Introduction to C

Introduction to computer science:

Overview of computer science: Computer science (also called computing

science) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation
and their implementation and application in computer systems.
A degree in Computer Science can lead to a career in software development and
software engineering where graduates design, implement, test and maintain large
software systems, or a career in such specialized fields as computer graphics,
games, security, robotics, artificial intelligence and expert systems, distributed
systems, embedded applications, databases, web applications, network applications
and networking.
What is Computer?
❖ Computer is an electronic device that is used for information processing. It is
a calculation machine.
❖ A computer can take data from the user through input devices (Input),
process the user given data (Processing), produces the result to the user
through output devices(Output) and stores data (Information) for future use.
Parts of a Computer System:

❖ Hardware: Refers to the physical components of a computer ex: Monitor,

printer etc..
❖ Software: Is a collection of instructions, procedures, documentation that
performs different tasks on a computer system .It tells the hardware, what to
do and how to do it, including Computer programs and applications.
Example: MS word, PowerPoint.
❖ Data: Piece of information.
❖ User: People operating the computer.
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Hardware and Software:

Computer Hardware

Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer. Computer Hardware is

any part of the computer that we can touch these parts. These are the primary
electronic devices used to build up the computer. Examples of hardware in a
computer are the Processor, Memory Devices, Monitor, Printer, Keyboard, Mouse,
and the Central Processing Unit.

Categories of computer hardware:

1. Input devices: These components are mostly to be used for recognized the
input data that are given by users for solving their problems. Input
instructions can be different types such as text, images, audio, and video.

Ex: keyboard, mouse ,scanner, touch screen, microphone etc..

2. Processing devices: The main function of processing devices are have to

responsible for getting meaningful information from converted data with the
help of various processing devices. Ex: CPU, Motherboard etc..

3. Output devices: Received the processed information from processing

components, and finally produce them into various form such text, audio,
and video. Ex: Monitor, projector, printer etc..

4. Storage devices: The core task of the memory is storage and retrieval, this
depend on the Read/Write operation of all types of memory.
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There are two types of storage devices such as:

1. Primary Storage device: are designed for temporarily storage, but

fastest to storage devices and small size as well. Ex. RAM: is volatile
storage memory(temporary memory)because during power failure the
information stored in RAM will be erased.

2. Secondary Storage Device: used for the permanently storage of data,

because if further time require any data then can be retrieved easily. The
sizes of these components have large compare to primary storage
devices, and storage capacity much high also.Ex:Hard disk,CD,DVD
etc..

Computer Software:

Software is a collection of instructions, procedures, documentation that performs

different tasks on a computer system. we can say also Computer Software is a
programming code executed on a computer processor. The code can be machine-
level code or the code written for an operating system. Examples of software are
Ms Word, Excel, Power Point, Google Chrome, Photoshop, MySQL etc.

Types of Software:
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System Software: Basically, it is a software to manage computer hardware

behaviour so as to provide basic functionalities that are required by the user. In
simple words, we can say that system software is an intermediator or a middle
layer between the user and the hardware.
Some common system software examples are:
Operating System: It is the most prominent example of System Software. It is a
collection of software that handles resources and provides general services for the
other applications that run over them. It acts as an interface between user and
computer system. Examples are android, windows, Linux, Unix etc..
Language Processors: These are mediator programs on which software programs
rely to translate high-level language code to simpler machine-level code.
Assembler –
The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into
machine code. The source program is a input of assembler that contains assembly
language instructions. The output generated by assembler is the object code or
machine code understandable by the computer.

Interpreter –
The translation of single statement of source program into machine code is done by
language processor and executes it immediately before moving on to the next line
is called an interpreter. If there is an error in the statement, the interpreter
terminates its translating process at that statement and displays an error message.
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The interpreter moves on to the next line for execution only after removal of the
error. Example: Perl, Python and MatLab.

Compiler –
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high
level language as a whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program in
machine language is called as a Compiler. The compiler specifies the errors at the
end of compilation with line numbers when there are any errors in the source code.
The errors must be removed before the compiler can successfully recompile the
source code again. Example: C, C++, C#, Java

Device drivers: Device driver or hardware driver is a group of files that enable
one or more hardware devices to communicate with the computer's operating
system. Without drivers, the computer would not be able to send and receive data
correctly to hardware devices, such as a printer.
Utility software helps to manage, maintain and control computer resources.
Operating systems typically contain the necessary tools for this, but separate utility
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programs can provide improved functionality. Examples of utility programs are
antivirus software, backup software etc..
Application software is commonly defined as any program or number of
programs designed for end-users.
General purpose application software is a type of application that can be used
for a variety of tasks. It is not limited to one particular function. ... Examples
of General purpose application software include: Word processors, Spreadsheet
and Presentation software.
Specialist application software performs a single very specific type of task.
Examples include programs to work out payroll, calculate accounts, deal with
stock control and handle appointments.
Customised software development is the process of designing, creating, deploying
and maintaining software for a specific set of users, functions or organizations.
Example includes salary component of an organization.
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Functional units of a computer:

A computer in its simplest form comprises five functional units namely input unit,
output unit ,memory unit, arithmetic & logic unit and control unit.

1. Input Unit: Computer accepts encoded information through input unit. The
standard input device is a keyboard. Whenever a key is pressed, keyboard
controller sends the code to CPU/Memory.

Examples include Mouse, Joystick, Scanner etc.

2. Memory Unit: Memory unit stores the program instructions (Code), data and

results of computations etc. Memory unit is classified as:

• Primary /Main Memory

• Secondary /Auxiliary Memory

Primary memory is a semiconductor memory that provides access at high speed.

Run time program instructions and operands are stored in the main memory. Main
memory is classified again as ROM and RAM. ROM holds system programs and
firmware routines such as I/O Drivers that are essential to manage the hardware of
a computer. RAM is termed as Read/Write memory or user memory that holds run
time program instruction and data. While primary storage is essential, it is volatile
in nature and expensive. Additional requirement of memory could be supplied as
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auxiliary memory at cheaper cost.

Secondary memories are non volatile in nature. These are used when large
amount of data and programs have to be stored.

3. Arithmetic and logic unit: ALU consist of necessary logic circuits like adder,
comparator etc., to perform operations of addition, multiplication, comparison of
two numbers etc.

4. Output Unit: Computer after computation returns the computed results, error
messages, etc. via output unit. The standard output device is a monitor, LCD/TFT
monitor. Other output devices are printers, projectors etc.

5. Control Unit: Control unit co-ordinates activities of all units by issuing control
signals. Control signals issued by control unit govern the data transfers and then
appropriate operations take place. Control unit interprets or decides the
operation/action to be performed.

Information Processing Cycle:

Information processing is the process of changing or converting information into

meaningful form. Information is processed, organized or classified data which is
useful for the receiver. Information is the processed data which may be used “as it
is” or may be put to use along with more data or information. The receiver of
information takes actions and decisions based on the information received.
Collected data must be processed to get meaning out of it, and this meaning is
obtained in the form of information.
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1.INPUT– Entering data into the computer

1. Feeding the collected raw data or data entry in the cycle for processing. This
is the raw data which is supplied for processing & obtaining information.
2. Input can be done by utilizing various devices such as keyboards, barcode
readers, joysticks, digital data tablets (for graphics drawing), etc.
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2.PROCESSING– Performing operations on the data

1. Once the input is provided the raw data is processed by a suitable or selected
processing method. This is the most crucial step as it allows the processed
data in the form of output which will be used further.
2. Processing is usually done by CPU (Central Processing Unit) in a computer.
CPU is the crucial component for getting the operations done. The speed of
processing depends on the computing power of the processor.

3. OUTPUT– Results obtained, i.e., information

1. This is the outcome, and the raw data provided in the first stage is now
“processed,” and the data is useful and provides information and no longer
called Data. This might be further used for data visualization.
2. This can be used as it is or used for further processing along with more data.
Output device can be a paper or in form of display screen such as monitors
or phone screen.

4. STORAGE– Saving data in a soft/physical form

Storage can be done on various storage devices such as external hard disk,
inbuilt hard disk, pen drives, compact disks or even in registers.
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Execution
The program may ask user for inputs and generates output after processing the
inputs.
Debugging and Testing
Debugging is the discovery and correction of programming errors. When error
appears debugging is necessary.
Testing ensures that program performs correctly the required task.
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Algorithm and flowchart

The algorithm and flowchart are two types of tools to explain the process of a
program. An algorithm is a step-by-step analysis of the process, while a flowchart
explains the steps of a program in a graphical way.

Definition of algorithm
To write a logical step-by-step method to solve the problem is called the algorithm;
in other words, an algorithm is a procedure for solving problems. In order to solve
a mathematical or computer problem, this is the first step in the process. An
algorithm includes calculations, reasoning, and data processing. Algorithms can be
presented by natural languages, pseudocode etc.
Algorithm has the following characteristics

Well-Defined Inputs: If an algorithm says to take inputs, it should be well-defined

inputs.
Well-Defined Outputs: The algorithm must clearly define what output will be
yielded and it should be well-defined as well.
Clear and Unambiguous: Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of
its steps should be clear in all aspects and must lead to only one meaning.
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Finite-ness: The algorithm must be finite, i.e. it should not end up in an infinite
loops .
Feasible: The algorithm must be simple, generic and practical, such that it can be
executed upon the available resources. It must not contain some future technology,
or anything.
Language Independent: The algorithm designed must be language-independent,
i.e. it must be just plain instructions that can be implemented in any language, and
yet the output will be same, as expected.
Advantages of Algorithms:
▪ It is easy to understand.
▪ Algorithm is a step-wise representation of a solution to a given problem.
▪ In Algorithm the problem is broken down into smaller pieces or steps hence,
it is easier for the programmer to convert it into an actual program.
Disadvantages of Algorithms:
▪ Writing an algorithm takes a long time so it is time-consuming.
▪ Branching and Looping statements are difficult to show in Algorithms.
Algorithm to find area of square
1. start
2. Input the value for side
3. Area=side*side
4. print area of square
5. Stop
Algorithm to find area of circle
1.Start
2.Input “The Radius Of Circle "
3.Area=3.14*radius*radius
4.Print Area of circle
5.Stop
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Algorithm to find Sum of two numbers
step 1 : start
step 2 : Read a,b
step 3 : c=a+b
step 4 : print c
step 5 : end

Algorithm to perform basic arithmetic operations

step 1 : start
step 2 : Read a, b
step 3 : calculate add=a+b,sub=a-b,multi=a*b, div=a/b.
step 4 : print add,sub,multi,div.
step 5 : end

Algorithm to check whether a person can vote or not

Steps:
1. Start.
2. Input the age of the person
3. If(age>=18) goto step 4 otherwise goto step 5
4. Print “you can vote” goto step6
5. Print “you cannot vote”
6. Stop

Algorithm to find largest of two numbers

Step 1: Start.
Step 2: Read a, b
Step 3: If a>b Display “a is the largest number” goto step4
Otherwise. Display “b is the largest number”.
Step 4: Stop

Algorithm to find the given number is positive or negative.

Step 1: Start.
Step 2: Read number
Step 3: If number>0 Display “number is positive” goto step4
Otherwise. Display “number is negative”.
Step 4: Stop
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Definition of flowchart
A flowchart is the graphical or pictorial representation of an algorithm with the
help of different symbols, shapes, and arrows to demonstrate a process or a
program. With algorithms, we can easily understand a program. The main purpose
of using a flowchart is to analyze different methods.

Several standard symbols are applied in a flowchart:

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Advantages Of Using FLOWCHARTS:
• Communication: Flowcharts are better way of communicating the logic of a
system to all concerned or involved.
• Effective analysis: With the help of flowchart, problem can be analysed in more
effective way therefore reducing cost and wastage of time.
• Proper documentation: Program flowcharts serve as a good program
documentation, which is needed for various purposes, making things more
efficient.
• Efficient Coding: The flowcharts act as a guide or blueprint during the systems
analysis and program development phase.
• Proper Debugging: The flowchart helps in debugging process.
• Efficient Program Maintenance: The maintenance of operating program
becomes easy with the help of flowchart. It helps the programmer to put efforts
more efficiently on that part

Disadvantages Of Using FLOWCHARTS:

• Complex logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite complicated. In that case,
flowchart becomes complex and clumsy. This will become a pain for the user,
resulting in a waste of time and money trying to correct the problem
• Alterations and Modifications: If alterations are required the flowchart may
require re-drawing completely. This will usually waste valuable time.
• Reproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed, reproduction of
flowchart becomes a problem.
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Examples:
1.Sum of two numbers
Algorithm:
step 1 : start

step 2 : Input a,b

step 3 : c=a+b
step 4 : Display c
step 5 : end

Flowchart:
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2. Convert Temperature from Fahrenheit (F) to Celsius (C)
Algorithm:
Step 1: Start

step 2: Read temperature in Fahrenheit

Step 3: Calculate temperature with formula C=5/9*(F-32)

Step 4: Print C
step 5: Stop

Flowchart:
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3. largest of two numbers

Algorithm:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input a, b .
Step 3: If a>b then
Display “a is the largest number”.
Otherwise
Display “b is the largest number”.
Step 4: Stop.

Flowchart:
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4. To check the given number is even or odd.
Algorithm:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input Number .
Step 3: If Number%2==0 then
Display “Even number”. goto Step4
Otherwise
Display “odd number”.
Step 4: End.

Flowchart
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5. To check the given number is zero, positive or negative.

Algorithm

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get n
Step 3: If n==0 then print “zero” goto step5
Step 4: if n>0 then print “positive” goto step5
Otherwise print “negative”
Step5: stop

Flowchart
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6. To find largest of three numbers
Algorithm
step 1 : start
step 2 : Read A,B,C
step 3 : if(A>B)then goto next step
otherwise goto step5
step 4 : if(A>C) then goto step6 otherwise step8
step 5 : if(B>C) goto step7 otherwise step8
step6:print “A is largest” then goto step9
step7:print “B is largest” then goto step9
step8:print “C is largest”
Step9:stop

Flowchart
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Overview of C language:

Introduction to C
▪ C is a procedural programming language.
▪ It was initially developed by Dennis Ritchie in the year 1972.
▪ It was mainly developed as a system programming language to write an operating system.
▪ It is machine-independent, structured programming language which is used extensively
in various applications.
▪ One can say, C is a base for the programming. If you know 'C,' you can easily grasp the
knowledge of the other programming languages that uses the concept of 'C‘.
Features/Characteristics of C

❖ C is a general purpose programming language.

❖ It is a structured programming language.
❖ Helps in the development of system software.
❖ It has a rich set of operators.
❖ Portability: any c program can be run on different machines with little or no
modifications.
❖ Supports a rich set of data types.
❖ Ability to extend itself by adding functions to its library.
Applications of C

C is used to develop the system as well as application software.

System software:
✓ Operating systems
✓ Interpreters
✓ Compilers
✓ Editors
Application Software
➢ Database Management Systems
➢ Graphics Packages
➢ Word Processors
➢ Any engineering applications
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Basic Structure of C program

Documentation Section
This section consists of comment lines which include the name of the program, the author and
other details like time and date of writing the program. Documentation section helps anyone to
get an overview of the program.
Link Section
The link section consists of the header files of the functions that are used in the program. It
provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the system library.
Definition Section
All the symbolic constants are written in definition section.
Global Declaration Section
The global variables that can be used anywhere in the program are declared in global declaration
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section. This section also declares the user defined functions.
main() Function Section
It is necessary have one main() function section in every C program. This section contains two
parts, declaration and executable part.
Subprogram Section
The subprogram section contains all the user defined functions that are used to perform a specific
task. These user defined functions are called in the main() function.
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Process of compiling and running the program
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Important Points
✓ C program file (Source file) must be saved with .c extension.
✓ Input to the compiler is .c file and output from the compiler is .exe file, but it also
generates .obj file in this process.
✓ The compiler converts the file only if there are no errors in the source code.
✓ CPU places the result in User Screen window.

Escape Sequences

In C Programming, the word escape sequences means to escape the character from
the sequences of words and give special meaning to the escaped character.
Let us consider “Hello\n good morning". Clearly, n is the character which escapes from the
sequences of word, Hellogood morning and a special meaning is given to n i.e new line.
✓ An Escape sequences are non-printing characters.
✓ An Escape sequences are certain characters associated with \ (backslash).
✓ An Escape sequences always begin with \ (backslash) and is followed by one character.
✓ An Escape sequences are used in printf() statement.
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Character Set in C
Like every other language, 'C' also has its own character set.
A character set in 'C' is divided into,
➢ Letters: uppercase and lowercase letters
➢ Numbers:0-9
➢ Special characters: ; , . ( ) { } # % & / \ _ ? + - * etc..
➢ White spaces (blank spaces): Blank space,New line,Horizontal tab etc..

C Tokens
The compiler breaks a program into the smallest possible units and proceeds to the various stages
of the compilation, which is called token.
In C programs, each word and punctuation is referred to as a token. C Tokens are the smallest
building block or smallest unit of a C program.
Let suppose even we have a lot of words we can’t make a sentence without combining them, the
same way we can’t develop the application without using tokens in C language. So, we can say
that tokens in C language are the building block of C programming language.
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C Supports 6 Types of Tokens
✓ Keywords
✓ Identifiers
✓ Strings
✓ Operators
✓ Constants
✓ Special Symbols

Keywords
Keywords in C language are predefined or reserved keywords used to expose the behavior of the
data. There are 32 keywords in C.

Identifiers
Identifier in C language is used for naming functions, variables, structures, arrays, etc. The
identifier is user-defined words. An identifier is used to identify elements of a program.
Rules to construct identifiers is:
✓ The first character should be either alphabet or underscore and then followed by any
character, digit.
✓ Identifiers are case sensitive as there is A and a treated as different.
✓ Special symbols(except underscore) and white space characters are not allowed
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✓ Keywords can’t be used for identifiers.
✓ The length of the identifiers should not be more than 31 characters.
✓ The name must be meaningful.

Variable
A variable is an identifier which is used to store some value. Variables can change during the
execution of a program and update the value stored inside it. A single variable can be used at
multiple locations in a program. A variable name must be meaningful. A variable must be
declared first before it is used somewhere inside the program.
RULES FOR NAMING C VARIABLE:
➢ Variable name must begin with letter or underscore.
➢ Variables are case sensitive.
➢ They can be constructed with digits, letters.
➢ No special symbols and whitespaces are allowed other than underscore.
➢ A variable name should not consist of a keyword.
Note: You should always try to give meaningful names to variables
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Examples for variables

C Constants
C Constants is the most fundamental and essential part of the C programming language.
Constants in C are the fixed values that are used in a program, and its value remains the same
during the entire execution of the program.
✓ Constants are also called literals.
✓ Constants can be any of the data types.
✓ It is considered best practice to define constants using only upper-case names.
Types of constants
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Integer Constants
An integer constant is an integer quantity which contains a sequence of digits.It should not have
a decimal point. Blanks and commas are not allowed within an integer constant.An integer
constant can be either +ve or -ve.
An integer constant can be either Decimal, HexaDecimal or Octal.
A decimal constant can contain any combination of integers from 0 through 9.
An octal constant should begin with digit 0. It can take any digits from 0 through 7.
A hexadecimal constant should begin with 0X or 0x.
Ex:15, -265, 0, 99818, +25, 045, 0X6

Floating Point Constants

These are also known as real constants. A real constant contains a decimal point or an exponent.
It can be either +ve or -ve. Commas and blank space are not allowed within a real constant. Ex:
– 254.175 -16.47 -0.5e-7 +4.1e8

Character Constant
A character constant is a character which is enclosed in single quotes.
Example: ‘A’ , ‘a’ , ‘ b’ , ‘8’

String Constant
– A string constant is a collection of characters enclosed in double quotations “ ”
– It may contain alphabets, digits, special characters and blank space.
Example: “bec” , “bgk2021”

Backslash Character Constant

The lists of backslash characters have a specific meaning which is known to the compiler. They
are also termed as "Escape Sequence".
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Defining Constants:
In C program we can define constants in two ways :
✓ Using #define preprocessor directive
✓ Using a const keyword

Using #define preprocessor directive: We can use this to declare a constant as shown below:
#define identifierName value
identifierName: It is the name given to constant.
value: This refers to any value assigned to identifierName.
ex: #define PI 3.142
Using a const keyword: We can use this to declare a constant as shown b
elow:
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Data Types in C

Primitive Data Types (Basic Data types)

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INTEGER DATA TYPE:

✓ Integer data type allows a variable to store numeric values.
✓ int keyword is used to refer integer data type.
✓ The storage size of int data type is 2 or 4 or 8 byte.
✓ It varies depend upon the processor in the CPU that we use. If we are using 16 bit
processor, 2 byte (16 bit) of memory will be allocated for int data type.
✓ If you want to use the integer value that crosses the above limit, you can go for “long int”
and “long long int” for which the limits are very high.
✓ If a signed integer has n bits, it can contain a number between -2 n-1 to +(2 n-1 -1)
✓ In the binary number system, an unsigned integer containing “n” bits can have a value
between 0 to 2n-1
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FLOATING POINT DATA TYPE:
Floating point data type consists of 2 types. They are,
✓ float
✓ double
float:
• float data type allows a variable to store decimal values.
• Storage size of float data type is 4 bytes. This also varies depend upon the processor in
the CPU as “int” data type.
• We can use up-to 6 digits after decimal using float data type.
• For example, 10.456789 can be stored in a variable using float data type.
double
double data type is also same as float data type which allows up-to 10 digits after decimal.
The storage size of double datatype is 8 bytes.

CHARACTER DATA TYPE:

• Character data type allows a variable to store only one character.
• Storage size of character data type is 1. We can store only one character using character
data type.
• “char” keyword is used to refer character data type.
• For example, ‘A’ can be stored using char datatype. You can’t store more than one
character using char data type.
VOID DATA TYPE IN C LANGUAGE:
void is an empty data type that has no value.

Format specifiers in C
The format specifier is used during input and output. It is a way to tell the compiler what type of
data is in a variable during taking input using scanf() or printing using printf(). Some examples
are %c, %d, %f etc.
Format specifiers define the type of data to be printed on standard output. You need to use format
specifiers whether you're printing formatted output with printf() or accepting input with scanf().
% specifies the minimum field width.
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Variable Declaration in C
A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there exists a variable with the
given type and name so that the compiler can proceed for further compilation without requiring
the complete detail about the variable. A variable definition has its meaning at the time of
compilation only, the compiler needs actual variable definition at the time of linking the
program.
Syntax: data_ type variable_list;
Example: int a,b;
float n1,n2;
Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration. The initializer consists
of an equal sign followed by a constant expression as follows −
Syntax: data_type variable_name = value;
example: int a=10,b=20;

Operators in C
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical
functions.
C language provides a rich set of operators. They may operate on single operand or two
operands.
They are used to perform basic arithmetic operations, comparisons, manipulations of bits and so
on.
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Arithmetic operators
C supports all the basic arithmetic operators. The following table shows all the basic arithmetic
operators

Operator Description

+ adds two operands

- subtract second operands from first

* multiply two operand

/ divide numerator by denominator

% remainder of division

Relational operators
The following table shows all relation operators supported by C.

Operator Description

== Check if two operand are equal

!= Check if two operand are not equal.

> Check if operand on the left is greater than operand on the right

< Check operand on the left is smaller than right operand

>= check left operand is greater than or equal to right operand

<= Check if operand on left is smaller than or equal to right operand
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Logical operators
C language supports following 3 logical operators. Suppose a = 1 and b = 0,

Operator Description Example

&& Logical AND (a && b) is false
|| Logical OR (a || b) is true

! Logical NOT (!a) is false

Bitwise operators
Bitwise operators perform manipulations of data at bit level. These operators also
perform shifting of bits from right to left. Bitwise operators are not applicable to float or double

Operator Description

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise exclusive OR

<< left shift

>> right shift

Now lets see truth table for bitwise &, | and ^

a b a&b a|b a^b

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
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Assignment Operators
Assignment operators supported by C language are as follows.

Operator Description Example

= assigns values from right side operands to left side operand a=b

+= adds right operand to the left operand and assign the result to left a+=b is same as a=a+b

-= subtracts right operand from the left operand and assign the result to a-=b is same as a=a-b
left operand

*= mutiply left operand with the right operand and assign the result to left a*=b is same as a=a*b
operand

/= divides left operand with the right operand and assign the result to left a/=b is same as a=a/b
operand

%= calculate modulus using two operands and assign the result to left a%=b is same as a=a%b
operand

Conditional operator
The conditional operators in C language are known by two more names
1) Ternary Operator
2) ? : Operator
It is actually the if condition that we use in C language decision making, but using conditional
operator, we turn the if condition statement into a short and simple operator.
The syntax of a conditional operator is :
expression 1 ? expression 2: expression 3
Introduction to C
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{ int a=5,b=10,c; // variable declaration
c = a > b ? a : b; // conditional operator
printf("The value of variable c is : %d",c);
return 0;
}
Increment and Decrement Operators
C has two special unary operators called increment (++) and decrement (--) operators. These
operators increment and decrement value of a variable by 1.
Increment/Decrement operators are of two types:
1. Prefix increment/decrement operator.
2. Postfix increment/decrement operator.
1. Prefix increment/decrement operator
The prefix increment/decrement operator immediately increases or decreases the current value of
the variable. This value is then used in the expression. Let's take an example:
y = ++x;
Here first, the current value of x is incremented by 1. The new value of x is then assigned to y.
Similarly, in the statement:
y = --x;
the current value of x is decremented by 1. The new value of x is then assigned to y.
2.Postfix Increment/Decrement operator
The postfix increment/decrement operator causes the current value of the variable to be used in
the expression, then the value is incremented or decremented.
For example:
y = x++;
Here first, the current value of x is assigned to y then x is incremented.
Similarly, in the statement:
y = x--;
the current value of x is assigned to y then x is decremented.
Introduction to C
Special Operators in C
✓ The Comma Operator
✓ sizeof operator
✓ Reference operator or Address Operator ("&")
✓ Dereference operator ("*") or Pointer Operator
✓ Dot Operator
Comma Operator
Comma Operator in C programming language has two contexts −
✓ As a Separator
✓ As an operator − The comma operator { , } is a binary operator that discards the first
expression (after evaluation) and then use the value of the second expression.
Each expression must be separated using the comma ( , ) and are evaluated from left to right. The
value of rightmost expression becomes the value of the overall expression
Ex: sum = (a=3, b=4, c=5, a+b+c)
Or a=3, b=4, c=5;
sum = a+b+c;
Sizeof() operator
The sizeof() is a unary operator used to determine the size of its operand.
The general form of sizeof operator is:
Syntax: sizeof(object)
where object can be data type keywords like int, float, double or expression or variable.
For example, sizeof(int) gives the size occupied by an int data type. The sizeof operator returns
size in bytes.
Introduction to C
Operators Precedence in C
Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression and decides how an
expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence than others; for example, the
multiplication operator has a higher precedence than the addition operator.

For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has a higher
precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds into 7.

Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the lowest
appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will be evaluated first.

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right

Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift << >> Left to right

Relational < <= > >= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

Introduction to C
Typecasting in C
Typecasting is converting one data type into another one. It is also called as data conversion or
type conversion in C language. It is one of the important concepts introduced in ‘C’
programming.
‘C’ programming provides two types of type casting operations:
1. Implicit type casting
2. Explicit type casting

Implicit type casting

Implicit type casting means conversion of data types without losing its original meaning. This
type of typecasting is essential when you want to change data types without changing the
significance of the values stored inside the variable.

Implicit type conversion in C happens automatically when a value is copied to its compatible
data type. During conversion, strict rules for type conversion are applied. If the operands are of
two different data types, then an operand having lower data type is automatically converted into
a higher data type. This type of type conversion can be seen in the following example.

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
char ch=’a’;
int b; //declaring int variable
b=a+1; //implicit type casting
printf("%d\n",b);
}
Output: 98

Explicit type casting

Explicit type conversion rules out the use of compiler for converting one data type to another
instead the user explicitly defines within the program the data type of the operands in the
expression.
Introduction to C
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
float a = 1.2;
//int b = a; //Compiler will throw an error for this
int b = (int)a + 1;
printf("Value of b is %d\n",b);
return 0;
}
Output:

Value of b is 2