AP Environmental Science Unit 2:

The Living World: Biodiversity

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2.1 Introduction to Biodiversity

 Genetic Diversity
o How much genetic variety exists in a population
 When a population has a higher genetic diversity, it’s more likely to
survive a natural disaster or a shift in environment
 The more traits a population has, the more likely it is that at
least some individuals in a population will have the traits
needed to adapt to new circumstances
 Habitat Diversity
o A higher habitat diversity means that more species will be able to thrive
 Some organisms require large spanses of land in order to gather
enough prey/resources to survive
 Specialist species, or species that require a very specific set of
environmental conditions in order to thrive, are threatened when
habitats are reduced/eliminated
Source: khanacademy.org
 Population bottleneck
o When a population’s size is reduced, leading to a potential loss or change in
genetic variation
 For example, if a natural disaster (such as a fire) were to randomly
eliminate half of a population, then the remaining half might not
possess the same genetic diversity as the original population
 Founder effect
o When a few members of a population leave and start a new colony
 The genetic diversity in this new colony will probably have less
genetic diversity than the original population

Source: socratic.org
 Species diversity
o The measurement of a community’s species richness AND species
evenness
 Species richness
o The number of species in a community/ecosystem
 Species evenness
o How evenly distributed the species are in a community/ecosystem
  If species richness is high while species evenness is low, then
although there might be a high number of species present, those
species won’t be populated/distributed evenly
 In the image above, Communities 1 and 2 have the same
species richness, but Community 1 has a much higher species
evenness; therefore, Community 1 has a higher species
diversity

2.2 Ecosystem Services

 Ecosystem service
o A service or benefit provided to human beings by natural ecosystems
 Ecosystem services are classified into four categories
 Some services can overlap/fit into multiple categories
 Provisioning services
o Products that humans receive from ecosystems
 Examples: firewood, freshwater, food
 Regulating services
o Services that naturally regulate the environment
 Examples: climate, pollination, flood/erosion control
 Cultural services
o Non-material services that humans receive from the environment
 Examples: tourism/recreation, spiritual connection, mental health
 Supporting services
o The “core/base” services that allow the environment to maintain/continue
its other services
 Examples: photosynthesis, soil formation, nutrient cycles

2.3 Island Biogeography

 Specialist species
 o When a colonizing species arrives at a new location, that species will
potentially adapt to the very specific set of resources (food/territory)
available on the island
 Since the species’ adaptations/traits are so niche, the species is
considered a “specialist” species (as opposed to a “generalist”
species, which is adapted to survive in a range of conditions)
 Invasive species
o When a non-native species arrives at an island/habitat and outcompetes the
native species, it is considered “invasive” and can threaten the balance of
the ecosystem
 Invasive species are often generalists because they are able to
immediately respond to many varieties of resources (food/territory)

Source: biointeractive.org
 Equilibrium theory
o Refers to the number of species that an island can support
  This “point” is determined by when the rate of new species
immigrating to the island equals the rate of species becoming extinct
from the island
o When an island is closer from a mainland “source” of immigration, the
island will have a greater number of species
 Having a closer proximity to a biologically diverse mainland means
that organisms have to travel less in order to reach the island
 Therefore, more organisms will be able to make the journey
and immigrate to the island
 Conversely, if an island is too far away from the mainland, then very
few species will make the trip all the way to the island
 Therefore, immigration will be less frequent
o When an island is larger in size, the island will have a greater number of
species
 Many species/organisms require a certain amount of territory for
gathering resources
 When more land is available, more species are able to access enough
land/resources to thrive
 Habitat fragmentation
o When a large area of land is broken up into smaller patches of land,
organisms are forced into limited habitat ranges, and the fragmentation also
hinders population diversity (since organisms are reproducing in smaller
pools)
 Habitat corridors
o As a way to avoid human-made habitat fragmentation, environmental
engineers have constructed “bridges” or “corridors” of greenery in between
habitat patches
  This allows organisms to cross over, therefore giving them a wider
range of usable territory and the ability to reproduce with a more
genetically diverse population

2.4 Ecological Tolerance

 Ecological tolerance
o The range of abiotic conditions that an organism can withstand
 Example: temperature, salinity, sunlight, flow rate
 If an organism is put into an environment with conditions outside of
its range of ecological tolerance, then it will face injury or even
death

Source: bio.libretexts.org
 Zone of stress
o The zone in which the abiotic conditions aren’t favorable for the organism,
but they’re not harsh enough to kill the organism
 Indicator species
o An organism whose presence/behavior signals something about its
environment
  Example: canaries were sometimes brought into coal mines since
canary birds are more sensitive to harmful gases than human beings
 If the canaries started dying off, then the miners knew that
their environment was unsafe
 The canaries acted as an indicator species because they “indicated” a
change in the environment

2.5 Natural Disruptions to Ecosystems

 Natural disasters
o These can disrupt an ecosystem by wiping out large numbers of organisms
 Examples: tornadoes, fires, floods, earthquakes, droughts
 Climate change
o Climate fluctuation can also disrupt ecosystems because changes in
temperature and weather patterns might force organisms to adapt to the
changes or die off
o Although human interference has had an effect on global climate, the
earth’s climate also naturally fluctuates over the course of time
 Migration
o If an environment changes too much, then the species that once populated it
might migrate to a new area in search of more favorable conditions

2.6 Adaptations

 Genetic diversity
o The more genetically diverse a species is, the more likely it is to survive
 Varying traits can appear in a population due to both reproduction in
a varied gene pool as well as DNA mutations
 If a species possesses a variety of traits, and an environmental
change occurs that leaves the species with little to no time to react,
then it’s possible that at least some of the organisms within the
 species will have the traits necessary to survive under the new
conditions

Source: solpass.org
 Natural selection/survival of the fittest
o Organisms with more favorable traits will survive at a higher rate than
those with unfavorable traits
 Since the organisms with favorable adaptations are more likely to
survive, they will reproduce and pass their advantageous traits onto
the next generation
 Over time, favorable traits will become more common in a
population since organisms that lack these traits will die off before
having the chance to reproduce

2.7 Ecological Succession

 Ecological succession
o The process by which a community’s ecological structure changes and
evolves over time
 Ecological succession might happen following a natural disaster
  Ecological succession can be categorized as either primary
succession or secondary succession

Source: britannica.com
 Primary succession
o Ecological succession that starts where there is no soil or vegetation
 Examples: bare rock that is left behind from a glacier’s movement,
lava flows cooling and leaving land/rock without vegetation
 Takes hundreds of years
 Pioneer species
o The species that arrive first in a new environment
 Compose a relatively simple biological community when they first
arrive
 More complex organisms/vegetation might arrive as the ecological
community develops

Source: britannica.com
 Secondary succession
o Ecological succession that starts where soil is already present
 Examples: soil that is left behind after a forest fire, flood, or
landslide
 Can take about 150+ years
o Secondary succession is much faster than primary succession
 Since soil is already present, there is no need to undergo the process
of slowly forming soil