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AIR TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER I Introduction to Airports Introduction (a) ........................................1
CHAPTER II Aircraft ..............................................................................6
CHAPTER III AIRPORT DESIGN ...................................................................9
CHAPTER IV AIRPORT Risk and Capacity Management. ................................... 12
CHAPTER V Materials – Introduction ......................................................... 14
CHAPTER VI Production of Asphalt Concrete (AC) ......................................... 15
CHAPTER VII Soil in road infrastructure design ............................................ 18
CHAPTER VIII Airport pavements............................................................. 20
CHAPTER IX Airport design application ...................................................... 26
CHAPTER X Special airport infrastructures ................................................. 28
CHAPTER XI Airport pavement design (AIRPORT Pavement Design) ..................... 29

CHAPITRE I INTRODUCTION TO AIRPORTS INTRODUCTION (A)

1. Definition and Structure of an Airport Structure

An airport is a demarcated area on land or water, including buildings, facilities and equipment, intended
for the arrivals, departures and ground movements of aircraft.
• Operational Area: Runways, taxiways, taxilanes, aprons.
• Terminal Area: Passenger Terminals, Cargo Terminals, car parks.
• Maintenance Area: Hangars, Fire Services, Fuel Depots.

2. Airport Location Choice

The choice of site is based on several criteria:
• Air traffic needs.
• Proximity to other airport infrastructure.
• Accessibility.
• Opportunities for future expansion.
• Weather conditions: winds, fog, rain, snow, pollution.
• Topographical and geomorphological conditions.
• Cost-benefit analysis.

3. Weather Conditions and Airport Operations

Weather conditions vary by topography and influence airport safety and operations:
• Low coast height : Morning fogs, summer breezes.
• High coast height: Vorticity.
• Mountainous areas: Leeward vorticity, Windward rains.
• Continental areas: Radiation fog.
• Narrow valleys : Fog accumulation.

4. Runway Orientation
Runway orientation is determined by the Total Polar Diagram, which takes into account:
• 16 equal sectors of 22°30'.
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• 4 concentric circles indicating wind speeds (6, 24, 46.5, 70 km/h).

• Exclusion of light winds (< 6 km/h).
• The frequency of winds blowing in each direction.
The Runway Utilization Coefficient is the proportion of the year in which a runway is usable. According
to ICAO Annex 14, if this coefficient is less than 96%, a secondary runway with a different orientation
must be constructed.
5. Runway Length and Airport Classification
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) sets the safety rules and runway
characteristics:
• Types of take-off and landing :
o CTOL (Conventional Take-Off and Landing): Conventional take-off and
landing.
o STOL (Short Take-Off and Landing): Short take-off and landing distance.
o VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing): Vertical take-off and landing.
• Classification of tracks according to their length :
o Class A : ≥ 2100 m
o Class B : 1500 – 2100 m
o Class C : 900 – 1499 m
o Class D : 750 – 899 m
o E-Class : 600 – 749 m
• New ICAO classification (Annex 14):
o Number Code—Based on Runway Length.
o Letter Code : Based on the wingspan of the aircraft (Wingspan) and the wheel
spacing (Wheelbase).
6. Runway and Traffic Management Issues
• Difficulty in identifying ground movement issues.
• Insufficient taxiway width.
• Narrow taxiway radii too small.
• Presence of obstacles close to the runways (Close obstacles).
7. Take-Off Space Calculation
• Take-Off Distance (S): The distance required for the aircraft, fully loaded, to reach a
height of 10.70 m at the end of the runway.
o Traction Equation:
F−R=EW⋅(dv: :dt)
where:
▪ F: Motor traction.
▪ A: Resistance to movement (aerodynamics and rolling).
▪ EW: Equivalent weight = Q/g. Where:
• Acting Forces: • ρ : Air density.
o Lift: • S: Main section of the aircraft.
L=(0.5).ρ⋅CL⋅S⋅v2 • v: Speed.
• CL, CR: Coefficients of lift and
o Resistance:
resistance depending on the
R=(0.5)⋅ρ⋅CR⋅S⋅v2
profile of the wing.
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• Rolling Resistance:
Rolling=f⋅ (Q−0.5⋅ ρ⋅ CL⋅ S⋅ v2)
where f is the coefficient of friction between the wheel and the track.
• Take-Off Speed (v_to):
2𝑄/𝑆
vto=√ 𝜌𝐶𝐿

• Take-off distance (S):

S=(0.15)⋅S1+S1
where S_1 is the calculated distance under the traction curve, increased by 15% to reach
a height of 10.70 m.

8. Take-Off Maneuver
• Take-Off Procedure:
o The aircraft reaches one end of the runway, accelerates after receiving clearance
from the control tower, reaches the rotational speed (v_r), puts its nose in the
air, and continues to accelerate to the take-off speed (v_2 = 1.2 v_stall).
o The aircraft left the runway at a height of 10.70 m.
• Rejected Take-Off: If the pilot decides to reject the take-off, the aircraft must be able
to stop within the available distance.

9. Distances Declared
• TORA (Take Off Run Available): Distance available for take-off.
• TODA (Take Off Distance Available): Available take-off distance, including the
clearway.
• ASDA (Accelerate Stop Distance Available): Acceleration and stopping distance
available, including the stopway.
• LDA (Landing Distance Available): The distance available for landing.

10. Obstacle Limitation Surfaces

Airports require an airspace free of obstacles to ensure the safety of aircraft operations.
2. Definition of an obstacle (Obstacle)
An obstacle is any fixed (temporary or permanent) or moving object that:
• Is located in a surface movement area.
• Exceeds a defined protective surface to protect aircraft in flight.
• Represents a hazard to air navigation.
3. Types of Obstacle Limitation Surfaces
The dimensions of these surfaces vary depending on the type of runway and the technology used
(instrument or non-instrument runway). A distinction is made between:
1. Outer Horizontal Surface : An area where construction can be limited to avoid
obstacles near airports.
2. Conical Surface —The surface that slopes outward from the perimeter of the inner
horizontal surface.
3. Inner Horizontal Surface (Surface horizontal) intérieur: a horizontal plane located
above the airport and its surroundings, its height measured in relation to the centre
of the runway.
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4. Approach Surface (Surface d'approche): an inclined plane preceding the threshold

of the runway.
5. Inner Approach Surface (Surface d'approche intérieur): The rectangular portion of
the approach surface immediately before the threshold.
6. Transitional Surface (Surface de transition): a sloped surface located along the
sides of the strip and a portion of the approach surface, rising to the inner horizontal
surface.
7. Inner Transitional Surface —Similar to the transition surface, but closer to the track.
8. Balked Landing Surface —An inclined plane located at a specified distance after the
threshold, between the interior transitional surfaces.
9. Take-off Climb Surface (Surface de montée au décollage): an inclined plane
located beyond the end of the runway or clearway.
4. Application according to the type of track
• Non-instrument runways, non-precision approach runways, and Precision Approach
Runways (Category I) must respect the following surfaces:
o Cone
o Interior horizontal surface
o Approach surface
o Transition surfaces
• Precision Approach Runways (Category II & III) must meet additional requirements in
addition to the previous requirements:
o Indoor approach surface
o Interior transition surfaces

8. Airport Operational Areas

Runway Configuration
2. Runways
• Number: Up to 6 tracks.
• Localization:
o Single.
o Parallel.
o V-shaped.
o Intersecting.
• Hourly Capacity: The number of operations per hour.
• Classification: According to ICAO standards.
• Code: Defined by the length and width of the track.
• Dimensions (Length, Width, Slopes, Distances):
o Length, width, slopes, safety distances.
Distance Between Runways: s
Minimum distance: s>300m for parallel tracks.
• Example configuration:
o L: Landing.
o T: Take-off.
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2.1. Setting up Stopway and RESA (Runway End Safety Area)

• Stopway: Stopping area in the event of a rejected take-off.
• RESA: Safety zone at the end of the runway for short landings.
2.2. Setting up Stopway and Clearway
• Clearway: An area that is cleared beyond the runway for take-off.
• Example for a code track 4:
o Flight Strip Limit: Limit of the safety zone.
o Planimetric View: A plan view of the configuration.
2.3. Configuration Schemes
• Runway with one taxiway and two exits per direction:
o Optimization of aircraft flow for take-offs and landings.
• Two-lane runway:
o Increased operational capacity.
3. Aprons Configuration

3.1. Types of Apron Bases (Aprons Types)

• Side Terminal System:
o Aircraft parking near the terminal.
• Open Apron System:
o Aircraft parking on an open area.
3.2. Parking Systems
• Fingers System:
o One Finger: A single parking ramp.
o T Finger System: T-shaped ramp.
o Y Finger System: Y-shaped ramp.
• Satellite System:
o 3 satellites connected to the terminal:
▪ Example: Seoul Airport.
o Parking around a satellite:
▪ Example: Madrid Airport.
• Moving Bridges:
o Extension for wide-body aircraft (e.g. A380).

5. Markings and Light Signals

This course integrates the technical aspects of aircraft (history, lift) and airports (markings, light
signals), respecting key formulas and ICAO standards.
Runway Markings
• Identification: Number based on magnetic azimuth (e.g. 09/27 for 90° and 270°).
• Threshold: 8 white stripes of 45 m.
• Axial lines: Continuous (runway) or discontinuous (taxiways).
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Light Signals
• Runway Lights:
o Runway Edge Lights: White (red if threshold shifted).
o Centerline Lights: Alternating white/red.
o Threshold Lights: Green at the end, red at the start.
• Approach Light System (ALS):
o CALVERT: 6 rows of lights spaced 150 m apart.
• Visual Slope Indicators:
o PAPI (Precision Approach Path Indicator): 4 lights (red/white).
o VASIS (Visual Approach Slope Indicator System): Red/white lights
depending on the angle.

2. Flight Mechanics
Static Sustentation
• Archimedes' principle:
o A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical force equal to the weight of
the volume of fluid displaced.
Dynamic Sustentation
• Principle: Reaction to a change in momentum (Bernoulli and Newton's theory).
o Lift is generated by the circulation of air around the wings.
• ILS (Instrument Landing System): Radio guidance for alignment and slope.
• MLS (Microwave Landing System): Alternative to ILS with more flexibility.

CHAPITRE II AIRCRAFT

Introduction
This course addresses the mechanical and dynamic aspects of aircraft, focusing on aircraft
characteristics, aerodynamic forces, landing gear systems, and wing profiles.
Aircraft Classification
Aircraft Characteristics
Aircraft are classified according to several criteria:
• Manufacturer: Examples: Airbus, Boeing, Tupolev, Antonov, Embraer, etc.
• Model: Examples: B747, A380, DC10, etc.
• Gross weight: The total weight of the aircraft.
• Landing gear complex: A system of wheels and supports.
• Gauge wheels: The distance between the wheels.
• Tire pressures: The pressure of the landing gear tires.
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Flight Mechanics
Dynamic Sustentation
Dynamic lift is the force that allows an aircraft to fly. It is generated by propulsion systems and
aerodynamic forces.
Forces at play:
• Propulsion force: Generated by engines.
• Lift force: Generated by the wings.
• Drag force: Opposed to the movement of the aircraft.
Wing Profile
The wing profile is crucial for the generation of lift. It is defined by several geometric elements:
• Leading edge: The front part of the wing.
• Trailing edge: The rear part of the wing.
• Back: The upper surface of the wing.
• Intrados (Belly): Lower surface of the wing.
• Rope: The length between the leading edge and the trailing edge.
• Thickness: The maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces.
• Average line: The equidistant line between the upper and lower surfaces.
• Arrow: The distance between the middle line and the chord.

Landing Gear System

The landing gear is an essential system for take-off, landing and taxiing.
Types of Landing Gear:
• Tri-cycle: Used on most commercial aircraft (e.g. B737, A320).
• Quadricycle landing gear (Quadri-cycle): Used on some heavy aircraft (e.g. DC10,
A340).
• Multi-bogie landing gear (Multi-bogey): Used on very heavy aircraft (e.g. B747,
A380).
Tire Pressures
Tire pressure varies depending on the weight of the aircraft:
• Light aircraft (50-60 tons): Pressure from 0.6 to 0.8 MPa.
• Medium aircraft (100-150 tons): Pressure of 1.0 MPa.
• Heavy aircraft (over 150 tons): Pressure from 1.2 to 1.4 MPa.
Aircraft Loads
Loads and weights are critical parameters for the design of aircraft and airport infrastructure.
Definitions:
• Equipped Aircraft Weight (EAW): The weight of the aircraft structure, including
equipment.
• Operating Empty Weight (OEW): The weight of the aircraft with crew, food, and
travel equipment.
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• Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW): Operational unladen weight plus maximum
payload.
• Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW): Maximum weight during take-off, equal to
MZFW plus the weight of the fuel.
• Maximum Landing Weight (MLW): Maximum allowed landing weight.
• Maximum Ramp Weight (MRW): Maximum weight allowed during ground
operations.
• Maximum Structural Payload (MSP): The maximum payload that the aircraft can
carry.
• Usable Fuel Capacity (UFC): The maximum amount of fuel that the aircraft can carry.
Aerodynamic Resistance
Aerodynamic resistance is the force that opposes the movement of the aircraft in the air. It is
composed of several types of resistance:
Friction Resistance
The frictional resistance is due to the viscosity of the fluid. It is proportional to the density (ρ)
of the fluid and the velocity (v) of the fluid.
Rf is proportional to ρ⋅ v
Pressure Resistance
Pressure resistance is due to the pressure difference between the front and rear of the aircraft.
It is calculated by:
R=RS+Rf
Where RS is the form resistance and Rf is the friction resistance.
Ballistic Resistance
Ballistic resistance occurs when the velocity of the fluid exceeds the speed of sound. It is
proportional to more than twice the speed squared.
R=k⋅ v2
Where k is a proportionality factor dependent on the density of the fluid, the shape of the
body, and the roughness of the surface.
Aerodynamic Moments
The aerodynamic moment is generated by the total aerodynamic force acting on the wing
profile. It is calculated by:
M=F⋅d
Where d is the distance between the aerodynamic center and the leading edge.

Suitable aerodynamic profiles

To minimize aerodynamic resistance, wing profiles should be designed to:
• Reduce frictional resistance: Rounded profile at the front and tapered at the back.
• Reduce Pressure Resistance: Highly tapered profile at the front to cut through sonic
compression waves.
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Wing Control Systems

The wings are equipped with movable surfaces to modify lift and drag:
• Flap: Modifies the airflow at the rear of the wing to increase lift.
• Slat: Extends the leading edge to increase lift.
• Spoiler: Reduces the speed of the aircraft by increasing drag.

CHAPITRE III AIRPORT DESIGN

Introduction
This course covers the fundamentals of airport design, focusing on airport classification, runway
and taxiway design, and associated safety standards.
Airport Classification: Aerodrome Reference Code (ARC)
The Aerodrome Reference Code (ARC) is an alphanumeric system that determines the
geometric characteristics of airport infrastructure. It consists of:
• Number: Runway length required for the reference aircraft (based on take-off distance).
• Letter: Outer main gear wheel span.
Example: An airport classified 4F welcomes aircraft with Ld>1800m, a wingspan >65m, and a
wheel gauge >14m.
Runway Design
2.1 Key Features
• Dimensions:
o Width: Depends on the ARC code (e.g. 45 m for the 3D code).
o Length: Calculated by adjusting the reference length Ld according to:
▪ Altitude: +7% per 300 m above sea level.
▪ Temperature: +1% per °C above the reference temperature.
▪ Slope (slope): +10% per 1% uphill slope (if Ld≥900m).
Adjustment formula:

2.2 Declared distances

• TORA (Take-Off Run Available): Usable length for take-off.
• TODA (Take-Off Distance Available): TORA + length of the clearway.
• ASDA (Accelerate-Stop Distance Available): TORA + stopway.
• LDA (Landing Distance Available): The usable length for landing.
2.3 Slopes
• Longitudinal:
o Code 1-2: Maximum gradient of 2%, variations ≤ 2%.
o Code 3-4: Maximum gradient of 1.25%, variations ≤ 1.5%.
• Transverse:
o Code A-B: ≤ 2%.
o Code C-F: ≤ 1.5%.
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2.4 Security Zones

• Runway Strips:
o Width: 75 m (code 3-4) to 150 m (code F).
o Cleared and Graded Area (CGA): Ensures a flat, obstacle-free surface.
• Runway Safety Zone (RESA):
o Minimum length: 240 m (code 3-4) / 120 m (code 1-2).
o Width: Double the width of the track.

Taxiway Design
3.1 Definitions
• Taxiway: A taxiway connecting the runway to the parking areas (aprons).
• Rapid Exit Taxiway: Allows a quick clearance from the runway after landing.
3.2 Technical Specifications
• Width:
o Code F: 25 m.
o Code A: 7.5 m.
• Slopes:
o Longitudinal: ≤ 1.5% (code C-F) / ≤ 3% (code A-B).
o Transverse: ≤ 1.5% (code C-F) / ≤ 2% (code A-B).

3.3 Turns (Fillets)

Turns must be designed with a minimum radius to accommodate the landing gear of the
critical aeroplane. Widening (fillets) are necessary to prevent the wheels from overflowing.

3.4 Holding Bays

• Location: Runway-taxiway intersections, or strategic sections to avoid conflicts.
• Dimensions: Adapted to the category of the airport (e.g. 25 m wide for code C).
3.5 Shoulders
• Function: Protect engines from debris and provide space for emergency vehicles.
• Width: 60 m (code F) to 25 m (code C).
Visibility and Safety Standards
• RVR (Runway Visual Range): Minimum distance to distinguish runway markings (e.g.
550 m for a Cat I approach).
• Landing Aid Systems:
o ILS (Instrument Landing System): Precise guidance for approaches in low
visibility.
o MLS (Microwave Landing System): Alternative to ILS for modern airports.

Rapid Exit Taxiways (RET) Design

3.1 Definition and Characteristics

Fast taxiways (RET) are taxiways connected to the runway at an acute angle, allowing aircraft
to leave the runway at higher speeds than on conventional exit lanes, reducing runway
occupancy time.
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Technical Requirements:
• Bend Radius:
o 550 m for code 3 or 4 runways.
o 275 m for code 1 or 2 runways.
• Output speed:
o 93 km/h for code 3 or 4 runways.
o 65 km/h for code 1 or 2 runways.

Angle of intersection:
The angle of intersection between the RET and the runway should be between 25° and 45°,
with a preference for 30°.
3.2 Three Segments Method
The three-segment method is used to determine the distance between the runway threshold
and the ETR exit point.
Segments:
1. Segment 1 (S₁): The distance between the runway threshold and the main touchdown
point.
2. Segment 2 (S₂): The distance between touchdown and the stabilized braking
configuration.
3. Segment 3 (S₃): Braking distance up to the rated output speed.

3.3 Design Speeds

• Threshold speed (Vth): 1.3 × stall speed.
• Braking speed (Vₐₐ): Vth−15knots.
• Exit speed (Vₑₓ): 30 knots (code 3-4) / 15 knots (code 1-2).

Runway Safety Zones (Stopway and Clearway)

4.1 Stopway
• Definition: A rectangular area at the end of the runway, designed to stop an aircraft in
the event of a rejected take-off.
• Width: Same as the track.
• Slope: Same as the slope.
• Bearing capacity: Must support the weight of the critical aircraft without structural
damage.

Relationship with Declared Distances:

ASDA=TORA+Stopway
4.2 Clearway
• Definition: A rectangular area beyond the runway, free of obstacles, allowing an aircraft
to continue its initial ascent.
• Width: At least 75 m on each side of the runway centreline.
• Length: Up to the first vertical obstacle, not exceeding 50% of the TORA.

Relationship with Declared Distances:

TODA=TORA+Clearway
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Design of Parking Areas (Aprons) and Posts

5.1 Definition and Typology
• Apron (Apron): An area intended for the parking of aircraft for embarkation,
disembarkation, refuelling and maintenance.
• Types of aprons:
o Passengers: Adjacent to the terminal.
o Freight: Adjacent to the cargo terminal.
o Remote parking: For aircraft on standby or maintenance.
o General Aviation: For private and business flights.

5.2 Technical Specifications

• Slope: ≤ 1% in all directions.
• Minimum separation between aircraft:
o 3.0 m (code A-B).
o 4.5 m (code C).
o 7.5 m (code D-F).

5.3 Entry and Exit Maneuvers

• Taxi-in/Taxi-out: The plane enters and exits under its own power.
• Taxi-in/Push-out: The plane enters under its own power and is pushed out by a tractor.

Terminal Design

6.1 Typology of Terminals

• Single level: All functions (check-in, security screening, boarding) on a single level.
• Level and a half: Partial separation of inflows and outflows.
• Dual level: Complete separation of flows (upper level for departures, lower level for
arrivals).

6.2 Facilities and Services

• Check-in counters: Sized according to traffic.
• Security checks: Walk-through detectors and X-ray scanners.
• Baggage handling systems: Conveyors and sorting areas.

CHAPITRE IV AIRPORT RISK MANAGEMENT.

International Coordination and Regulation

1.1 Key Organizations
• ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization):
o Established in 1944 (Chicago Convention).
o Sets international standards via technical annexes (e.g. Appendix 14 on
aerodromes).
o Objectives: safety, efficiency, environmental protection.
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• IATA (International Air Transport Association):

• National Civil Aviation Authorities (NCAA):
o ENAC (Italy) and CCAA (Cameroon): Regulate infrastructure, certify staff,
control fees.
o FAA (Federal Aviation Administration): Manages air traffic safety, develops
air traffic control systems.

Aeronautical Constraints and Safety

2.1 Boundary Surfaces (Obstacle Limitation Surfaces - OLS)

The theoretical surfaces defined to avoid obstacles:
• Approach Surface: An inclined plane from the runway threshold.
• Take-off Climb Surface (TOCS): Starts 60/30 m after the runway.
• Conical Surface and Transitional Surface—Lateral and vertical boundaries.

Noise and Pollution Management

3.1 Noise Sources

• Take-off: Engine noise (turbojets).
• Landing: Aerodynamic noise (flaps, spoilers).

3.2 Noise Mitigation Strategies

• Integrated Noise Model (FAA) (I.N.M.) Software: Models noise over long periods of
time.
• Corrective Actions:
o Flight path optimization.
o Use of strict take-off/landing profiles (ICAO).
o Limitation of reverse thrust usage.

Airport Capacity

4.1 Runway Capacity

• Theoretical Capacity: Maximum number of movements/hour under ideal conditions.
o Depends on the separation between aircraft
• Practical Capacity: Average delay of 4 minutes.
o Affected by weather, aircraft type, and navigation aids.

4.2 Terminal Capacity

• Bottlenecks: The overall throughput is limited by the slowest element (e.g. security
checks).

Demand Management and Master Plans

5.1 Traffic Forecasts
• Methods: Trend projections, econometric analysis, market research.
• Objective: Anticipate infrastructure needs (e.g. additional runways, terminals).
5.2 Master Plan
• Objectives:
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o Meet growing demand.

o Integrate sustainable solutions (environment, transport).

Airport risk management is based on:

1. International coordination (ICAO, IATA) to harmonize standards.
2. Strict local constraints to avoid obstacles and reduce noise.
3. Rigorous planning (master plans) to adapt the infrastructure to demand.
4. Technological tools (I.N.M. software) to optimize operations.

CHAPITRE V MATERIALS – INTRODUCTION

Pavements are flat structures composed of several layers of materials of different thicknesses, resting
on the sub-grade subgrade. Their main role is to:
• Resist structural failure phenomena.
• Efficiently distribute loads downwards.
• Ensure a smooth and safe running surface.
• Protect the subsoil against atmospheric aggressions.

Structural Strength
The stiffness of a pavement (pavement stiffness) is influenced by the thickness and materials of the
layers. High stiffness leads to:
• Better pressure distribution on the subgrade.
• Higher internal stresses in the pavement structure.

Origin of Road Structures

Historically, Roman roads were composed of several layers:
• Summa crusta : surface course.
• Nucleus : middle layer.
• Rudus and Statumen : foundation layers.

Types of Pavements
A distinction is made between:
1. Flexible pavements:
o Made of asphalt concrete in several layers.
o Good ability to adapt to ground deformations.
o Easier and less expensive to maintain.
2. Rigid pavements:
o Made of concrete slabs.
o More resistant to heavy loads.
o Higher construction and maintenance costs.

Airport Pavements
Airport infrastructure requires specific pavements:
• Runways & Taxiways:
o Use layers of asphalt concrete.
o Temperature-dependent viscoelastic behaviour.
o Easy to build and maintain.
• Runway heads and aprons:
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o Use of rigid concrete slabs.

o Resistance to hydrocarbons (fuel).
o Presence of seals and higher maintenance costs.
Definition and Function of Layers
Each layer plays a specific role:
• Wearing course: absorbs horizontal actions (shear stress) and provides grip.
• Binder course: a mixture that provides good shear strength.
• Base Course: Distributes vertical loads and absorbs bending stresses.
• Foundation—Supports the base layer and distributes loads.
The sub-grade subgrade is the last layer, where the stresses related to the passage of loads remain
significant.
Note : The choice of materials and thicknesses depends on the loads applied, the desired durability and
the climatic conditions.

CHAPITRE VI PRODUCTION OF ASPHALT CONCRETE (AC)

1. Introduction
Asphalt Concrete (AC) is a mixture of aggregates and asphalt binder used for pavement
construction. The production of AC follows several key steps to ensure the quality and
durability of the surface course.

2. Types of Production Facilities

2.1 Batch Facility

• Advantages:
o Suitable for short productions or multiple mixtures.
o Allows precise control of proportions.
2.2 Drum Mix Facility
• Advantages:
o Continuous production, ideal for large volumes.
o Fewer mechanical components than batch installations.

3. Key Components of Facilities

3.1 Cold Feed Bins
• Function: Store and dose the aggregates before they are fed into the dryer drum.
• Control: Belt feeders and adjustable gate openings.
3.2 Dryer Drum
• Types:
o Counter-flow: The aggregates flow against the current of the hot gases (batch
facility).
o Parallel-flow: The aggregates flow in the same direction as the hot gases (drum
facility).
• Temperature: The aggregates are heated to between 160 and 190 °C.
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3.3 Screen Deck System

• Function: Separate hot aggregates by size before storage in hot bins.
• Components: vibrating screens and hot bins.

3.4 Pugmil
• Function: Mix aggregates with bitumen to form CA.
• Mixing time: Approximately 30 seconds.

4. Transport and Storage of CA

4.1 Delivery Trucks
• Insulation: Trucks must be insulated to prevent heat loss.
• Capacity: About 20 tons per truck.
4.2 Storage Silos
• Function: Store the CA before it is transported to the installation site.
• Insulation: Necessary to prevent oxidation (oxidation) and heat loss.

5. Site Preparation
5.1 Tack Coat
• Function: Improve adhesion between layers of CA.
• Material: Bituminous emulsion or hot bitumen.
• Dosage:
o 0.3 kg/m² between two new layers.
o 0.35 kg/m² between an old layer and a new one.
o 0.4 kg/m² on a milled surface.

5.2 Prime Coat

• Function: Seal the granular layers before the installation of AC.
• Material: Slow-setting emulsion.
• Dosage: 1.0 kg/m² residual bitumen.

6. Interface Shear Strength

6.1 Leutner Test (prEN 12697-48)
• Objective: To measure the shear strength between two layers of CA.
• Conditions:
o Temperature: 20 °C.
o Travel speed: 50 mm/min.
o No normal load.
• Gauge: 100 or 150 mm diameter.
1. Dump of AC
The truck must be centered on the paver before it starts operating. For end dump trucks, the
correct procedure is to lift the truck bed slightly and let the AC slide against the tailgate before
releasing it. Once the truck stops, the driver releases the brakes, and the paver "pushes" the
truck forward. Slight braking keeps the truck against the paver.
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2. Placement of AC
• The paver receives the AC from the truck, stores it in the hopper, and uses a conveyor
system to transport the material to the back of the machine, where it is dumped onto
the prepared surface. Lateral augers distribute the material across the width of the
screed.
• The paver deposits the AC at a specific thickness and provides initial compaction. The
final compaction is ensured by the rollers that follow the paver. The paver compacts
the AC to about 85% Gmm (theoretical maximum density).
• Paver components:
o Tractor: Provides power and transports AC from the hopper to the ruler.
o Hopper: Receives the AC from the truck.
o Slat Conveyors: Carry CA from the hopper to the ruler.
o Auges (Augers): Divide the AC in front of the ruler.
3. Compaction of AC
• Compaction reduces the volume of air in the AC, thus increasing its density. The
compacted mixture must have sufficient voids to allow the bitumen to expand and
contract with temperature changes. Voids should be between 3% and 8% to ensure
durability and tightness.
o Important formula:
▪ Voids: If the voids exceed 8%, the life of the pavement is reduced by
approximately 10% for each additional percentage.
4. Factors affecting compaction
• Mixture factors: Surface texture, porosity, aggregate particle shape, and viscosity of
the bituminous mortar.
• Environmental variables: Temperature, wind, and solar flux.
• Site conditions: Texture of the existing surface, thickness of the layer, and stability of
the underlayment.
5. Compaction equipment
• Compaction is usually carried out by a compaction train consisting of two or more
rollers.
o Breakdown roller: Typically a vibratory steel-wheeled roller that compacts the
AC to about 91% Gmmmm.
o Intermediate roller: Often a pneumatic roller that compacts the AC to about
94% of Gmmmm.
o Finish roller: A static steel-wheeled roller that seals and smooths the surface.
6. Pneumatic Tired Rollers
• Pneumatic tire rollers are usually used as intermediate rollers. They exert a kneading
action thanks to their individually mounted tires. Tire pressure is adjusted according
to the stiffness of the AC.
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7. Vibratory Rollers
• Vibratory rollers apply static force (roller weight) and dynamic force (impact) through
an eccentric weight rotating inside the drum. Frequency of vibration and amplitude
are key parameters for efficient compaction.
8. Rolling patterns
• The first pass of the roll must be made on the outer edge (low edge) of the layer, with
an overlap of at least 150 mm. The successive passages must end at different points to
avoid irregularities.
9. Transverse and longitudinal joints
• Transverse joints: Formed at the perpendicular intersection of two layers of CA.
• Longitudinal joints: Formed at the parallel intersection of two layers of CA.
• Poorly constructed joints can lead to moisture ingress and premature failures. Special
techniques, such as the use of cutting wheels and restrained edge devices, are used
to improve the quality of the joints.
10. Temperature and compaction time
• The installation temperature of the AC influences the time available for compaction. For
example, for a thickness of 50 mm and a base/air temperature of 4°C, the cooling time
at 80°C increases from 9 to 16 minutes when the installation temperature increases
from 120°C to 150°C.
11. Final Forms and Explanations
• AC density: The paver compacts AC to about 85% Gmm, the decompacting roller to
91%, and the intermediate roller to 94%.
• Voids in the CA: Voids should be between 3% and 8% to ensure durability. Above 8%,
the service life of the pavement is reduced by 10% for every additional percentage.

CHAPITRE VII SOIL IN ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN

1. General principles of soils
• Soils are multi-phase materials composed of solid particles, water and air.
• Types of soils:
o Coarse-grained soils: Gravel and sand. Mechanical behavior dominated by
particle size interaction (mechanical interlocking).
o Fine-grained soils: Silt and clay. Water-sensitive, with electrochemical
interactions.
2. Particle Size Distribution
• Sieve analysis:
o Sieving: Mechanical separation via sieves (sieves) according to ASTM, CEN ISO,
or UNI standards.
o Gradation curve: % passing as a function of the particle size (log scale).
o Types of particle size:
▪ Well-graded: Wide range of sizes.
▪ Poorly graded: Uniform size.
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▪ Gap-graded: Absence of certain sizes.

3. Water Effect and Atterberg Limits
• Liquidity limit (wL):
o Determined via the Casagrande apparatus (closing of a groove in 25 strokes)
or the penetration cone (fall cone test).
o Formula: wL = 25-shot water content.
• Plastic limit (wP): The water content where a 3 mm roll of soil cracks.
• Plasticity index (PI): PI=wL−wP.
• Classification according to plasticity:
o Low plasticity: PI ≤ 10.
o High plasticity: PI > 10.
4. Soil classification
• AASHTO/UNI 11531-1 System:
o Main groups:
▪ Granular (A-1 to A-3): < 35% passing the 0.075 mm screen.
▪ Clayey/silty (A-4 to A-7): ≥ 35% passing through the sieve 0.075 mm.
▪ Organic (A-8): Not usable as a subgrade subgrade.
o Group Index (GI):
▪ Interpretation: GI = 0 (excellent) to GI > 10 (very poor).
• USCS (Unified Soil Classification System):
o Key letters:
▪ G (gravel), S (sand), M (silt), C (clay), O (organic).
▪ Suffixes: W (well-graded), P (poorly graded), L (low plasticity), H (high
plasticity).
o Examples:
▪ GW: Well-graded gravel.
▪ CL: Clay with low plasticity.
5. Importance for road infrastructure
• Subgrade Course:
o Granular soils (A-1, A-2) are ideal for their stability and drainage.
o Clay soils (A-6, A-7) require stabilization because of their sensitivity to water.
• Compressibility and swelling: Key criteria for fine soils.
• Drainage characteristics: Linked to porosity and particle size.
6. Density and Optimum Water Content
• Compaction: Reduces air voids and improves mechanical interlocking.
• Optimum Water Content: Achieves maximum dry density.
o Compaction curve: Relationship between dry density and water content.
7. Proctor Test (EN 13286-2)
• Objective: To determine the relationship between water content and dry density under
a given compaction energy.
• Procedure: Compaction in layers with a set number of blows.
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8. Bearing Capacity
• California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR, EN 13286-47):
o Principle: Measurement of the penetration resistance of a piston in a
compacted specimen.
o CBR Forms:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒ˊ𝑒 𝑎ˋ 2,5 𝑜𝑢 5 𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝐵𝑅 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑
× 100.
9. Cyclic Load Triaxial Test (EN 13286-7)
• Simulation: Dynamic loads representative of road traffic.
10. Subgrade Preparation
• Subgrade: Must be compacted to maximum density with optimal water content.
• Stabilization:
o Mechanics: Addition of granular materials or geotextiles.
o Chemical:
▪ Lime: Reduces plasticity (plasticity index) and increases strength.
▪ Cement: Creates cementitious bonds.
▪ Bitumen (Bitumen): Improves waterproofing and cohesion.
11. Compaction Techniques
• Types of rollers:
o Vibratory Rollers: Effective for coarse-grained soils.
o Sheepfoot Rollers: Ideal for cohesive soils.
• Maximum Layer Thickness: 250 to 400 mm.
12. In-Situ Tests
• DCP (Dynamic Cone Penetrometer): Measures penetration resistance.
• Deflectometers:
o LFWD (Light Falling-Weight Deflectometer): Evaluates the dynamic modulus.
o SPLT (Static Plate-Load Test): Measures deformation under static load.

CHAPITRE VIII AIRPORT PAVEMENTS

I. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS

1. General definitions
• Aggregate: A generic term for mineral fragments or particles that, together with a
suitable binder, form a coating.
• Asphalt: Bituminous binder used for the production of asphalt concrete.
• Concrete: A cementitious binder used to produce concrete, including Portland
cement concrete for rigid floors.
• Asphalt concrete: A graduated mixture of aggregates and fillers with asphalt, hot-
laid and compacted by rollers.
• Portland cement concrete: A mixture of graduated aggregates with Portland cement
and water, poured and vibrated.
• Pavement structure: A combination of the different layers (asphalt, granular layers,
foundation) used to support and distribute loads to the subsurface (subgrade).
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• Subgrade: Natural or treated soil that forms the foundation on which the pavement
rests.
• Composite pavement: Pavement combining flexible and rigid layers, with or without
a separating granular layer.
• Overlay: An additional layer laid on top of an existing pavement to reinforce the
structure or restore the profile.
II. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
1. Typology of flexible pavements
• Asphalt layers:
o Wearing course
o Binder Layer
o Base Layer (Base Course)
• Granular base course
• Sub-base or Foundation
• Subgrade
2. Design and materials
• Stabilization:
o Particle size, mechanical and binder stabilization methods.
o Binder stabilization uses lime, Portland cement, or asphalt to increase
bearing capacity.
• Cement-bound layers:
o General characteristics: particle size (crushed aggregates, e.g. 0/40), cement
dosage (2.5–3.5%), compressive strength (25–45 daN/cm² at 7 days) and
indirect tensile strength (> 2.5 daN/cm² at 7 days).
• Bitumen-bound layers:
o Characteristics: grain size (0/40), fines content (4–8%), asphalt quantity (3.5–
4.5%).
• Modified bitumen:
o Use of polymers, organic additives, microfibers or crumb rubber to improve
the physical-mechanical and rheological properties of the binder.
3. Special flexible pavements
• Porous asphalts:
o Properties: surface drainage (water drainage), good transverse adhesion,
sound absorption, but require maintenance to maintain porosity.
• High stiffness modulus bituminous mixtures:
o Advantages: increased bearing capacity, reduced permanent deformation
(rutting), improved fatigue life and the possibility of reducing the thickness
of the pavement.
• Antiskid bituminous mixtures:
o Properties: improved grip, effective drainage, rapid pavement opening and
support for an impermeable layer.
• Overlays for surface roughing:
o Objectives: to increase adhesion, extend service life, restore and seal porous
surfaces.
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III. RIGID PAVEMENTS

1. General
• Composition:
o Rigid pavements consist of a wearing course made of specially dimensioned
concrete slabs, resting on a sub-base or foundation layer usually stabilized
with a binder.
o The slabs are delimited by joints , often equipped with load transfer devices.
• Benefits:
o High longevity (approx. 40 years)
o Low maintenance costs (about 1/4 of those of bituminous pavements)
o Good surface characteristics (grip, regularity, night visibility)
• Disadvantages:
o High construction cost (> 20% more than composite pavements)
o Possible problems with surface characteristics (noise)

2. Design Requirements
• Design criteria:
o Stress Level Control
o Limitation of structural damage (cracks) and reduction of loss of grip and
regularity
3. Types of rigid pavements
• Without reinforcement bars:
o A1: Without sharing bars
o A2: With sharing bars
• With reinforcement bars
• With continuous reinforcement bars
• Pre-cast concrete
4. Materials for rigid pavements
• Concrete :
o Must offer good workability , low shrinkage, high mechanical strength,
excellent surface quality and durability.
• Aggregates:
o Must have a suitable particle size (crushed or natural), a continuous gradation
curve (min. 3 sizes), an adequate shape and a low fines content.
o Indicators: Los Angeles Index (LA) < 20–30%, M.D.U. Index < 15–25%, C.L.A.
Index > 0.4–0.45.
• Cement (Cement):
o Use of EMC I (Portland) or EMC II with a resistance > 32.5 MPa (before 28 days
of treatment), a dosage > 150–300 kg/m³ and a link start time > 2 h.
• Water:
o Free of impurities with a water-to-cement ratio (w/c) < 0.45–0.70.
• Additives:
o Accelerators/retarders for cementitious bonding, additives to aerate and
improve frost resistance, plasticizers (0.2–0.3% cement) and superplasticizers
(to achieve a slump > 20 with w/c = 0.4).
• EN 197 (EN 197) standard: Reference for cements.
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5. Characteristics of rigid pavements

• Mechanical properties:
o Bending tensile strength : 35–55 daN/cm² at 28 days
o Compression strength : 250–550 daN/cm² at 28 days
o Fatigue capacity (maximum stress/flexural strength vs. number of load
cycles)
6. Production Process
• Construction phases:
o Location of plants (Plants), storage, dosing of materials, mixing and transport.
o Preparation of the layers: levelling, shaping, laying of an anti-friction layer,
fixed or sliding formwork, installation of reinforcement.
o Concrete batching using a distributor, vibro-compactor, and an oscillating
beam paver.
o Finishing: transversal stripping, shot blasting or nailing, and stripping.
o Cure: insulation and wetting.
o Joint cutting.

7. Joints in rigid pavements

a) Functions of the seals
• Transverse and longitudinal crack control
• Reduction of stress due to shrinkage and hygro-thermal variations
• Guarantee of correct dimensioning, precise execution, collaboration between slabs
and proper maintenance
b) Types of joints
• Transversal joints:
o A1. Transversal contraction joints:
▪ Helps control cracking due to thermal contraction and shrinkage.
o A2. Transversal expansion joints:
▪ Allows expansion and contraction.
▪ For unreinforced roads, the use of divide bars can replace these joints.
o A3. Transversal construction joints:
▪ Used during scheduled or emergency outages.
• Longitudinal joints:
o B1. Longitudinal Contraction Joints: Functions similar to transverse
contraction joints, limited to large areas.
o B2. Longitudinal expansion joints: Similar to transverse expansion joints,
used to a limited extent.
o B3. Longitudinal Construction Joints:
▪ The spacing depends on the dimensions of the slab and is always done
with the use of dividers.
o B4. Longitudinal rotational joints:
▪ Used to control longitudinal cracking, thermal stress distortion, and
differential motion.
8. Special rigid pavements
• Fiber-reinforced concrete:
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o Fiber content of approximately 2% by volume, improves resistance to

cracking, fatigue and flexural stress, but reduces workability and increases
costs.
• Porous concrete:
o Porosity> 10%, offers excellent permeability (drainage), but has limited load
resistance (Rc = 100 daN/cm² at 90 days of cure).
• Pre-cast concrete:
o Allows the reduction of the number of joints and an increase in stress
resistance with a reduced thickness, although its cost is high and its use
limited to straight tracks (elimination of underground networks).
(d) Special phenomena
• Faulting and pumping (Faulting – pumping phenomena):
o Description of the behaviour during the passage of vehicles, involving the
offset of the slab upstream (upstream slab) and downstream (downstream
slab), the accumulation of fines and the return of water.
Noted well:
➢ Flexible pavements, based on asphalt layers, granular layers and a stabilised
underlay, with various materials and stabilisation techniques, as well as special
variants (porous asphalts, high-rigidity mixes, anti-slip and overlays).
➢ Rigid pavements, consisting of concrete slabs laid on a stabilized foundation, whose
design is based on precise mechanical requirements, specific materials (concrete,
aggregates, cement, water, additives), a detailed production process and a
sophisticated joint system (transverse and longitudinal) including the use of partition
bars and iron binding, not to mention special solutions (fiber-reinforced concrete,
porous, prefabricated).
IV. Pavement Properties

General Features
1. Smoothness
o Depends on the quality of construction, joints, and profile deformations.
o Affected by leveling defects, joint problems (faulting), and deformations due to
climatic conditions.
2. Skid Resistance
o Determined by microtexture (roughness of aggregates) and macrotexture
(arrangement of aggregates).
o Improvement techniques: grooving, blasting, surface coating.
3. Rolling Motion
o Rigid pavements generate more noise than flexible pavements.
o Influencing factors: vehicle type, speed, tire condition, infrastructure condition.
4. Maintenance
o Causes of defects: inadequate design, inappropriate materials, climatic or
mechanical stresses.
o Effects: cracks (longitudinal, transverse, alligator), pumping, rutting, loss of
adhesion.
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5. Interventions
o Sealing, partial/total reconstruction of the slabs, surface regeneration.
The "5 S" of Airport Pavements (5 S Pavement)
1. Smoothness
o Avoids irregularities that compromise the safety of manoeuvres (stress on the
wheels, structural damage, vibrations).
2. Skid Resistance
o Influenced by the texture, contaminants (water, rubber), and characteristics of
the tires/aircraft.
3. Structural Integrity
o Intact and homogeneous surface. Defects (cracks, detachments) can damage
the engines.
4. Drainage de Surface (Surface Drainage)
o 1-2% cross slope to drain water. Depressions (rutting) promote hydroplaning.
5. Strength
o Ability to withstand critical aircraft loads, taking into account fatigue and
overload.
Functionality Controls
• Regular measurements: IRI (International Roughness Index), adhesion coefficient,
micro/macrotexture.
• Tools: Grip tester, Skiddometer, Runway friction tester.
Pavement Defects
Common Defects
• Aging: Cracks due to freezing-thawing cycles.
• Raveling: Detachment of aggregates, risk of suction by motors.
• Bleeding: Excess binder reducing adhesion.
• Rutting: Rutting (>4 cm critical) favouring hydroplaning.
• Cracks:
o Alligator cracking (polygonal surfaces), corner cracks (slab angles), edge
cracks (parallel to joints).
o Transversal cracks (thermal origin), longitudinal cracks (repeated loads).
Specific defects
• Faulting: Misalignment of the slabs (>2 cm), caused by water under the slab.
• Concrete slab cracking: Overload, poor construction of the joints.
•
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CHAPITRE IX AIRPORT DESIGN APPLICATION

Introduction
Design Request
• Objective: To design an apron (apron) for Bombardier Q400 aircraft, maximizing the
number of stands (locations) in a space of 482 m x 161 m, compliant with ENAC, ICAO,
and FAA standards.
• Deliverables: Technical report, planimetric/elevation views, pavement design, drainage
systems, lighting, and signage.
Chapter 1: Design Aircraft
1.1. Bombardier Q400
• General features:
o Max speed: 600 km/h | Range: 500 km | Capacity: 70 passengers.
1.4. Landing gear
• Tricycle system with twin wheels.
Chapter 2: Apron Design
2.2. Design Choices
• Standards:
o Minimum clearance: 7.5 m (letter code D, wingspan ≥ 36 m).
o Slopes:
▪ Cross slope: 1% max | Longitudinal: 0%.
▪ Peripheral zone: 2.5% (drainage).
• Taxiway:
o Width: 16 m | Max gradient: 1.5%.
• Layout: 10 parallel stands with a 50 m taxi lane.
Chapter 3: Rigid Pavement of the Apron

3.1. Thickness calculation – FAA method

• Results:
o Foundation thickness: 20 cm.
o Slab thickness: 30 cm.

3.2. ACN/PCN Verification

• ACN (Aircraft Classification Number): Inferred from the tables (Category B, CBR =
9%).
• PCN (Pavement Classification Number):
Chapter 4: Hydraulic Works
• Drainage:
o Transverse slope: 1% for rainwater drainage.
o Collection system: Liner artefacts at the edge of the apron.
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4.2. Rainfall Data Analysis

• Objective: To size the hydraulic structures for the drainage of rainwater on the apron.
• Method: Using the hydraulic invariance method to maintain hydraulic conditions
after construction.
• Precipitation analysis:
o Gumbel's method for calculating rainfall (h) as a function of return periods (Tr).
4.2. Calculation of Water-Drainage System
• Layout:
o Two parallel pipe systems on the long sides of the apron.
o Catch basins at the ends to evacuate water.
4.3. Artefact's Choice
• Pipes:
o Material: Reinforced concrete (C40/50) with steel reinforcement (B450C).
o Minimum depth: 1.5 m | Maximum depth: 5 m.
Chapter 5: Construction Elements
• Lighting: Peripheral bollards that comply with standards.
• Markings: Horizontal/vertical signage for aircraft guidance.
• Anchors: Fastening systems for long-term parking.

5.1. Apron Lighting

• Edge Lights:
o Color: Blue | Max spacing: 60 m.
o Dimmable for optimal visibility.
• Maneuver Lights:
o Color: Yellow | Spacing: 5 m (curves) and 15 m (straight lines).
• Stop Lights:
o Color: Red | Position: Direction of entry of aircraft.

5.2. Apron Markings

• Colors: White and yellow for the main markings, black for the outlines.
• Materials: High-adhesion, rain-resistant paint.
• Specific markings:
o Stands: Red to indicate stopping areas.
o Taxiways: Discontinuous lines for waiting positions.

5.3. Other Construction Details

• Expansion Joints (Contraction Joints):
o Spacing: 6 m in both directions.
o Material: Smooth steel bars (ø25 mm) with sealant.
• Construction Joints:
o Steel bars with improved adhesion (ø 12 mm).
• Lighting pylons:
o Height: 9 m | Material: Galvanized steel.
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o Foundation: Reinforced concrete (250 kg/m²).

CHAPITRE X SPECIAL AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURES

Introduction to Heliports

Definition:
A heliport is a defined area, on land or on a structure, intended for the arrival, departure, and
ground movements of helicopters. It can also include hangar (hangar) and maintenance
(maintenance) activities.

Helipads (helipads):
Obstacle-free areas in the take-off and landing directions .

Critical design helicopter:

The one with the largest dimensions and the maximum take-off weight (MTOM) that the
heliport is designed to accommodate.

Types of heliports
1. Surface-level heliport: Located on the ground or on a structure on the surface of the
water.
2. Elevated heliport: Installed on a structure elevated on land.
3. Helideck: A heliport located on a fixed or floating offshore installation, used for the
exploitation of oil or gas.
4. Shipboard heliport:
o Purpose-built vessel: Designed specifically for helicopter operations.
o Non-purpose-built ship: An area of the ship capable of supporting a helicopter,
but not designed specifically for this task.

Standards and Regulations

• ICAO Annex 14, Volume II (Annex 14, Volume II):
o Prescribes physical characteristics and obstacle limitation surfaces for
heliports.
o Defines the necessary facilities and technical services.

Operational Areas
1. FATO (Final Approach and Take-Off Area): Area defined for the final approach and
take-off.
o Dimensions (dimensions):
▪ For Class 1 Performance helicopters : Overall width ≥ dimension (D)
of the largest helicopter.
▪ For Performance Classes 2 and 3: Area containing a circle with a
diameter ≥ D (or 0.83 D if MTOM ≤ 3175 kg).
2. Clearway Helicopter: Area beyond FATO, required only for Class 1 helicopters.
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o Width: Larger than the width of the safety area.

3. Helicopter Taxiway: A defined path for ground movement or hover taxiing.
o Ground taxiway: 1.5 x undercarriage width (UCW).
o Air taxiway: 2 x overall width of the helicopter.
4. Helicopter Stand: Parking area where ground operations are completed.
Declared distances
1. FATO: Area for final approach and take-off, including the rejected take-off area.
2. TODAH (Take-Off Distance Available): Length of the FATO + clearway.
3. RTODAH (Rejected Take-Off Distance Available): The length of the FATO for a
rejected take-off.
4. LDAH (Landing Distance Available): Length of the FATO + additional area for
landing.
Visual Lighting System
• Edge lights:
o Color: Blue | Maximum spacing: 60 m.
• Maneuver lights:
o Color: Yellow | Spacing: 5 m (curves) and 15 m (straight lines).
• Stop lights:
o Color: Red | Position: Direction of entry of helicopters.
• Floodlights:
o Spacing: 80 m on long sides, 9 m in height.
o Coverage area: Radius of 80-100 m per projector.

CHAPITRE XI AIRPORT PAVEMENT DESIGN (AIRPORT PAVEMENT DESIGN)

1. Introduction
Objective: To design pavements capable of supporting air loads according to:
• Sub-grade: Bearing capacity, drainage.
• Materials: Type (rigid/flexible), concrete strength (CBR).
• Traffic: Aircraft weight (MTOW: Maximum Take-Off Weight), number of take-
offs/landings (annual departures).
2. Design Methods

A. LCN method (1948)

Goal: To assess whether an existing pavement can support an aircraft.
• LCN (Load Classification Number):
o LCN of the aircraft (LCNaircraft) vs LCN of the pavement (LCNpavement).
o Rule: If LCNaircraft < LCNpavement → Operation Allowed.
Key steps:
1. Pavement-curve: Obtained via plate-bearing tests.
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2. Equivalent Load (ESWL): ESWL=Actual Load/Contact Area.

3. LCN: LCN=ESWL/Inflation Pressure
B. FAA Method (1962)
Focus: Design of new pavements.
Principles:
• Soil classification:
o 9 classes (E-1 to E-9) based on particle size analysis and Atterberg limits
(liquid/plastic limits).
• Drainage: Tables linking soil class, frost and foundation type (F for flexible, R for rigid).
Rigid pavement:
• Parameters: Aircraft weight (gross weight), landing gear type (landing gear:
single/tandem/double-tandem).
• Slab thickness: Determined via graphs as a function of load.
Flexible pavement:
• Parameters: Soil CBR index (CBR sub-grade), traffic.
• Total thickness: Calculated using graphs according to the CBR.
C. FAA/ICAO Methodology (1983)
Improvements:
• Recognized by the ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization).
• Incorporates modern criteria (e.g. wide-body aircraft).
Diaper Design:
• Flexible:
o Inputs: CBR, EADDA, aircraft weight.
o Outputs: Total thickness (asphalt + base + foundation).
o Reduction in non-critical areas: 90% of critical thickness.
• Rigid:
o Inputs: Bending strength, KK reaction modulus.
o Outputs: Thickness of the slab.
3. Essential technical points
• Critical zones: Aprons (aprons) → No thickness reduction.
• Layer Stabilization: Required if weight > 100,000 lbs or low CBR.
• Conversion factors (WCF): Standardize train types (e.g., T → S = ×1.3).
• LCN: To check existing pavements.

ACN-PCN Method
1. Introduction
Objective: To assess the compatibility between aircraft and airport pavements via:
• ACN (Aircraft Classification Number): The relative impact of an aircraft on a roadway.
• PCN (Pavement Classification Number): Bearing capacity of the pavement.
Rule:
• If ACN ≤ PCN → Unrestricted Use.
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• If ACN > PCN → Restrictions needed.

2. ACN (Aircraft Classification Number)
Definition
• ACN = 2 × equivalent load of a single wheel standardised at 1.25 MPa, expressed in
thousands of kg.
• Calculation method:
1. Determine the required pavement thickness for the actual landing gear.
2. Calculate the load on a single wheel at 1.25 MPa for the same thickness.→
Simplified via ICAO tables (example: A340-300, A380).
Corrections
• If real pressure (q') ≠ 1.25 MPa (Δ > 0.1 MPa):
o Flexible pavement
o Rigid pavement: Similar correction via specific formula.
3. PCN (Pavement Classification Number)
Code de Classification
• Letters:
o Pavement type: F (flexible) / R (rigid).

o Evaluation method: T (technical study) / U (experience).

4. ACN-PCN Comparison
Use cases
• ACN ≤ PCN: Unrestricted authorization.
• ACN > PCN:
o Flexible:
▪ If ACN ≤ 1.1 × PCN → Limitation to 5% of total annual movements.
▪ If ACN > 1.1 × PCN → Severe restrictions (e.g. 365 movements/year if
ACN = 1.2×PCN).
o Rigid:
▪ If ACN ≤ 1.05 × PCN → Similar limitation.
▪ If ACN > 1.05 × PCN→ Prohibition or technical study.
5. Practical Exercise
Utterance
• PCN: F/B/W/T (CBR = 9%, thickness = 85 cm).
• Aircraft: Airbus A340-300 (MTOW = 270.6 t, pressure = 1.42 MPa).
Calculations
1. ACN:

→ Pressure correction: ACN corrected = 62.

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2. NCP:

3. Verification:
o 62 > 59 → Necessary restrictions.
o Maximum movements allowed:

NB:
• ACN-PCN: Standardised method for harmonising aircraft and pavements.
o ACN depends on weight, tire pressure, and soil.
o PCN integrates pavement type, soil, pressure and evaluation method.
o Restrictions: Applied in proportion to the NCP overrun.