06-Jul-20

EE201 BASIC ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
Presented by

M. Jayachandran
Guest Faculty
Dept. of EEE
PEC, Puducherry

UNIT-1

DC CIRCUITS
1.1 Electrical Circuit Elements
• Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors
• Definition for Voltage, Current, Power & Energy
1.2 Electric circuit laws
• Ohm’s law
• Kirchoff’s Voltage & Current law
1.3 Analysis of simple circuits with DC voltage
• Voltage and Current division in series and parallel circuits
• Star-Delta Conversion
• Node and Mesh method
1.4 Network Theorems
• Thevenin
• Norton
• Superposition

1
 06-Jul-20

1.1 Electrical Circuit Elements

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical

elements.

A combination of various electric elements (Resistor,

Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source) connected
in any manner is called an electrical network.

The element which receives energy (or absorbs

energy) and then either converts it into heat (R) or
stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L) field is
called passive element.
The elements that supply energy to the circuit is
called active element. (Ex: voltage & current
sources, generators, transistor etc. Transformer)
Conduction of current in both directions in an
element with same magnitude is termed as
bilateral element. (ex: Resistance, Inductance,
Capacitance)
Conduction of current in one direction is termed
as unilateral element. (ex: Diode, Transistor)

2
 06-Jul-20

A linear circuit is one whose parameters

do not change with voltage or current.
More specifically, a linear system is one
that satisfies homogeneity and additive
property.
A non-linear circuit is that whose
parameters change with voltage or
current. More specifically, non-linear
circuit does not obey the homogeneity
and additive properties.

Charge is an electrical property of the

atomic particles of which matter consists,
measured in coulombs (C).
Electric current is the time rate of change
of charge in a conductor, measured in
amperes (A).

Current flows from a higher potential to a

lower potential in a resistor.

3
 06-Jul-20

A direct current (dc) is a current that

remains constant with time.

An alternating current (ac) is a current

that varies sinusoidally with time.

Voltage (or potential difference) is the

energy required to move a unit charge
through an element, measured in volts (V).

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,

measured in watts (W).

The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any

electric circuit. For this reason, the algebraic sum of power in
a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero.

Total power supplied to the circuit = Total power absorbed by the elements

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

4
 06-Jul-20

Summary
Electrical quantity Symbol Related equation Units
Charge - Coulomb (C)

Current Coulomb/sec
Ampere (A)

Voltage Joule/Coulomb
Volts (V)

Power Joule/sec
W att (W)

Energy Joule (J)

SI prefixes M ultiplier Prefix Symbol

𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 exa E
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 peta P
𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 tera T
𝟏𝟎𝟗 giga G
𝟏𝟎𝟔 mega M
𝟏𝟎𝟑 kilo k
𝟏𝟎 deca da
𝟏𝟎−𝟑 milli m
𝟏𝟎−𝟔 micro µ
𝟏𝟎−𝟗 nano n
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 pico p
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 femto f
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 atto a

5
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.1
The total charge entering a terminal given by 300t mc. If 30J is given in the form
of light and heat energy, calculate current at t=0.5s, voltage drop and power.
Sol:
Q=300t mc; t=0.5s; W=30J

𝒅𝒒 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑰 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑨
𝒅𝒕 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒅𝒘 𝟑𝟎
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽
𝒅𝒒 𝟑𝟎𝟎× 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝑷 = 𝑽 × 𝑰 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎× 𝟎. 𝟔 = 𝟔𝟎 𝑾

Problem-1.2
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in Fig
Sol:

𝑷𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 × −𝟓 = −𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑾(𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓)

𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟓 = 𝟔𝟎 𝑾(𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓)
𝑷𝟑 = 𝟖 × 𝟔 = 𝟒𝟖 𝑾(𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓)
𝑷𝟒 = 𝟖 × −𝟎. 𝟐𝑰
= 𝟖 × −𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟓 = −𝟖 𝑾(𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓)

100 + 8 = 60 + 48
Total supplied power = Total absorbed power

6
 06-Jul-20

1.2. Electric circuit laws

Ohm’s law

𝑽∝𝑰

A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or

directly proportional) to its input.

Ohm’s law
“The voltage (V) across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current (I) flowing through
the resistor.” 𝑽 ∝ 𝑰
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
The resistance (R) of an element denotes its
ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is 𝑽
𝑹=
measured in 𝛀. 𝑰

𝑽𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 − 𝑽𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower 𝒊=
𝑹
potential in a resistor.
𝟏
Note: The conductance (G) of a resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance: 𝑮 =𝑹

7
 06-Jul-20

A short circuit is a resistor (a perfectly conducting wire) with

zero resistance.
An open circuit is a resistor with infinite resistance.

Nodes, Branches, and Loops

A branch represents a single element

such as a voltage source or a resistor.
(b=5), [a-b, b-c, b-c, b-c, c-a].
A node is the point of connection
between two or more branches.
(n=3), [a,b,c].
A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
(l=3), [a-b-c-a].
A mesh is a loop which does not
contain any other loops within it. 𝒃 =l+n-1

8
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.3
How many branches and
nodes does the circuit in
Fig. have? Identify the
elements that are in series
and in parallel.
Sol:

Kirchoff’s current law

“At any node (junction) in a circuit, the

algebraic sum of currents entering and
leaving a node at any instant of time
must be equal to zero”.

Sum of the entering currents = Sum of the leaving currents

9
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.4
Find current ( 𝒊𝒐 ) and voltage
( 𝒗𝒐 ) in the circuit shown in
Fig.
Sol:
Applying KCL to node a,
𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝒊𝒐 = 𝒊𝒐
𝒊𝒐 = 𝟔𝑨
For the 4𝛀 resistor, Ohm’s law gives,
𝒗𝒐 = 𝟒𝒊𝒐 = 𝟐𝟒𝑽

Kirchoff’s voltage law

“In a closed circuit, the algebraic

sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero”.

Sum of voltage sources = Sum of voltage drops

10
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.5
Find the voltage across
𝟏𝒌𝜴, 𝟑. 𝟑𝒌𝜴 & 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌𝜴 resistors as
the circuit shown in Fig.
Sol:

Applying KVL to the circuit,

𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏𝒌 + 𝑽𝟑.𝟑𝒌 + 𝑽𝟒.𝟕𝒌

𝟓 = 𝑰 𝟏𝒌 + 𝟑. 𝟑𝒌 + 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌 Ohm′s law
⇒𝑰=
𝑽𝟏𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝒎 × 𝟏𝒌 = Ohm′s law
𝑽𝟑 .𝟑𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝒎 × 𝟑. 𝟑𝒌 = Ohm′s law
𝑽𝟒 .𝟕𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝒎 × 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌 = Ohm′s law
KVL 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅

1.3. Analysis of simple circuits with DC voltage

Series Resistors and Voltage Division:
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂ℎ𝑚’𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠,
𝑽𝟏 = 𝒊𝑹𝟏 ; 𝑽𝟐 = 𝒊𝑹𝟐  1
𝐾𝑉𝐿 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝,

𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 2
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1 𝑖𝑛 2,

𝑽 = 𝒊(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 )

𝑽 𝑽
𝒊 = (𝑹 =𝑹 3
𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 ) 𝒆𝒒
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 3 𝑖𝑛 1,

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽 ; 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽
(𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 ) (𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 )

11
 06-Jul-20

Parallel Resistors and Current Division:

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂ℎ𝑚’𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠,
𝑽 = 𝒊𝟏 𝑹𝟏 = 𝒊𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝑽 𝑽
𝒊𝟏 = ; 𝒊𝟐 = 𝑹  1
𝑹𝟏 𝟐

𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑎,
𝒊 = 𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 2
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1 𝑖𝑛 2,

𝑽 𝑽
𝒊= +
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝑽
𝒊 = 𝑽(𝑹 + 𝑹 ) =
𝟏 𝟐 𝑹𝒆𝒒
𝒊𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑽 = 𝒊𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 3
(𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 )
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑛 3 𝑖𝑛 1,

𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏
𝒊𝟏 = 𝒊 ; 𝒊𝟐 =
(𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 ) (𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 )

Problem-1.6
Find the voltage across resistors for the following circuit shown in Figs.,
Sol:

12
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.7
Find the current through resistors for the following circuit shown in Fig.,
Sol:

Problem-1.8 Step:2:

Find (𝐑 𝐞𝐪) for the circuit shown in Fig.

Sol:
Step:1:
𝟏𝛀 + 𝟓𝛀 = 𝟔𝛀

𝟔×𝟒
Step:3: 𝟔𝛀||𝟒𝛀 = = 𝟐. 𝟒𝛀
𝟔+𝟒

𝟔×𝟑
𝟔𝛀||𝟑𝛀 = = 𝟐𝛀
𝟔+𝟑

13
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.9
Find the current flowing
through 𝟏𝒌𝜴, 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌𝜴 & 𝟑. 𝟑𝒌𝜴 resistors
as the circuit shown in Fig.
Sol:

Applying KCL to node a,

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
𝟏𝟓
𝑰 = (𝟑. 𝟑𝒌 × 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌) = Ohm′s law
(𝟏𝒌 + (𝟑. 𝟑𝒌 + 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌)

𝟑. 𝟑𝒌
𝑰𝟏 = × 𝟓. 𝟏𝒎 = current division rule
(𝟑. 𝟑 + 𝟒. 𝟕)𝒌

𝟒. 𝟕𝒌
𝑰𝟐 = × 𝟓. 𝟏𝒎 = current division rule
(𝟑. 𝟑 + 𝟒. 𝟕)𝒌

Star-Delta Network:
Y (or) T Network Δ (or) Π Network

14
 06-Jul-20

Star-Delta / Delta-star Conversion:

Y-Network 𝚫-Network

“Each resistor in the Y network is the “Each resistor in the network is the

product of the resistors in the two sum of all possible products of Y

resistors taken two at a time, divided
adjacent branches, divided by the sum
by the opposite Y resistor”.
of the three resistors”.

𝐑 𝐚 , 𝐑 𝒃 , 𝑹𝒄 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 , 𝑹𝟑 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏,

𝐑 𝐛𝐑 𝐜 𝐑 𝟏𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 + 𝐑 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒃 + 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝟏

𝐑 𝐜𝐑 𝒂 𝐑 𝟏𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 + 𝐑 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝒃 =
𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒃 + 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝟐

𝐑𝐚𝐑𝒃 𝐑 𝟏𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 + 𝐑 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝒄 =
𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒃 + 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝟑

Star-Delta / Delta-star Conversion:

𝑹𝚫 = 𝟑𝑹𝒀
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝒂 = 𝑹𝒃 = 𝑹𝒄

𝑹𝚫
𝑹𝒀 =
𝟑

𝐑 𝐚 , 𝐑 𝒃 , 𝑹𝒄 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏, 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 , 𝑹𝟑 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏,

𝐑 𝐛𝐑 𝐜 𝐑 𝟏𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 + 𝐑 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒃 + 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝟏

𝐑 𝐜𝐑 𝒂 𝐑 𝟏𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 + 𝐑 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒃 + 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝟐

𝐑𝐚𝐑𝒃 𝐑 𝟏𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟐𝐑 𝟑 + 𝐑 𝟑𝐑 𝟏
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝒂 =
𝑹𝒂 + 𝑹𝒃 + 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝟑

15
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.10
Convert the Δ network in Fig. to an equivalent Y network

Problem-1.11
Transform the wye network in Fig. to a delta network.

Problem-1.12
Find equivalent resistance (𝐑 𝐞𝐪) between the terminals ‘a’ & ‘b’ and assume all resistors values are
1Ω. Step-1: Step-2:

Step-3:
Step-4: Step-5:

16
 06-Jul-20

Node voltage analysis of DC resistive circuit:

Steps to Determine Node Voltages:
1. Select a node as the reference node.
Assign voltages (𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 , … . 𝑽𝒏−𝟏 ) to the
remaining nodes. The voltages are
referenced with respect to the reference
node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the nonreference
nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous
equations to obtain the unknown node
voltages.

Problem-1.13
Calculate the node voltages in the
circuit shown in Fig.
Sol:

Step-1
Select a node as the reference node.
Assign voltages (𝑽𝟏 , 𝑽𝟐 , … . 𝑽𝒏−𝟏 ) to the
remaining nodes. The voltages are
referenced with respect to the
reference node.

17
 06-Jul-20

Step-2
Apply KCL to each of the non-reference
nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages.
KCL to Node-1 KCL to Node-2
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝑳
𝟐𝟎 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
= + 𝟏 =
𝟏𝒌 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝟏𝒌 𝟏𝒌 𝟒𝟕𝟎
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + 𝑽 − ( )𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽 −( + )𝑽 = 𝟎
𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝟏𝒌 𝟏𝒌 𝟏 𝟏𝒌 𝟏𝒌 𝟏𝒌 𝟏 𝟏𝒌 𝟒𝟕𝟎 𝟐

Step-3
Solve the resulting simultaneous equations
to obtain the unknown node voltages.

𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎
𝑽𝟏 − 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎

18
 06-Jul-20

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources:

“ is defined as the voltage
rise from the reference node to the
corresponding nonreference node”
Case:1
If a voltage source is connected
between the reference node and a
non-reference node, we simply set
the voltage at the non-reference
node equal to the voltage of the
voltage source.
Note:
•Reference node is ground.
•Non-reference nodes are V1, V2 & V3.

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources:

Case:2
If the voltage source (dependent or
independent) is connected between two
nonreference nodes, the two
nonreference nodes form a generalized
node or supernode; we apply both KCL
and KVL to determine the node
voltages.

A supernode is formed by enclosing a

voltage source connected between two
non-reference nodes and any elements
connected in parallel with it.

19
 06-Jul-20

Mesh current analysis of DC resistive circuit:

Steps to Determine Mesh Current:

1. Assign mesh currents (𝒊𝟏 , 𝒊𝟐 , … . 𝒊𝒏−𝟏 )

to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes.
Use Ohm’s law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous
equations to obtain the mesh
currents.

Problem-1.14
Calculate the mesh currents in
the circuit shown in Fig.
Sol:

Step-1
Assign mesh currents
(𝒊𝟏 , 𝒊𝟐 , … . 𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ) to the n meshes.

20
 06-Jul-20

Step-2
Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use
Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms
of the mesh currents.

KVL to loop-1 KVL to loop-2

𝟏𝒌 𝑰 𝟏 + 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝑰 𝟏 − 𝑰 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝑰 𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 + (𝟏𝒌 + 𝟒𝟕𝟎)𝑰 𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟑. 𝟐𝒌 𝑰 𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝑰 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝑰 𝟏 − 𝟑. 𝟔𝟕𝒌 𝑰 𝟐 = 𝟎

Step-3
Solve the resulting simultaneous equations
to obtain the mesh currents.

𝟑. 𝟐𝒌 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓
𝟐. 𝟐𝒌 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟑. 𝟔𝟕𝒌 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎

21
 06-Jul-20

Mesh Analysis with Current Sources:

“ is defined as a current
through a mesh”
Case:1
When a current source exists only in
one mesh: Consider the circuit in
Fig.,
For example, W e set and
write a mesh equation for the other
mesh in the usual way; that is,.

Mesh Analysis with Current Sources:

Case:2
 When a current source exists between two meshes:
Consider the circuit in Fig (a),
 For example, We create a supermesh by excluding
the current source and any elements connected in
series with it, as shown in Fig(b).
A supermesh results when two meshes have a
current source in common.
Appl ying KCL in Fig. (a),

1
Appl ying KVL to supermesh in Fig. (b),

2
Sol ving equation 1 & 2,

22
 06-Jul-20

1.4. Network Theorems

Superposition Theorem:
“The voltage across (or current through)

an element in a linear circuit is the

algebraic sum of the voltages
across (or currents through) that element
due to each independent source
acting alone”.

Note: Independent sources are voltage or current sources or combination of voltage and current sources

Procedure to find a current (IL) through the load resistance (RL)

as shown in fig, using Superposition theorem:
1. Retain one source at a time in the circuit and
replace all other sources with their internal
resistances.
2. Determine the output (current or voltage) due to the
single source acting alone using Voltage or current
division / mesh or node analysis methods.
3. Retain another source at a time in the circuit and
replace all other sources with their internal
resistances.
4. Determine the output (current or voltage) due to the 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐
single source acting alone using Voltage or current
division / mesh or node analysis methods.
5. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically
all the contributions due to the independent Note:
sources. •Voltage sources should be short-circuited.
•Current sources should be open-circuited.

23
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.15
Find IL in the circuit of Fig. using
superposition.
Sol:

Step-1
Retain 𝑽𝟏 source at a time in the
circuit and replace all other sources
with their internal resistances.

Note:
• Voltage sources should be short-circuited.
• Current sources should be open-circuited.

Step-2
Determine the output current 𝑰𝟏 due
to the 𝑽𝟏 source acting alone.
To calculate current through 1kΩ resistor
The equivalent resistor is calculated as,

𝟒𝟕𝟎 × 𝟏𝒌
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎 + = 𝟓𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟑𝛀
𝟒𝟕𝟎 + 𝟏𝒌
The total current (I) flowing through the circuit as shown in Fig. is,

𝟏𝟐
𝑰= = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝒎𝑨
𝟓𝟑𝟗. 𝟕𝟑
Using current division rule,

𝟒𝟕𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝒎 =
𝟒𝟕𝟎 + 𝟏𝒌

24
 06-Jul-20

Step-3
Retain 𝑽𝟐 source at a time in the
circuit and replace all other sources
with their internal resistances.

Note:
• Voltage sources should be short-circuited.
• Current sources should be open-circuited.

Step-4
Determine the output current 𝑰𝟐 due to
the 𝑽𝟐 source acting alone.
To calculate current through 1kΩ resistor
The equivalent resistor is calculated as,

𝟐𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝒌
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝟒𝟕𝟎 + = 𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝛀
𝟐𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝒌
The total current (I) flowing through the circuit as shown in Fig. is,

𝟏𝟎
𝑰= = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟒𝒎𝑨
𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟑𝟑
Using current division rule,

𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝑰𝟐 = × 𝟏𝟓. 𝟒𝒎 =
𝟐𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝒌

25
 06-Jul-20

Step-5
Find the total contribution by
adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the
independent sources.

The total current (IL) flowing through 𝟏𝒌𝛀 load as shown in Fig. is,
𝑰 𝑳 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 =

Limitations of superposition theorem:

Superposition theorem doesn’t work for power calculation. Because power
calculations involve either the product of voltage and current, the square of
current or the square of the voltage, they are not linear operations.
Superposition theorem can not be applied for non linear circuit (Diodes or
Transistors).

𝑷𝑾𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑷𝑾𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
Then, According to superposition theorem, Total power
consumed by 𝟏𝟐 𝜴
𝑷𝑾 = 𝟐𝟒 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

26
 06-Jul-20

Thevenin’s Theorem:
“A linear two-terminal circuit can
be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage
source (VTh) in series with a
resistor (R Th).”

where,

VTh = Voc  Open circuit voltage at terminals

R Th  Equivalent resistant of network

Procedure to find a current (IL) through the load resistance (RL)

as shown in fig, using Thevenin’s theorem:
1. Disconne ct the load resistance (RL) from the
circuit, as indicated in fig.
2. Calculate the open-circuit voltage (V Th) at the load
terminals using mesh-current (or) node -voltage
method.
3. Redraw the circuit with each practi cal source
replaced by its internal resistance.
4. Calculate the equivalent resistance (R Th) that 𝑽𝒕𝒉
𝑰𝑳 =
would exist between the load terminals. 𝑹𝒕𝒉 +𝑹𝑳
5. Place (RTh) in series with (V Th) to form the 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳 × 𝑹𝑳
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
6. Reconne ct the original load to the Thevenin 𝑷𝑳 = 𝑰𝟐𝑳 × 𝑹𝑳
voltage circuit. The load’s voltage, current and Note in step-3:
•Voltage sources should be short-circuited.
power may be calculated by •Current sources should be open-circuited.

27
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.16
Find the Thevenin equivalent
circuit for the circuit shown in
Fig., at load terminals. Then find
IL
Sol:

Step-1
Disconnect the load
resistance (R L) from the
circuit, as indicated in fig.

Step-2
Calculate the open-circuit voltage (VTh) at
the load terminals using mesh-current (or)
node-voltage method.

Method-1 Method-2
Apply voltage division method in Fig., Applying mesh current in Fig.,

(𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑽 = 𝑰(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 )
𝑽𝒕𝒉 = ×𝑽
(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝟐𝟎 = 𝑰(𝟏𝒌 + 𝟑. 𝟑𝒌 + 𝟐. 𝟕𝒌)

(𝟑. 𝟑𝒌 + 𝟐. 𝟕𝒌) 𝟐𝟎
𝑽𝒕𝒉 = × 𝟐𝟎 𝑰= = 𝟐. 𝟗𝒎𝑨
(𝟑. 𝟑𝒌 + 𝟐. 𝟕𝒌 + 𝟏𝒌) 𝟕𝒌
𝟐𝟎 = 𝑰 𝟏𝒌 + 𝑽𝒕𝒉

28
 06-Jul-20

Step-3
Redraw the circuit with each
practical source replaced by its
internal resistance.

Note:
• Voltage sources should be short-
circuited.
• Current sources should be open-
circuited.

Step-4
Calculate the equivalent
resistance (R Th) that would
exist between the load
terminals.
𝑹𝟏 × (𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 )
𝑹𝒕𝒉 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

𝟏𝒌 × 𝟔𝒌
𝑹𝒕𝒉 = =
𝟑. 𝟑𝒌 + 𝟐. 𝟕𝒌 + 𝟏𝒌

29
 06-Jul-20

Step-5
Place (R Th) in series with (VTh)
to form the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.

Step-6
Reconnect the original load to
the Thevenin voltage circuit.
The load’s voltage, current and
power may be calculated by
𝑽𝒕𝒉
𝑰𝑳 = =
𝑹𝒕𝒉 +𝑹𝑳

𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳 × 𝑹𝑳 =
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑰𝟐𝑳 × 𝑹𝑳 =

30
 06-Jul-20

Norton’s Theorem:
“A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source (IN) in
parallel with a resistor (RN).”

W here,

IN=Isc Short circuit current through the

terminals
RN  Equivalent resistant of network

Procedure to find a current (IL) through the load resistance (RL)

as shown in fig, using Norton’s theorem:
1. Disconne ct the load resistance (RL) from the
circuit, as indicated in fig.
2. Calculate the short-circuit voltage (IN) at the load
terminals using mesh-current (or) node -voltage
method.
3. Redraw the circuit with each practi cal source
replaced by its internal resistance. 𝑹𝑵
4. Calculate the equivalent resistance (RN) that would 𝑰𝑳 = × 𝑰𝑵
𝑹𝒕𝒉 +𝑹𝑳
exist between the load terminals.
5. Place (RN) in parallel with (IN) to form the Norton’s 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳 × 𝑹𝑳
equivalent circuit.
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑰𝟐𝑳 × 𝑹𝑳
6. Reconne ct the original load to the Norton current
circuit. The load’s voltage, current and power may Note in step-3:
•Voltage sources should be short-circuited.
be calculated by •Current sources should be open-circuited.

31
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.17
Find the Norton equivalent
circuit for the circuit shown in
Fig., at load terminals. Then find
IL
Sol:

Step-1
Disconnect the load resistance
(R L) from the circuit, as
indicated in fig.

Step-2
Calculate the short-circuit current (IN ) at
the load terminals using mesh-current
(or) node-voltage method.

Mesh current Method

Loop-1, 𝑽 = 𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐  𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌𝑰𝟏 + 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐  𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝒌𝑰𝟏 + 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎
Loop-2, 𝟎 = 𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏  𝟎 = 𝟖𝒌𝑰𝟐 + 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏  −𝟒. 𝟕𝒌𝑰𝟏 + 𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝒌𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟖𝒎𝑨 ;

32
 06-Jul-20

Step-3
Redraw the circuit with each
practical source replaced by its
internal resistance.

Note:
• Voltage sources should be short-
circuited.
• Current sources should be open-
circuited.

Step-4
Calculate the equivalent
resistance (R N) that would
exist between the load
terminals.
(𝑹𝟏 × 𝑹𝟑 )
𝑹𝑵 = 𝐑 𝟐 +
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟑

(𝟏𝟎𝒌 × 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌)
𝑹𝑵 = 𝟖𝐤 + =
𝟏𝟎𝒌 + 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌

33
 06-Jul-20

Step-5
Place (R N) in parallel with (IN)
to form the Norton’s
equivalent circuit.

Step-6
Reconnect the original load to
the Norton current circuit. The
load’s voltage, current and
power may be calculated by
𝑹𝑵 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝒌
𝑰𝑳 = × 𝑰𝑵 = × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝒎 =
𝑹𝑵 +𝑹𝑳 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝒌+𝟓.𝟔𝒌

𝑽𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳 × 𝑹𝑳=
𝑷𝑳 = 𝑰𝟐𝑳 × 𝑹𝑳 =

34
 06-Jul-20

Source Transformation:
“The process of replacing a voltage source (V s) in series with a
resistor (R) by a current source (I s) in parallel with a resistor R, or
vice versa”.

Relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems

35
 06-Jul-20

Problem-1.18
Using source transformation, determine V0 in the circuit shown in Fig.
Step-1:

Step-2: Step-3: Step-4:

36