mission of the Department

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur

Vision
To create a centre for imparting technical education of international standards
and conduct research at the cutting edge of electronics & communication
technology to meet the current and future challenges of technological
development.

Mission
To create technical manpower for meeting the current and future demands of
industry and academia: to recognize education and research in close interaction
with electronics & communication & related industry with emphasis on the
development of leadership qualities in the young men and women entering the
portals of the institute with sensitivity to social development and eye for
opportunities for growth in the international perspective.

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Microwave Lab ECP 301 ECE MNIT JAIPUR
Lab Manual for Switching Theory & Finite Automata (STFA) Lab (ECP 202 B Tech III Semester)

Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs) of UG Programme

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur

Graduates will successfully engage themselves in practice of engineering or

relevant fields; They will pursue wide-spectrum careers appropriately as
01.
technologists, innovators, consultants, managers & entrepreneurs and will
advance in their profession.

Develop and deploy engineering/technological solutions using latest

02. techniques & tools/CAD (TCAD, EDA, ICT etc.) imbibing concern for eco-
system, and an attitude to serve society & humanity at large,

As appropriate to their professional or educational positions, graduates will

(i) Effectively communicate technical information to educate/persuade
03. multiple audiences
(ii) Effectively contribute on multicultural/multidisciplinary teams, keeping
abreast with emerging technology

Graduates will continue in education & life-long learning; e.g. higher

04.
education, professional development activities, and further career prospects.

05. Inculcate and inspire high ethical and technical standards.

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Microwave Lab ECP 301 ECE MNIT JAIPUR

Programme Outcomes (POs) of UG Programme

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur
Program Outcomes (POs) for UG Programme

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

01. fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering

problems.

Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex

02. engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,

natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
03.
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental

considerations.

Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

04. research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and

synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern

05. engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities

with an understanding of the limitations.

The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess

06. societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to

the professional engineering practice.

Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

07. solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need

for sustainable development.

Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
08.
norms of the engineering practice.

09. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader

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Microwave Lab ECP 301 ECE MNIT JAIPUR
Lab Manual for Switching Theory & Finite Automata (STFA) Lab (ECP 202 B Tech III Semester)

in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
10.
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and

receive clear instructions.

Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the

11. engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and

leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
12.
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs) for ECE

01. Capability to analyse and design emerging electronic devices, circuits, and subsystems.

Ability to apply knowledge of modern and advanced tools to design hardware/software

02.
solutions.

03. Capability to analyse and design advanced wired and wireless communication systems.

List of Course Outcome

CO1:Ability to study VSWR for different load in a microwave test bench

CO2:Ability to study various types of attenuators and loads
CO3:Ability to study the measurement of power and frequency in
microwave test bench
CO4:Ability to study various types of microwave sources

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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur

Microwave Engineering lab-ECP 301

(ECP 301 B Tech Vth semester)

List of Experiments

1. To Study about microwave bench components.

2. To measure frequency and wavelength of a rectangular waveguide’s
dominant mode by using frequency meter and slotted line.
3. Familiarization with the Spectrum Analyzer.
Learn the basic concept of frequency domain measurements.
Learn, and understand how to operate the Spectrum Analyzer.
Understand the function of each block of the Spectrum Analyzer.
4. To measure an unknown impedance by using slotted line.
5. To measure an unknown impedance by using Smith chart.
6. To measure isolation and coupling of E plane Tee, H plane tee and Hybrid
Tee.
7. To measure isolation and insertion loss of Isolator, Circulator.
8. To plot radiation pattern of Horn antenna using a polar graph.
9. To measure VSWR using slotted line section.
10. To study the function of multi hole directional coupler by measuring
a) Coupling factor, b) Directivity & Amplitude; c) Isolation.
11. To study various characteristic of a reflex klystron.
12. To study insertion loss and attenuation measurement of attenuator

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Mapping of Experiments with POs

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur

Exp. PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO PO PO PO

Num. 10 11 12 13

10

11

12

13

14

15

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CONTENTS

Title of Experiment Page. No

Exp. No

1. To Study about microwave bench components. 9

To Measure frequency and wavelength of a rectangular

2. waveguide’s dominant mode by using frequency meter and 17
slotted line
Familiarization with the Spectrum Analyzer.
3. Learn the basic concept of frequency domain measurements. 21
Learn, and understand how to operate the Spectrum Analyzer.
Understand the function of each block of the Spectrum Analyzer
4. To measure an unknown impedance by using slotted line 26

5. To measure an unknown impedance by using smith chart. 30

To measure isolation and coupling of E plane Tee, H plane tee

6. 33
and hybrid Tee.

7. To measure isolation and insertion loss of isolator, circulator. 41

8. To plot radiation pattern of Horn antenna using polar graph. 44

9. To measure VSWR using slotted line section. 48

To study the function of multi hole directional coupler by

10. measuring a) coupling factor, b) directivity & amplitude; c) 53

isolation.

11. To study various characteristic of a reflex klystron. 60

12. To study insertion loss and attenuation measurement of attenuator 64

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Experiment No. 1

STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS

1.1 Objective:
To study the microwave components in detail.

1.2 Components and Equipment Required:

a. Klystron power supply
b. Rectangular wave guide
c. Cooling Fan
d. Klystron mount with tube
e. Isolator
f. Variable attenuator
g. Frequency meter
h. Slotted line with tunable probe
i. Detector mount
j. Matched termination
k. Fix short
l. Movable short
m. VSWR meter
n. Oscilloscope
o. Circulator
p. E plane Tee
q. H plane Tee
r. Magic Tee (Hybrid Tee)
s. E bend
t. Multi hole directional coupler
u. Horn antenna.
v. Wave guide stand
w. N type Coaxial adapter
x. SMA coaxial adapter
y. BNC to BNC cable
z. SMA cables and Connectors
aa. N type cable and connectors

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1.3 Theory:

RECTANGULAR WAVE GUIDE

Wave guides are manufactured to the highest mechanical and electrical standards and
mechanical tolerances.

L and S band wave guides are fabricated by precision brazing of brass-plates and all
other wave guides are in extrusion quality.

W.G. sections of specified length can be supplied with flanges, painted outside and
silver or gold plated in side.

Fig.1.1 Rectangular Waveguide

SPECIFICATIONS: X Band

Frequency : 8.2 - 12.4 GHz

Width : 2.286cm Height : 1.1016cm Width : 2.54 cm
Height : 1.27cm ± Tol. (µm) : 7.6 Material : Brass/Copper.

FIXED ATTENUATORS

Series 5000 fixed Attenuators are meant for inserting a known attenuation in a wave
guide system. These consists of a lossy vane inserted in a section of wave guide, flanged on
both ends. These are useful for isolation of wave guide circuits, padding and extending the
range of measuring equipment. Fixed Attenuators are available for 3,6 or 10 dB attenuation
values, but any attenuation valve between 0 and 30dB can be provided.

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Fig 1.2 Fixed Attenuator

SPECIFICATIONS

Model No: X-5000 /Frequency : 8.12 - 12.4 GHZ /Attenuation (dB) :

3,6,10/Calibration Accuracy : ± 0.2dB/Avg Power : 2W/Max VSWR : 1.10/Max Insertion
Loss (dB) : 0.2/W.G. Type: WG – 90/Flange Type (UG/U) : 39.

A precision built probe carriage has a centimeter scale with a vernier reading of
0.1mm least count and a dial gauge can be mounted easily if precise readings are required.

Model No. :
Freq (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4

Max Residual VSWR : 1.01

WG type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

TUNABLE PROBE
Model 6055 Tunable probe is designed for use with model 6051 slotted sections.
These are meant for exploring the energy of the EF in a suitably fabricated section of wave
guide.

The depth of penetration into a wave guide - section is adjustable by the knob of the
probe. The tip pick up the RF power from the line and this power
is rectified by crystal detector, which is then fed to the VSWR
meter or indicating instrument.

/Model No. : X6055 /Freq (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4 /output Connector :

BNC(F) /Detector : IN23.

Fig 1.3 Tunable Probe

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WAVE GUIDE DETECTOR MOUNT (TUNABLE)

Model 4051 Tunable Detector Mount is simple and easy to use instrument for
detecting microwave power through a suitable detector. It consists of a detector crystal
mounted in a section of a Wave guide and shorting plunger for matching purpose. The output
from the crystal may be fed to an indicating instrument. In K and R bands detector mounts the
plunger is driven by a micrometer.

Model No. : X - 4051

Freq. Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
O/P Connector : BNC (F)
Wave guide type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG/U) : 39
Detector : IN23

Fig.1.4 Waveguide Detector Mount

KLYSTRON MOUNT

Model 2051 Klystron mounts are meant for mounting corresponding Klystrons such
as 2K25, 723A/B, 726A or RK - 5976 etc.

These consists of a section of wave guide

flanged on one end and terminated with a movable
short on the other end. An octal base with cable is
provided for Klystron.

Model No. : X – 2051/ Freq. Range (GHz) 8.2 -

12.4/ WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U): 39

Fig.1.5 Klystron Mount

CIRCULATORS

Model 6021 and 6022 are T and Y types of three port circulators respectively. These
are precisely machined and assembled to get the desired specifications. Circulators are
matched three port devices and these are meant for allowing Microwave energy to flow in
clockwise direction with negligible loss but almost no transmission in the anti-clockwise
direction.

Model No. : X - 6021

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.6 - 10.6 or 10.2 - 12.2
Min. Isolation (dB) : 20
Max. Insertion Loss (dB) : 0.4
Max. VSWR : 1.20

Fig.1.6 Circulator

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SLIDE SCREW TUNERS

Model 4041 slide screw tuners are used for matching purposes by changing the
penetration and position of a screw in the slot provided in the centre of the wave guide.

These consists of a section of wave guide

flanged on both ends and a thin slot is provided
in the broad wall of the Wave guide. A carriage
carrying the screw, is provided over the slot. A
VSWR upto 20 can be tuned to a value less than
1.02 at certain frequency.

Model No.: X – 4041/ Freq. Range (Ghz): 8.2 -

12.4/WG Type (WR-): 90
Flange type (UG/U): 39

Fig.1.7 Slide Screw Tuner

MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS

Model 6000 series Multihole directional couplers are useful for sampling a part of
Microwave energy for monitoring purposes and for measuring reflections and impedance.
These consists of a section of Wave guide with addition of a second parallel section of wave
guide thus making it a four port network. However the fourth port is terminated with a
matched load. These two parallel sections are coupled to each other through many holes,
almost to give uniform coupling; minimum frequency sensitivity and high directivity. These
are available in 3,6,10,20 and 40dB coupling.

Model No. : X - 6003

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Coupling (dB) : 3,10,20,40
Directivity (dB) : 35
Wave guide type (WR-) : 90
Flange type (UG/U) : 39

Fig.1.8 Multi hole Directional Coupler

E PLANE TEE

Model 3061 E - plane tee are series type T - junction and consists of three section of
wave guide joined together in order to divide or compare power levels. The signal entering
the first port of this T - junction will be equally dividing at second and third ports of the same
magnitude but in opp. phase

Model No. : X - 3061

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG/U) : 39

Fig. 1.9 E Plane Tee

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H - PLANT TEE

Model 3065 H - Plane Tee are shunt type T - junction for use in conjunction with
VSWR meters, frequency - meters and other detector devices. Like in E-plane tee, the signal
fed through first port of H - plane Tee will be
equally divided in magnitude at second and
third ports but in same phase.

Model No. : X - 3065

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

Fig. 1.10 H plane Tee

MAGIC TEE

Model 3045 E - H Tee consists of a section of wave guide in both series and shunt
wave guide arms, mounted at the exact midpoint of main arm. Both ends of the section of
wave guide and both arms are flanged on their ends. These Tees are employed in balanced
mixers, AFC circuits and impedance measurement circuits etc. This becomes a four terminal
device where one terminal is isolated from the input terminal.

Model No. : X - 3045

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UR-/U) : 39

Fig 1.11 Magic Tee

MOVABLE SHORT

Model 4081 movable shorts consists of a section of waveguide, flanged on one end
and terminated with a movable shorting plunger on the other end. By means of this non
contacting type plunger, a reflection co-efficient of almost unity may be obtained.

Model No. : X - 4081

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

Fig 1.12 Movable short

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MATCHED TERMINATION

Model 4000 are low power and non-reflective type of terminations. It consists
of a small and highly dissipative taper flap mounted inside the centre of a section of
wave guide. Matched Terminations are useful for USWR measurement of various
waveguide components. These are also employed as dummy and as a precise
reference loads with Tee junctions, directional couplers and other similar
dividing
devices.

Model No. : X - 4000, Freq. Range

(GHz) :
8.2 - 12.4 Max
VSWR : 1.04
AV Power : 2W, WG Type
(WR-) 90, Flange Type (UG-/U) :
39
Fig 1.13 Matched Termination

PYRAMIDAL WAVEGUIDE HORN

ANTENNA

Model 5041 pyramidal Wave guide Horn antenna consists of waveguide joined
to pyramidal section fabricated from brass sheet. The pyramidal section shapes the
energy to concentrate in a specified beam. Wave guide horns are used as feed
horns as radiators for reflectors and lenses and as a pickup antenna for receiving
microwave power.

Model No. : X - 5041

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Max VSWR : 1.20
WG Type (WR-) 90
:
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

Fig 1.14 Pyramidal Waveguide Horn

ISOLATORS

The three port circulators Model 6021 may be converted into isolators by
terminating one of its port into matched load. these will work over the frequency range
of circulators. These are well matched devices offering low forward insertion loss
and high reverse isolation.

Model No. : X - 6022

Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.6 - 10.6 or 10.2 - 12.2
Min Isolation (dB) : 20

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Max Insertion Loss (dB) : 0.4

Max VSWR : 1.20

1.4 Results
Thus, all the microwave components were studied in detail.

1.5 Conclusion

1.6 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What is microwave?
2. Mention the frequency band for a millimeter wave.
3. List some of IEEE microwave frequency bands.
4. List some of characteristic feature of microwave.
5. List some of the application of microwave technology.
6. Draw a simple microwave system.
7. What are waveguide `Tees’?
8. List the basic type of waveguide tees.
9. What is an isolator?
10. What is a circulator?
11. What is a directional coupler?
12. What is velocity modulation?
13. Mention the Principle used in Klystron?
14. When the o/p power of reflex klystron maximum?
15. What is meant by attenuator?

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Experiment No. 2
Frequency and Wavelength Measurement

2.1 Objective:
To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular wave guide working in TE10
mode.

2.2 Components and Equipment Required:

1 Klystron power supply 9 Detector mount
2 Rectangular wave guide 10 Matched termination
3 Cooling Fan 11 Movable short
4 Klystron mount with tube 12 VSWR meter
5 Isolator 13 Oscilloscope
6 Variable attenuator 14 Wave guide stand
7 Frequency meter 15 BNC to BNC cable
8 Slotted line with tunable probe
.

2.3 Theory:
The cut-off frequency relationship shows that the physical size of the wave guide
will determine the propagation of the particular modes of specific orders
determined by values of m and n. The minimum cut-off frequency is obtained for
a rectangular wave guide having dimension a>b, for values of m=1, n=0, i.e.,
TE 10 mode is the dominant mode since for TMmn modes, n#0 or n#0 the lowest-
order mode possible is TE10, called the dominant mode in a rectangular wave
guide for a>b.
For dominant TE10 mode rectangular wave guide λ0, λg and λc are related as
below.
1/λo² = 1/λg² + 1/λc²

Where λ0 is free space wave length

λg is guide wave length

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λc is cut off wave length

For TE10 mode λc is 2a where ‘a’ is broad dimension of wave guide.
Block Diagram:

Fig 2.1 Bench setup for frequency and wavelength measurement

2.4 Procedure:
1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in figure.
2. Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Beam voltage – OFF
Mod-switch – AM
Beam voltage knob – Fully anti clock wise
Repeller voltage – Fully clock wise
AM – Amplitude knob – Around fully clock wise
AM – Frequency knob – Around mid-position
4. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan switch.
5. Switch ’ON’ the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V with help of beam
voltage knob.
6. Adjust the repeller voltage to get the maximum amplitude in CRO

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7. Maximize the amplitude with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of

power supply.
8. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum Amplitude.
9. Tune the repeller voltage knob for maximum Amplitude.
10. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the CRO and note down the
frequency from frequency meter.
11. Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
12. Move the probe along with slotted line. The amplitude in CRO will vary,
Note and record the probe position, let it be d1.
13. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position
again, let it be d2.
14. Calculate the guide wave length as twice the distance between two successive
minimum positions obtained as above.
15. Measure the wave guide inner board dimension ‘a’ which will be around
22.86mm for x-band.
16. Calculate the frequency by following equation.

where C = 3x108 meter/sec. i.e., velocity of light.

17. Verify with frequency obtained by frequency modes
18. Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.
fo = C/ λ0 => C = 3x108 m/s (i.e., velocity of light)

1/λo² = 1/λg² + 1/λc²

For TE10 mode => λc = 2a x λg = 2x ∆d

a is wave guide inner broad dimension
a = 2.286cm” (given in manual) λc = 4.6cm

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2.5 Observations:

2.6 Result:

2.7 Conclusion

2.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1.Does VSWR vary with line length?

2. Can the magnitude of the reflection coefficient (ρ) be greater than 1?

3. Can VSWR be negative?

4. Is there the minimum length of transmission line required on either side of the VSWR
meter for valid readings?

5. What is an acceptable VSWR?

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Experiment No. 3
Familiarization with Spectrum Analyzer

3.1Objective:
Familiarization with the Spectrum Analyzer.
a. Learn the basic concept of frequency domain measurements.
b. Learn, and understand how to operate the Spectrum Analyzer.
c. Understand the function of each block of the Spectrum Analyzer

3.2 Components and Equipment Required:

1. Spectrum Analyzer

2. BNC to BNC cable

3.3 Theory:
Spectrum Analyzer:
Introduction: -
A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT,
with frequency on the horizontal axis and amplitude (voltage) on
the vertical axis. (The most common way of observing signals is to display them on an
oscilloscope with time as the X-axis (i.e., between amplitude of the signal and time).
This is the time domain. It is also useful to display signals in the frequency domain. The
providing this frequency domain view is the spectrum analyzer.) Displayed as vertical lines
against these coordinates are sinusoidal components of which the input signal is composed.
The height represents the absolute magnitude, and the horizontal location represents the
frequency. These instruments provide a display of the frequency spectrum a given
frequency band. Spectrum analyzers use either parallel filter bank or a swept frequency
technique. In a parallel filter in a parallel filter bank analyzer, the frequency range is
covered by a series of filters whose central frequencies and bandwidth are so selected that
they overlap each other, as shown in fig.3.1

Fig.3.1 Spectrum Analyzer (parallel shifter bank anlayzer)

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Typically, an audio analyzer has 32 of these filters, each covering one third of an octave.
For wide band narrow resolution analysis, particularly at RF or microwave signals, the
swept technique is preferred.

Fig. 3.2 Spectrum Analyzer

The saw tooth generator provides the saw tooth voltage, which drives the horizontal
axis element of the scope and this saw tooth voltage is the frequency-controlled element of
the voltage tuned oscillator. As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of its frequency band
at a linear recurring rate, it beats with the frequency component of the input signal and
produce an IF, whenever a frequency component is met during its sweep. The frequency
component and voltage tuned oscillator frequency beats together to produce a difference
frequency, i.e. The IF corresponding to the component is amplified and detected if
necessary and then applied to the vertical plates of the CRO, producing a display between
of amplitude and frequency. The spectrum produced if the input wave is a single toned
AM. One of the principal applications of spectrum analyzers has been in the study of
the RF spectrum produced in microwave instruments. In a microwave instrument, the
horizontal axis can display as a wide a range as 2 - 3 GHz for a broad survey and as narrow
as 30 kHz, for a highly magnified view of any small portion of the spectrum. Signals at
microwave frequency separated by only a few KHz can be seen individually.
The frequency range covered by this instrument is from I MHz to 40 GHz, the basic block
diagram is of a spectrum analyzer covering the range 500 kHz to 1 GHz, which is
representative of a super heterodyne type the input signal is fed into a mixer which is
driven by a local oscillator. This oscillator is linearly tunable electrically over the range 2 -
3GHz.
The mixer provides two signals at its output that are proportional in amplitude to the input
signal but of frequencies which are the sum and difference of the input signal and local
oscillator frequency.
The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GH4 since the local oscillator is
tuned over the range of 2 - 3 GHz, only inputs that are separated from the local oscillator
frequency by 2GHz will be converted to IF frequency band, pass through the IF frequency
amplifier, get rectified and produce a vertical deflection on the CRT.
From this, it is observed that as the saw tooth signal sweeps, the local oscillator
also sweeps linearly from 2 - 3 GHz. The tuning of the spectrum analyzer is a
swept receiver, which sweeps linearly from 0 to 1 GHz.
The saw tooth scanning signal is also applied to the horizontal plates of the CRT to form
the frequency axis. (The spectrum analyzer is also sensitive to signals from 4 - 5 GHz

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referred to as the image frequency of the super heterodyne. A low pass filter with a cutoff
frequency above I GHz at the input suppresses these spurious signals.)

The two types of spectrum analyzers are,

1. Filter Bank Spectrum analyzer.
2. Super hetero dyne Spectrum analyzer.

1. Filter Bank Spectrum analyzer

Fig. 3.3 Block Diagram of filter bank spectrum Analyzer

2. Super hetero dyne Spectrum analyzer

The modern spectrum analyzers use a narrow band super heterodyne receiver.
Super heterodyne is nothing but mixing of frequencies in the super above
audio range.
The functional block diagram of super heterodyne spectrum analyzer or RF
spectrum analyzer as shown in the Figure 3.4

Fig. 3.4 Block Diagram of super hetero dyne spectrum analyzer

The RF input to be

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analyzed is applied to the input attenuator. After attenuating,

the signal is fed to low pass filter. The low pass filter suppresses high frequency
components and allows low frequency components to pass through it. The output of the
low pass filter is given to the mixer, where this signal is fixed with the signal coming
from voltage controlled or voltage tuned oscillator. This oscillator is tuned over 2 to 3 GHz
range. The output of the mixer includes two signals whose amplitudes. are proportional to
the input signal but their frequencies are the sum and difference of the input signal and the
frequency of the local oscillator. Since the frequency range of the oscillator is tuned over 2
to 3 GHz, the IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band of frequencies of about 2 GHz.
Therefore, only those signals which are separated from the oscillator frequency by
2 GHz are converted to Intermediate Frequency (IF) band. This IF signal is amplified by
IF amplifier and then rectified by the detector. After completing amplification and
rectification the signal is applied to vertical plates of CRO to produce a vertical deflection
on the CRT screen. Thus, when the saw tooth signal sweeps, the oscillator also sweeps
linearly from minimum to maximum frequency range i.e., from 2 to 3 GHz.

Here the saw tooth signal is applied not only to the oscillator (to tune the oscillator) but
also to the horizontal plates of the CRO to get the frequency axis or horizontal deflection
on the CRT screen. On the CRT screen the vertical axis is calibrated in amplitude and the
horizontal axis is calibrated in frequency.
Applications:
These Spectrum analyzers are widely used in the field of,
1. Bio medicals
2. RADARS
3.Oceangraphy

Functionality and Feature

The analyzer provides you with a comprehensive functionality set and measurement
convenience, including:
• Power Measurement
provides power measurement functionality on OBW (Occupied Bandwidth), channel
power, and ACPR (Adjacent Channel Power Ratio).
• Spectrum Emission Mask
Provides a Pass/Fail testing capability with a mask for out- of- channel emissions
measurement.
• Tracking Generator (Option TG7)
Provides an RF source for scalar network analysis (exclusive for N9342C).
• Spectrum Monitor (Option SIM)
Provides the capability to analyze the stability of a signal over time. The analyzer can
be used to monitor the signal capturing performance or intermittent event over extended
periods of time.
• High-sensitivity Measurement (Option PA7, P13, P20)
Includes a pre- amplifier, enabling highly sensitivity measurements, this can be used to
measure the low- level signals.
• High Accuracy Power Measurement
Supports Keysight U2000 series (option PWM) and U2020 series (option PWP) power
sensors for high accuracy power measurement as a power meter.
Introduction

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• Baseband Channel (Option BB1)

Provides superior DANL and SSB between 3 kHz to 12 MHz
• Cable & Antenna Test (Option CA7; Requires option TG7)
Provides a built- in VSWR bridge. Return loss, cable loss and distance- to- fault
measurement function are available for the field test.
• Modulation Analysis
Provides AM/FM (option AMA) and ASK/FSK (Option DMA) modulation analysis
function.
• Task Planner (Option TPN)
Provides task planner function to integrate different measurements for test automation.
• Time-gated Spectrum Analysis (Option TMG)
Measures any one of several signals separated in time and excludes interfering signals.
• Channel Scanner (Option SCN)provide the channel scan function in spectrum
monitoring, coverage test.

3.5 Observations:

3.6 Result:

3.7 Conclusion

3.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What is spectrum analyzer?
2. What are the different types of spectrum analyzer?

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Experiment no. 4
IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT

4.1 Objective:
To measure unknown impedance using slotted line.

4.2 Components and Equipment Required:

1. Klystron power supply
2. Rectangular wave guide
3. Cooling Fan
4. Klystron mount with tube
5. Isolator
6. Variable attenuator
7. Frequency meter
8. Slotted line with tunable probe
9. Detector mount
10. Matched termination
11. Movable short
12. VSWR meter
13. Oscilloscope
14. Wave guide stand
15. BNC to BNC cable

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4.3 Theory:

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4.4 Procedure:

4.5 Observations:

4.6 Result:

4.7 Conclusion

4.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What are the types of methods used in microwave frequencies to measure impedance?
2. How will you measure the impedance of the unknown load in the microwave setup bench?

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Experiment No. 5
IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT
5.1 Objective:
To measure the impedance of an unknown load using smith chart.

5.2 Components and Equipment’s (Apparatus) Required:

1 Klystron power supply 9 Detector mount
2 Rectangular wave guide 10 Matched termination
3 Cooling Fan 11 Movable short
4 Klystron mount with tube 12 VSWR meter
5 Isolator 13 Oscilloscope
6 Variable attenuator 14 Wave guide stand
7 Frequency meter 15 BNC to BNC cable
8 Slotted line with tunable probe
.

5.3 THEORY

The simplest method for measurement of impedance at microwave frequencies is as

follows. The unknown impedance is connected at the end of a slotted co axial line.
Microwave power is fed from the other end of coaxial line. Unknown impedance reflects a
part of this power. This reflection coefficient is measured by probing the standing wave fields
in the slotted line by a suitable arrangements . The reflection coefficient is given by

Z L −Z o
P=
Z L + Zo

ZL - Load impedance at any point

ZO - Characteristics impedance of waveguide at operating frequency

Thus if P is measured & ZO is known, ZL can be found. In general ZL is complex, both

magnitude and phase of P is needed. The magnitude of P may be found from VSWR
measurement.

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VSWR −1
P=
VSWR + 1

The phase of P may be found by measuring the distance of first voltage minima from
the load. Thus the measurement of impedance involves the measurements of VSWR and the
distance of the voltage minima from the load. These measurements may be carried out by
using a slotted line and probe arrangement.

5.4 PROCEDURE
Assemble the components as per the circuit diagram
After making initial adjustments, mode3 is set up for operations
The frequency of the excited wave is found by adjusting the frequency meter for a dip in the
output meter. Thereafter detune the frequency meter slightly
The VSWR is found for the given load (horn), by measuring Vmax andVmin.
With load - end short circuited, two successive minimas (d1 and d2)are found out by moving
the probe carriage along the slotted waveguide line.
With load-end terminated with the given load, the first minima(x) is noted.
The given load is replaced with short-circuit, the second minima(y) is noted down.
Next the shift is found depending on whether it is towards the load or source.
The impedance of the unknown load is found using smith chart and verified using formula.

5.5 Observations:

Parameter Readings
Vmax

Vmin

VSWR
Vmax
Vmin

d1

d2

X −Y
λ

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FORMULA

fc → Cutoff frequency
fc = c/λc ; λc → cut off wavelength
λc = 2a ; a → broad dimension of waveguide

C
fo =
λ

5.6 RESULT

The impedance of an unknown load was measured and using a smith chart
and the value was found out.

5.7 Conclusion

5.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What are the types of methods used in microwave frequencies to measure

impedance?
2. How will you measure the impedance of the unknown load in the microwave
setup bench
3. What are the applications of smith chart

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Experiment no. 6

STUDY OF E PLANE, H PLANE AND MAGIC TEE

6.1 Objective:
To determine isolations, coupling coefficients and input VSWR’s for E and H plane
waveguide Tee and Magic Tee junctions.

6.2 Components and Equipment Required:

Klystron power supply, Klystron with mount, isolator, variable attenuator, slotted section,
Magic Tee, Matched termination, detector mount, CRO.

6.3 THEORY
H Plane Tee
Fig 1(a) shows the sketch of an H plane tee. It is clear from the sketch that an
auxiliary waveguide arm is fastened perpendicular to the narrow wall of a main guide, thus it
is a three-port device in which axis of the auxiliary or side arm is parallel to the planes of the
magnetic field of the main of the main guide and the coupling from the main guide to
the branch guide is by means of magnetic fields. Therefore, it is also known as H plane tee.

The perpendicular arm is generally taken as input and other two arms are in shunt to
the input and hence it is also called as shunt tee. Because of symmetry of the tee; equivalent
circuit of H plane, when power enters the auxiliary arm, and the two main arms 1 and 2 are
terminated in identical loads, the power supplied to each load is equal and in phase with one
another.

If two signals of equal amplitude and in same phase are fed into two main arms1 and
2, they will be added together in the side arm. Thus, H plane tee is an `adder’.

E Plane Tee
Figure 2 and respectively show the sketch of the E plane tee. It is clear from the
sketch of the E plane tee that an auxiliary waveguide arm is fastened to the broader wall of
the main guide. Thus, it is also a three-port device in which the auxiliary arm axis in
parallel to the plane of the electric fields of the main guide, and the coupling from the main
guide to the auxiliary guide is by means of electric fields. Therefore, it is also known as E
plane tee. It is clear that it causes load connected to its branches to appear in series. So it is
often referred to as a series tee.

As indicated in fig, the two main guide arms are symmetrical with respect to the
auxiliary guide arm. As such if power is fed from the auxiliary arm, it is equally distributed in
the two arms 1 and 2 when they are terminated in equal loads. However as depicted in the
field configuration, the power flowing out in arm 1 is 180 out of phase to the one in arm 2. As
such tis tee is known as `subtracter’.

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Fig. 6.1 H plane TEE. E plane TEE and E-H (Magic) TEE

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Magic Tee
An interesting type of T junction is the hybrid tee, commonly known as `magic tee’
which is shown in fig. The device as can be seen from fig is a combination of the E arm and
H plane tees. Arm3, the H arm forms an H plane tee and arm 4, the E arm, forms an E plane
tee in combination with arms 1 and 2. The central lines of the two tees coincide and define
the plane of symmetry, that is, if arms 1 and 2 are of equal length, the part of structure on one
side of the symmetry plane shown by shaded area is the mirror image of that on the other.
Arms1 and 2 are sometimes called as the side or collinear arms.

Magic of the MAGIC Tee

The name `magic Tee’ is derived from the manner in which power divides among
various arms. If power is fed into arm3, the electric field divides equally between arms 1 and
2 and the fields are in phase. Because of symmetry of the T junction, no net electric field
parallel to the narrow dimension of the waveguide is excited in arm 4. Thus no power is
coupled in port 4. Reciprocity demands no coupling in port 3 if power is fed in 4.

Another property that results from the symmetry of the junction is, if power is fed in
E or H arm, it is equally divided between arms 1 and 2.

Further, magic tee being combination of E and H plane tees, if power is fed from arms
1 and 2, it is added in H arm (3) while is subtracted in E arm (4).

A simple E-H tee has disadvantage of not being matched when seen from E and H
arms when side arms are terminated in matched loads. The VSWR being > 2 the most
commonly used method to reduce VSWR is to introduce discontinuity such as port iris in or
near T junction to cancel out reflections occurring there in.

E Plane, H Plane Tee Parameter

a) Isolation
The isolation of a T junction is the ratio of power supplied from a matched generator
to one of the arms, to the power coupled to a matched detector in any other arm when the
remaining arm is terminated in a matched load.

Isolation between port 1 and 2 is

I12 = 10 log10 P1 / P2 dB, I12 = 20 log10 (V1 / V2) dB,
and when matched load and detector are interchanged
I13 = 10 log10 P1 / P3 dB, I13 = 20 log10 (V1 / V3) dB,
Similarly
I31 = 10 log10 P3 / P1 dB, I32 = 20 log10 (V3 / V2) dB,
And when matched load and detector are interchanged,
I33 = 10 log10 P3 / P2 dB, I32 = 20 log10 (V3 / V2) dB,

When arm 2 becomes the input, we will have other two values of isolation, I21 and I23. Due to
reciprocity Property, I21 will be the same as I12. Therefore, we shall measure only the first
four isolation coefficients.

b) Coupling coefficient

Corresponding to the values of isolation, we can compute

The coupling coefficient by the formula

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C = 10-α / 20
Where α is the attenuation in dB between the input and detector arm when the third arm is
terminated in a matched load. For example, the attenuation measured between arms 1 and 2 is
3 dB when arm 3 terminated in matched load, that is, the coupling coefficient between arms 1
and 2,
C12 = 10-α / 20 = 10-3 / 20 = 0.708 dB

c) Input VSWR
The are three values of input VSWR associated with a tee, one for each arm. The VSWR
of any arm of a tee is the voltage standing wave ratio existing on a transmission line terminated
by that arm of the tee when the other two arm of the tee are terminated in matched loads.

Magic Tee Parameter:

The basic properties and associated quantities to be measured for a magic tee are defined
as follows:

a) Input VSWR
Corresponding to each port of a magic tee as load to the line, there is a value of
VSWR. Thus there are four values of VSWR. VSWR is defined as the ratio of
maximum voltage to minimum voltage of the standing waves existing on the
line when one port of the tee terminates the line while other three ports are
terminated in matched loads.

b) Isolations
The isolation between E-and H-arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied
by the matched generator connected to E-arms (port-4), to the power detected in
H-arm (port-3) by a matched detector when collinear arms (1&2) are terminated
in matched loads. It is expressed in db.

I34 = 10 log10 P4/P3, I34 = 20 log 10 (V4 / V3)

P4: power incident in port4(E-arm)
P3: power detected in port3 (H-arm)
Similarly, isolation between other ports may also be defined and measured.
c) Coupling Coefficient:
The voltage coupling coefficient from arm i to arm j is defined as Cij = 10-α/20

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E-Plane and H-Plane

INPUT VSWR

Nature of Tee Load Vmax (mv) Vmin (mv) VSWR

Ports
1
E – Plane
2
3
1
H – Plane 2
3

ISOLATION AND COUPLING COEFFICIENTS

Vin = 1200mV
Voltage (mv) Isolation Coupling Coefficient
Nature of Tee
I/P O/P (Iij) dB Cij = 10Iij/20
2nd arm
st
I arm
rd
E-Plane 3 arm
3rd arm 2nd =
st
1 arm =
2nd arm
Ist arm
= 3rd arm
H = Plane
=
3rd arm 2nd =
1st arm =

Magic Tee

INPUT – VSWR : All other ports terminated with matched load termination except for the
load.

Load Vmax (mv) Vmin (mv) VSWR

Port 1
Port 2
Port 3
Port 4

ISOLATION AND COUPLING COEFFICIENTS

Generator to port i
Detector mount to port j (Vj)
All other ports terminated using matched termination
Iij = 20 log (Vi / Vj)
Cij = 10- Iij/20

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Magic Tee orientation Input

Vi (mv) Vj (mv) Iij (dB) Cij
Arm-I / Output arm-j
2 1200 27 I12 = C12 =
1 3 1200 700 I13 = C13 =
4 1200 600 I14 = C14 =
1 1200 24 I21 =
2 3 1200 640 I23 =
4 1200 600 I24 =
4 1200 I34
3 1 1200 I31
2 1200 I32
3 1200 I43
4 1 1200 I41
2 1200 I42

Where α is the attenuation in dB when I is the input and j the output arm.
Thus
α(dB) = 10 log Pi / Pj
where Pi is the power delivered to i arm by a matched generator and Pj is the power detected
by a matched detector in arm j.

In the case of magic tee, there are 12 coupling constants, one for each of the arms as an input to
each of the other three arms as an output. However, if we have a perfectly matched
detector and generator, Cij = Cji and also the reciprocity desires C12 = C21, C32 = C31 and C41 =
C42.

6.4 Procedure:

VSWR
1. Setup the components as shown, with port 1 of tee (E-plane/H-plane/Magic Tee)
towards slotted line and matched termination to other ports.
2. Energize the microwave source and set mode 3.
3. Calculate VSWR by measuring Vmax and Vmin by adjusting the slotted line carriage.
4. Similarly connect other arms and calculated VSWR as above.

Isolation and Coupling Coefficient

1. Remove the slotted line and Magic Tee/E/H Tee and connect the detector mount.
2. Energize the microwave source and set mode 3.
3. Note down the input voltage as Vi (mv) (should not alter the setting)
4. Now connect the magic tee/E-Plane/H-Plane Tee.
5. Determine the corresponding voltages Vj (mv) for each pair of ports by connecting
one port to the source and measuring the output at other port while the remaining
ports are connected to matched termination.
6. Determine the isolation and coupling coefficients for the given Tee.

6.5 Observations:

6.6 Result :

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6.7 Conclusion

6.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What are the several types of tees used in microwave communication?

2. What is the S.Matrix of H-plane Tee function.
3. What is a hybrid `T’ or magic `T’?
4. Application of magic Tee.
5. List some of the basic magic Tee parameters.

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Experiment No. 7
ISOLATOR, CIRCULATOR

7.1 Objective: To study the Isolator and circulators and measure the Insertion Loss and
Isolation of Circulator.
7.2 Components and Equipment Required:
1. Microwave Source (Klystron or Gunn-Diode)
2. Isolator, Frequency Meter
3. Variable Attenuator
4. Slotted Line
5. Tunable Probe
6. Detector Mount Matched Termination
7. Circulator
8. Waveguide Stand
9. Cables and Accessories
10. VSWR Meter.

7.3 Theory:

CIRCULATOR:
Circulator is defined as device with ports arranged such that energy entering a port is coupled to
an adjacent port but not coupled to the other ports. This is depicted in figure circulator can have
any number of ports.

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ISOLATOR:
An Isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little attenuation
and from output to input with very high attenuation.

The isolator, shown in Fig. can be derived from a three-port circulator by simply placing a
matched load (reflection less termination) on one port.
The important circulator and isolator parameters are:
A. Insertion Loss
Insertion Loss is the ratio of power detected at the output port to the power supplied by source to
the input port, measured with other orts terminated in the matched Load. It is expressed in dB.
B. Isolation
Isolation is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured at the input. This ratio is
expressed in db. The isolation of a circulator is measured with the third port terminated in a
matched load.

7.4 Procedure:

Measurement of insertion
1. Remove the isolator or circulator from slotted line and connect the detector mount to the
slotted section. The output of the detector mount should be connected with CRO.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation.
Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the CRO.
3. Set any reference level of output in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be V1.
4. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing the position of the
set up. Insert the isolator/circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keep input port
to slotted line and detector its output port. A matched termination should be placed at third
port in case of Circulator.

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5. Record the output in CRO, Let it be V2.

6. Compute Insertion loss given as V1-V2 in db.

Measurement of Isolation:
7. For measurement of isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected in
reverse i.e. output port to slotted line and detector to input port with other port
terminated by matched termination (for circulator).
8. Record the output of CRO and let it be V3.
9. Compute Isolation as V1-V3 in db.
10. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
11. Repeat the above experiment for other frequency if needed.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax errors.

7.5 Observations:

7.6 Results:

7.7 Conclusion

7.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What is circulator?
2. What is isolator?
3. What are application of isolator and circulator?
4. What is faraday rotation in ferrite?
5. How many ports a circulator can have?

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Experiment No. 8
RADIATION PATTERN OF HORN ANTENNA

8.1 Objective:
To obtain directional pattern of a Horn Antenna.

8.2 Components and Equipment Required:

Klystron Power Supply

Klystron mount with tube
Isolator
Variable Attenuator
Frequency meter
Slotted line with tunable probe
Detector mount
E band
Horn antenna
Turn table
Waveguide stand
VSWR meter
CRO.

8.3 THEORY

A horn antenna may be regarded as a flared out or opened out wave guide. A wave guide
is capable of radiating radiation into open space provided the same is excited at one end
and opened at the other end. However, the radiation is much greater through wave
guide than the 2 wire transmission line. To overcome reflection and diffraction in the
wave guide, the mouth of the waveguide is opened out which assumes the shape of a
electromagnetic horn. If the wave guide is terminated by any type of horn, the abrupt
discontinuity existed is replaced by a gradual transformation, then all the energy
incident in forward direction in the waveguide will now be radiated, provided the
impedance matching is proper. This improves directivity and reduces diffraction. If
flaring is done only in one direction, then sectorial horn is produced. If flaring is
done along both the walls, then pyramidal horn is obtained. By flaring the walls of
the circular waveguide, a concial horn is formed. The fields inside the waveguide
propagate in the same manner as in free space, but on reaching the mouth of the
waveguide, these propagating fields continue to propagate in the same general direction
but also starts spreading laterally and the wave front eventually becomes spherical.
However this may be treated as transition region where the change over from the
guided propagation to free space propagation occurs. Since the waveguide impedance
& free space impedance are not equal, hence to avoid standing wave ratio, flaring
of walls of waveguide is done which besides matching of impedance also provide
concentrated radiation pattern(ie)greater directivity and narrower beam width. It is the
flared structure that is given the name electro magnetic horn radiator. The function is
to produce a uniform phase front with a larger aperture in comparison to

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waveguide and thus directivity is greater. If flare angle is very large, the wavefront
on the mouth of the horn will be curved rather than plane. This will result in non-
uniform phase distribution over the aperture, resulting in increased beam width and
reduced directivity, and vice versa occurs if the flare angle is very small. The
directivity of the horn antenna is given as D = 7.5 A/λ2 where A area of horn mouth
opening. Horn antennas are extensively used at microwave frequencies under the
condition that power gain needed is moderate.

Precautions

1. Power flowing out of horns may damage retina of the eye so do not see directly
inside the horn antenna.

Fig Radiation Pattern

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Fig Directional Pattern of Antenna

8.4 PROCEDURE

1. Setup the equipment as shown in fig. Keeping the axis of both antennas in
same axis line
2. Energize the microwave source, and set mode 3 determine input power
at transmitting antenna end by connecting detector mount.
3. Connect the transmitting antenna back. Turn the receiving horn to the left
in 5° steps upto at least 60° and note the corresponding voltage.
4. Repeat the above step but this time turning the receiver to the right and note
down the readings.
5. Draw a relative power pattern i.e., o/p vs angle.
6. From diagram 3 dB beam width is determined.

8.5 Observations:

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INPUT VOLTAGE VT

VR (mv) Gain (dB) = 20 log

Angle (degree s)
Clock wise Anti clock wise Clock
(VR/Vwise
T) Anti clock
0 wise
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90

8.6 RESULT

Thus, the directional pattern of the Horn antenna was obtained and the
corresponding graph was drawn.

8.7 Conclusion

8.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. List some of the types of antennas used in microwaves.

2. Why is a paraboloid preferred to horn at microwave frequencies?
3. Write the formula for directivity & power gain of horn antenna.
4. What are the different types of horn antenna is used in microwave frequencies?
5. List some common features of horn antenna.

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Experiment No. 9
VSWR measurement

9.1 Objective: Measurement of low and high VSWR using a X band slotted
line setup.
9.2 Components and Equipment Required:
1. Klystron tube
2. Klystron power supply
3. VSWR meter
4. Klystron mount
5. Isolator
6. Frequency meter
7. Variable attenuator
8. Slotted line
9. Wave guide stand
10. Movable short/termination
11. BNC Cable
12. S-S Tuner

9.3 Theory:
Any mismatched load leads to reflected waves resulting in standing waves along
the length of the line. The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage gives the
VSWR. Hence minimum value of S is unity. If S<10 then VSWR is called low
VSWR. If S>10 then VSWR is called high VSWR. The VSWR values more
than 10 are very easily measured with this setup. It can be read off directly on the
VSWR meter calibrated. The measurement involves simply adjusting the
attenuator to give an adequate reading on the meter which is a D.C. mill volt
meter. The probe on the slotted wave guide is moved t get maximum reading on
the meter. The attenuation is now adjusted to get full scale reading. Next the
probe on the slotted line is adjusted to get minimum, reading on the meter. The
ratio of first reading to the second gives the VSWR. The meter itself can be
calibrated in terms of VSWR. Double minimum method is used to measure

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VSWR greater than 10. In this method, the probe is inserted to a depth where
minimum can be read without difficulty. The probe is then moved to a point
where the power is twice the minimum

Fig 9.1 Setup for Low VSWR measurement

Fig 9.2 Setup for High VSWR measurement

9.4 Procedure:
1. Set up equipment as shown in figure.
2. Keep variable attenuator in minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep control knobs of VSWR meter as below
Range dB = 40db / 50db
Input switch = low impedance
Meter switch = Normal
Gain (coarse fine) = Mid position approximately
4. Keep control knobs of klystron power supply as below.
Beam
Voltage =

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OFF Mod-
Switch =
AM
Beam Voltage Knob = fully anti clock wise
Reflection voltage knob = fully clock wise
AM-Amplitude knob = around fully clock wise
AM frequency and amplitude knob = mid position
5. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
6. Switch ‘ON” the beam voltage switch position and set (down) beam voltage
at 300V.
7. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Tune the O/P by turning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of
AM modulation.
9. Tune plunges of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in VSWR
meter.
10. If required, change the range dB-switch variable attenuator position and
(given) gain control knob to get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
11. As your move probe along the slotted line, the deflection will change

A. Measurement of low and medium VSWR:

1. Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR
meter.
2. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the
meter indicates 1.0 on normal VSWR scale.
3. Keep all control knob as it is move the probe to next minimum position.
Read the VSWR on scale.
4. Repeat the above step for change of S-S tuner probe depth and record the
corresponding SWR.

5. If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range 0dB switch to next
higher position and read the VSWR on second VSWR scale of 3 to 10.

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B. Measurement of High VSWR: (double minimum method)

a. Set the depth of S-S tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.

b. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.

c. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to
obtain a reading of 3db in the normal dB scale (0 to 10db) of VSWR
meter.
d. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is
e. obtained on 0-10 db scale. Note and record the probe
position slotted line. Let it be d1.
f. Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the
slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10db
normal db scale. Let it be d2.
g. Replace S-S tuner and termination by movable short.

h. Measure distance between 2 successive minima positions of probe.

Twice this distance is guide wavelength λg.
i.

Precautions:
1. No loose connection is allowed
2. Switch on the supply after checking the connections by faculty.
3. Take the observations carefully.
4. Don’t touch any live wire, it may be dangerous.
5. Vary Frequency meter smoothly.
6. Avoid Parallax errors.

9.5 Observations:
VSWR Readings

Low VSWR

High VSWR

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Beam
x1 x2 x1 x2 Avg (x1-x2) = x λg=2x
Voltage
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(v)

d1 d2 d1-d2
VSWR = λg / (d1-d2)
(cm) (cm) (cm)

9.6 Result:

9.7 Conclusion: to be written by student.

9.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What is VSWR ?
2. What is the range of VSWR?
3. What are the various methods for measurement of VSWR?

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Experiment No. 10

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

10.1 Objective: To measure the performance of a Directional coupler and to determine the
following:
i) Main line VSWR
ii) Auxiliaries line VSWR
iii) Insertion loss
iv) Coupling factor
v) Directivity

10.2 Components and Equipment Required:

Klystron power supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator, variable attenuator, slotted
section, CRO, Directional Coupler, Matched termination.

10.3 THEORY:

A directional coupler is a useful hybrid waveguide joint, which couples power in

an auxiliary waveguide arm in one direction. It is a four-port device but one of the ports is
terminated into a matched load. Ref figure 1.

Characteristics of a Directional Coupler

An ideal directional coupler has the following characteristics

i) If power is fed into port (1) the power is coupled in ports (2) and (3)
i.e., power flows in the forward direction of the auxiliary arm port (3)
but no power couples in port (4) i.e., in backward direction similarly power
fed in (2) couples into ports (1) and (4) and not in (3).
ii) All the four ports are matched, i.e. if three of them are terminated in
matched loads, the fourth is automatically terminated in a matched load.
iii) If power couples in reverse direction, power fed in (1) appears in ports (2)
and (4) and nothing in (3), then such type of coupler is known as backward
directional coupler. The conclusion is that in the auxiliary section the power
is coupled in only one direction.

We will measure (i) main line and auxiliary line VSWR as a function of frequency, (ii)
coupling coefficient as a function of frequency, (iii) directivity as a function of
frequency, and (iv) the main line insertion loss as a function of frequency. These
parameters are defined as follows:

(i) Main Line VSWR: The main line VSWR is the standing wave ratio
measured looking into the main line input terminals when matched loads
are placed at all the three other terminals. The main line VSWR will be the
same for any orientation of the coupler in the transmission line.
(ii) Auxiliary Line VSWR: The auxiliary line VSWR is the standing wave
ratio measured in the auxiliary line looking into the output terminal to
which the detector is normally connected when matched loads are placed at
all the three other ports or terminals.

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DIRECTIONAL COUPLER AS A FOUR – PORT DEVICE

FIG10.1

DIRECTIONAL COUPLER AS A THREE – PORT DEVICE :

UNDEIRECTIONAL COUPLER

FIG 10.2

MAIN LINE VSWR MEASUREMENT

Fig.10.3 Main Line VSWR Measurement

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Fig.10.4 Insertion loss(V1) Measurement

Fig.10.5 Insertion loss(V2) Measurement

Fig 10.6 Coupling Factor Measurement

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Fig.10.7 Directivity Measurement

Directional Coupler

VSWR Measurement

Vmax (mv) Vmin (mv) VSWR

Main Line

Aux Line

INSERTION LOSS & COUPLING FACTOR

L = 20 log10 (V1/V2) dB

C = 20 log 10 (V1/V3) dB

Directivity

• Match P2, Input to P1 output at P3 Measures as V13

• Reverse DCR, Match P1, Input to P2 output at P3, Note voltage as V23

D = 20 log10 (V13 / V23) dB

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(iii) Coupling: Coupling coefficient is the ratio of power supplied to the

main line input (P1) to the power output (PAO) at the auxiliary line
output. The coupling coefficient C is usually expressed in decibels as
a positive number.
C = 10 log10 (P1/PAO) Db
C = 20 log10 (V1/V2) dB
(iv) Main Line Insertion Loss : The main line insertion loss is the
attenuation introduced in a transmission line by the insertion of the
directional coupler. The auxiliary line of the coupler is assumed to be
properly terminated. The main line insertion loss, L is given by
L = 10 log10
(P1/P0) db
L = 20 log (V1/V2) db
(v) Directivity: The directivity D is a measure of the discrimination
property of a
directional coupler between the waves traveling in the two directions in
the main line. It is measured as the ratio of the two power outputs from
the auxiliary line when a given amount of power is successively applied
to each terminal of the main line. The other terminals or ports of the
coupler not in use in the particular measurement are assumed to be
terminated in matched loads.

D = 10 log10 (PA0/Pd) db
D = 20 log
(V3/V4) db

10.4 PROCEDURE:

Main Line VSWR

1. Setup the equipment as shown in fig, Terminating Port 2 and Port 3 with
matched
termination set
modes
2. Move the slotted section and measure Vmax and Vmin
3. Calculate VSWR Vmax and Vmin

Auxiliary –line VSWR

1. Set up the equipment as shown in fig. terminating port 1 and port 2i set mode
3 with matched termination.
2. Move the slotted section and measure Vmax and Vmin
3. Calculate VSWR = Vmax and Vmin

Insertion Loss and Coupling factor

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1. Set the equipment by connecting detector mount to the input end(without

directional coupler).
2. Set mode 3 and obverse the input voltage V1 . Do not alter till the end
of the experiment.
3. Insert the directional coupler, terminate port 3 with matched termination.
4. Connect detector mount to port 2 and measure V2.
5. Calculate insertion loss

6. To measure coupling factor, terminate port 2 with matched termination,

connect detector mount to port 3 and measure V3.

7. Calculate coupling factor

Directivity

Set up the equipment as shown in fig Terminate port 2 with matched termination
and connect detector mount to port 3.
2. Measure the voltage at port 3 and note it as V13.
3. Connect the directional coupler in reverse direction.
i.e, port 2 – input, port 1 – matched termination, port 3 – detector mount
4. Measure the voltage as V23

5. Calculate directivity D =

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10.5 Observations:

Calculations:

Main Line VSWR = Vmax / Vmin

Auxiliary line VSWR=Vmax/Vmin

Insertion Loss,

L=20log(V1/V2)dB

Coupling factor,

C=20log(V1/V3) dB

Directivity,

D = 20 log (V3 / V4) dB

10.6 Results
The performance characteristics of directional coupler were determined.

10.7 Conclusion:
Write conclusion here.

10.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What is a directional coupler?
2. List the types of directional coupler.
3. Draw a basic directional coupler?
4. List the performance of a directional coupler.
5. Define the directivity `D’ of a directional coupler.
6. Define coupled factor C.
7. What is multi hole directional coupler?

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Experiment No. 11
MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON
11.1 Objective:
To study the Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron.

11.2 Components and Equipment’s Required:

Klystron Power Supply, Klystron with mount, Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable
Attenuator, Slotted section with Probe carriage, CRO, Movable Short.

11.3 THEORY:

Klystron is a microwave vacuum tube employing velocity modulation. These electrons

move towards the repeller (ie) the electrons leaving the cavity during the positive half cycle
are accelerated while those during negative half cycle are decelerated. The faster ones
penetrate further while slower ones penetrate lesser in the field of repeller voltage. But, faster
electrons leaving the cavity take longer time to return and hence catch up with slower ones. In
the cavity the electrons bunch and intract with the voltage between the cavity grids. It consists
of an electron gun producing a collimated electron beam. It bunches pass through grids at time
the grid potentials are such that electrons are decelerated they give by energy. The electrons
are then collected by positive cavity wall near cathode. To protect repeller from damage,
repeller voltage is applied before accelerating voltage.

11.4 PROCEDURE:

i) Assemble the components as shown in fig.

ii) After following the necessary precautions the Klystron Power Supply is
switched ON.
iii) To obtain peak voltage, the attenuator is positioned at its minimum attenuation.
iv) Vary the repeller voltage from its maximum negative value and increase it in
steps on N and record output power and frequency.
v) The frequency is measured by tuning the basic frequency meter to have a dip
in the output voltage each time.
vi) The frequency meter is detuned before measuring the output power each time.
vii) The mode characteristics of Reflex Klystron is plotted. (i.e. Output Voltage Vs
Repeller voltage and Frequency Vs Repeller voltage)

BASIC PRECAUTIONS:

1. During operation of Klystron, repeller does not carry any current and as such it
may severely be damaged by electron bombardment. To protect repeller from such
damage, the repeller negative voltage is always applied before anode voltage.
2. The repeller voltage should be varied in one direction to avoid hysteres is in
klystrons

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3. The heater voltage should be applied first and cooling should be

provided simultaneously after some time other voltages should be applied taking
precaution(i).

4. While measuring power, the frequency meter should be detained each

time because there is a dip in the output power when the frequency is tunied.

5. To avoid loading of the klystron an isolator/attenuation should invariably be used

between klystron and the rest of the set-up.

11.5 Observations:

CALCULATIONS

(i) Knowing mode top voltages of two adjacent modes, mode numbers of the modes
is computed from the equation,

N 2 V1 (n +1) +3 / 4
= =
N 1 V2 n+ 3/ 4

where

V1 and V2 are the values of repeller voltages required to operate the klystron in
mode numbers N1 and N2.

(ii) Knowing mode number, transit time of each mode is calculated from
n +( 3 / 4) N 1
t1 = = seconds
f 01 f 01

f01 → frequency of microwave operation in one mode.

(iii) ETR – Electronic tuning range i.e, the frequency band from one end of the mode
to another is calculated by

ETR = f1max – f1min for N1 mode (GHz)

f1max – f1min → half power frequencies

(iv) ETS – Electronic tuning sensitivity

f 1 max − f 1 min
ETS = (MHz/V)
V1 max −V1 min

f1max, f1min → half power frequency

V1max, V1min→ corresponding repeller voltages for a particular mode.

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MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON

Klystron Power
Supply C.R.O

Klystron with Frequency Variable Detector

Mount Isolator Meter Attenuator Mount

Fig.11.1 Mode Characteristics of Reflex Klystron

MODEL GRAPH:

Fig.11.2 Mode characteristics of Reflex Klystron

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TABULAR COLUMN:

M Frequency GHz Repeller voltage V Output Voltage

o 1 9. 1 (mV) 5
d 8
9. 41 30
e 48
9.8 015 2
2 75
9.85 601 751
95
9. 10 053
9.8 09 01
3 9.78 060 017
9. 85 07 053
9. 85 80 10
89 0 02
0 5

11.7 Conclusion:

11.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions: REVIEW

QUESTIONS:

1. List two basic configuration of Klystron tubes.

2. What is velocity modulation?
3. List down the characteristic of two cavity klystron amplifier.
4. Write a note on mode of oscillations.
5. Draw the reflex klystron modes.
6. Higher order mode occur at repeller voltage.
7. When the o/p power of reflex klystron maximum?
8. List the application of reflex klystron.
9. What is transit time?
10. Which mode number is most frequently used? Why?

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Experiment No. 12

ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
12.1 Objective: To study insertion loss and attenuation measurement of attenuator.

12.2 Components and Equipment Required:

1. Microwave source Klystron tube (2k25)
2. Isolator (xI-621)
3. Frequency meter (xF-710)
4. Variable attenuator (XA-520)
5. Slotted line (XS-651)
6. Tunable probe (XP-655)
7. Detector mount (XD-451)
8. Matched termination (XL-400)
9. Test attenuator
a) Fixed
b) Variable
10. Klystron power supply & Klystron mount
11. Cooling fan
12. BNC-BNC cable
13. VSWR or CRO

Fig12.1 Measurement Setup for attenuator

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12.3 THEORY:
The attenuator is a two port bidirectional device which attenuates some power when inserted
into a transmission line.
Attenuation A (dB) = 10 log (P1/P2)
Where P1 = Power detected by the load without the attenuator in the line
P2 = Power detected by the load with the attenuator in the line.

12.4 PROCEDURE:

a. Connect the equipment as shown in the above figure.

b. Energize the microwave source for maximum power at any frequency of operation

c. Connect the detector mount to the slotted line and tune the detector mount also for
max deflection on VSWR or on CRO
d. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter or on CRO with the help of variable

attenuator. Let it be P1.

e. Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without disturbing any
position on the setup place the test variable attenuator to the slotted line and detector
mount to O/P port of test variable attenuator. Keep the micrometer reading of text
variable attenuator to zero and record the readings of VSWR meter or on CRO. Let it
to be P2. Then the insertion loss of test attenuator will be P1-P2 db.
f. For measurement of attenuation of fixed and variable attenuator. Place the test
attenuator to the slotted line and detector mount at the other port of test attenuator.
Record the reading of VSWR meter or on CRO. Let it be P3 then the attenuation
value of variable attenuator for particular position of micrometer reading of will be P1-
P3 db.
g. In case the variable attenuator change the micro meter reading and record the VSWR
meter or CRO reading. Find out attenuation value for different position of micrometer
reading and plot a graph.
h. Now change the operating frequency and all steps should be repeated for finding
frequency sensitivity of fixed and variable attenuator.
Note:1. For measuring frequency sensitivity of variable attenuator the position of
micrometer reading of the variable attenuator should be same for all frequencies of
operation.

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EXPECTED GRAPH:

12.5 OBSERVATION TABLE:

P1 P2 Attenuation = P1-P2
Micrometer reading
(dB) (dB) (dB)

12.6 Result:

12.7 Conclusion:

12.8 Additional Questions for Assignments and Discussions:

1. What is insertion loss?
2. What is attenuation?
3. What attenuator is used in microwave bench?

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