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LIGHT-EMR IMAGE-IMPULSE VISION-INFO HUMAN

THE VISUAL PATHWAYS

August, 2021 Dr. Assegid Aga ,MD,MSc, Ophthalmologist

UCM, Beira Dr. Zuneid H. Osman, MD, Internal Medicine Resident
 Objective
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To describe the
process of visual
perception along the
human visual pathway
-Eye to Brain.
 CONTENTS
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 Functions of the Visual System
4 Visual Information Visual Reflexes
 Day and Night vision  Dark-Light Adaptation
 COLOR Vision  PUPILLARY Reflexes
 Binocular (3D) Vision  The Near Reflex
 Contrast and Intensity  Fixation Reflex
 Form and Motion  Vestibulo -ocular Reflex
 Internal biological clock  Corneo-Palpebral Reflex,
 Psychophysical effects  lacrimal reflex
 Etc…  Etc..
NB: Optical Illusions and Visual Effects can be created by manipulating
(deceiving) the visual system e.g. Films
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Part I THE VISUAL PATHWAY

  1.1: Retina
 1.2: Optic Nerve
 1.3: Optic chiasm
 1.4: Optic tract
 1.4: Mid Brain /LGB/Thalamus
 1.6: Optic Radiation
 1.7: Visual (Occipital) Cortex

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 1.1. The Human Retina
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Retina : Photo receptors and

Retinal Pigment Epithelium,

Photo transduction: light energy to

electrical energy, metabolically very
active (as brain):

Starts Visual data processing:

Photo sensation, intensity, COLOR,
form (shape), motion etc

Bandwidth: transfer data @ 8960

kilobits/sec (guinea pig @ 875 kb/s)
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 Considered part of the  Destination

central nervous system:  90% to the Thalamus
derived from diencephalon,
 Pretectum: Pupillary fibers
myelinated, has meningis,
 Midbrain: eye movements
does not regenerate
 Others
 Formed by 1.2 million axons
of the retinal ganglion cells
 transmits image-forming and
non-image-forming
information (retina to brain)
 1.3. The Optic Chiasm
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Fibers from the two optic nerves

merge to form the optic chiasm.
53 % of nerve fibers from the nasal
retina decussate across the chiasm

Each optic tract contains fibers

representing the opposite visual field.
Visual information from the left visual
space is relayed to the right optic tract.
 1.4: The Optic Tract
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From the posterior aspect of the

optic chiasm, continue posteriorly
around the cerebral peduncles

The axons of optic nerve cells

terminate (synapse) primarily in
the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

Contains visual and pupillomotor

fibers, both crossed (nasal) and
uncrossed ( temporal)
1.5: Pre-cortical Visual Processing (Mid Brain)
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A. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (Thalamus):

Fine vision, Motion, Color , Contrast

B. Superior Colliculus:
Coordinates head and
eye movements
C. Hypothalamus: has
melanopsin (circadian
pigment), Biorhythms
D. Pretectum: pupilary
Light Reflex
 1.5b: Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN):
Thalamic processing
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 LGN is part of the Thalamus  Relay information

 All sensory nerves of the body on Movement
synapse in thalamus before  Segregate fibers for
going to the cortex Depth Perception
 Most (90%) optic tract axons  Amplify signals
synapse in the LGN. from macula
 Few branch go off to synapse (cones)
in nuclei of the midbrain: the  Sharpen contrast
superior colliculi and the
pretectal area.
 1.6: The Optic Radiation
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 Three groups of fibers from the LGN extend to the occipital

cortex; passes through the white matter of the temporal and
parietal lobes: vulnerable to strokes (cerebro-vascular accidents)!
1. The superior ( parietal )
fibers = inferior visual
field.

2. The inferior portion (

temporal ) = fibers of
superior visual field.
Forms Meyer's loop.
3. The central portion =
Macular fibers.
 1.7a: Cortical Processing of Vision
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1. Primary visual Cortex (Area 17): Basic dark/bright

and contrast information

2. Visual Association Areas: ( Brdmannn’s Area 18 &

19 ( Prestriate Regions): process visual perception
of form , color and visually guided eye movements,
accommodation and convergence

3. Temporal Lobe, Parietal Cortex and Post central

Gyrus: process identification of Objects and spacial
location
 1.7b: Primary visual cortex (V-1)
(Striate Cortex or Brodmann`s Area 17)
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 3D video clips on visual pathway
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www.youtube.com/watch?v=ni6RjkjdQyk

www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbVdlIc5DPE
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Part II VISUAL FIELD DEFECTS

 2.1.Defects on the Retina: Scotomas
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 Scotoma: area of diminished or

lost sensitivity, surrounded by a
field of normal vision.
 Negative scotoma: isolated
defects due to retinal damage-
light not detected by retina
 Positive Scotoma: dark patches,
lesions lying anterior to the retina-
light does not reach retina
 Causes: Retinal diseases,
Glaucoma, macular degeneration
 2.2 Defects of the optic nerve:
Total or Partial Loss
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 Total Loss of Vision: Complete

destruction of the optic nerve; is
same as losing an eye;
 Usually caused by pre-chiasmal
lesions or trauma
 Partial Loss: Partial damage of the
optic nerve
 scotomas and visual field defects,
in the field of affected eye.
 2.3. Lesions at the
Chiasm
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 Bitemporal Hemianopia:
inputs from the nasal retinas are cut,
result in loss of lose peripheral vision
on both sides due to e.g. pituitary
tumor
 Binasal Hemianopia:
Binasal hemi field defects due to
bilateral lesion lateral to chiasm (e.g.
Aneurysm)
 2.4: Lesions at the Optic Tract:
Contra lateral Hemianopsia
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 2.6: Damages in LGN (Thalamus)
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 Reduces or disrupt the The LGN consists of six layers:

function of the corresponding Layers 1, 4, and 6 correspond to
layer in the affected side information from the contralateral
retina;
Layers 2, 3, and 5 correspond to
 Damage in Parvocellular the information from the
layer: Chromatic vision, high ipsilateral retina
fine vision, slow motion
vision

 Defects in Magnocellular
layer: achromatic vision, low
fine vision, fast motion vision
 2.5.a. Total damage to the Optic Radiation (D):
= Contra lateral Hemianopsia (intact pupil reflex)
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 2.5b. Partial Lesions To Optic Radiation
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Partial damages to part

of Optic Radiation

Results in Quadratic
visual Field deficits
 2.7: Lesions at the Visual Cortex:
Macular Sparing v. field defects
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Part II BINOCULAR VISION

 2.1. Binocular Vision
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 Single Binocular Vision: Achieved when both eyes

view the same image from slightly different angles

 3D Vision: Three - dimensional vision result from

cortical fusion of two dimensional images from
two eyes

 Stereopsis
 Binocular Vision (Fusion)
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 Depth Perception
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 Binocular vision helps the

organism to estimate
distance with accuracy (~
500mt for humans)
 Stereopsis: is a high level
of depth perception
 Monocular Vision
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 Single Eye: If one eye is lost or

has low vision, depth
perception will be reduced or
lost
 the observer will learn to use
monocular cues (cue=marker,
sign), to determine depth
 Normally, this ability is
important in interpreting 2D
images in photography, TV,
illusions etc)
 Monocular cues (crude depth perception)
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 Proximity
(contrast),
 Shadows,

 Perspective,
 Overlap,
 Motion parallax
 Symmetry etc.
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 2.2. Pupillary Reflexes to Light
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DIRECT LIGHT REFLEX:

Pupil constricts to light,
dilates when light is removed.

CONSENSUAL LIGHT REFLEX:

constriction of the contra lateral
pupil, when light is seen by the
fellow eye (due to crossing
connections)
Clinical significance:
• Present: afferent and efferent pathways are normal
• Absence : (in unconscious patient )= damage to the
pretectum area of midbrain
 The Pupillary Pathway

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 The Pupillary Pathway
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Afferent :
 Retina/ optic nerve >> Superior colliculus >>
Pretectal area : Edinger-Westpal nucleus
Efferent:
Parasympathetic: Edinger-Westpal nucleus >> Oculomotor
nerve >> synapse in Ciliary Ganglion >> nasociliary nerve
>> long ciliary nerve >> iris constrictor muscle
Sympathetic: Hypothalamus >> Ciliospinal center >>
synapse in superior cervical ganglion >> sympathetic root
of Ciliary Ganglion >> nasociliary nerve >> long ciliary
nerve >> iris dilator muscle
 Relative Afferent Pupillary Defect

DIRECT
LIGHT
REFLEX:
Absent

CONSENSUAL
LIGHT REFLEX:
Present

Example:
Left optic nerve
or retinal
damage/
disease
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 2.3. NEAR-POINT (ACCOMMODATION) REFLEXES
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When viewing an object close to the face, 3 reflexes occur :

 1. CONVERGENCE: Medial rectus muscles contract to move
both eyes to the midline so the image remains focused on the
fovea; if non-functioning, DIPLOPIA results
 2. ACCOMODATION: Lenses are thickened by contraction of
its cilliary muscles; also maintains a focused image on the fovea
Cilliary muscles are innervated by parasympathetic neurons in
the ciliary ganglion
 3. PUPILLARY CONSTRICTION: Pupils are narrowed as an
AID to regulate the DEPTH of focus Separate from the light reflex
 2.4. VISUAL FIXATION Reflex
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 Four visual subsystems act to fix the

image of an object in the fovea as the
object or the viewer moves
1. Saccadic Eye movement (fast, zigzag,
moving object)
2. Pursuit Eye Movement (fix at slow
moving object, tracking,)
3. Vergence Reflex (near, distant)
4. Vestibulo-ocular reflex ( Head-Eye)

NB: Voluntary movements or involuntary (REM, Nystagmus) ; Extra ocular

muscles of the eye have special cellular structure
 2.5. VESTIBULO-OCULAR Reflex
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 Primitive reflex which aims

to keep the eyes on a target
when the head moves
 Prevents image from moving
away from the fovea
 Pathway from medulla to
midbrain
 Receives inputs from the  SUPERIOR COLLICULUS :
semicircular canals to the Tectospinal reflex: control of
vestibular nuclei (VIII) head & neck
 Participates in eye movement
 Vestibular nuclei reaches CN control by connections with
VI & III (horizontal) and CN IV RF (Reticular Formation)
& III (vertical)
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ILLUSION: HOW
MANY BLACK
DOTS CAN YOU
SEE IN THIS
PICTURE

SUMMARY The Human Visual System

 Summary
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1. The basic tasks of the human visual system

are formation of images, transduction of light into
sensory information and guiding body movements

2. The visual system help the central nervous system to

create three dimensional visual representation
of the world surrounding the human body
 Summary
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3. About 50% of the sensory information is

submitted to the brain by the visual system
4. > 50% of the cranial nerves (II, III, IV, V, VI,
VII) are directly connected to the visual system

4. Disorders in the visual pathway result in

specific visual field defects that help to localize
and diagnose the possible cause of the problem
 Summary: Visual Field deficits
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 Neurologistas

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Neurologists
 Ophthalmologistas

Ophthalmologistas

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