DIT Computer Organization1

Introduction to Computer System

Basic Information

The basic functional units of computer works with electrical signal. If we provide input to the
computer in form of electrical signal then we get the output in form of electrical signal.
Electrical Signal

Analog Digital

Where the analog signals are continuous in nature and digital signals are discrete in nature.
The device that works with continuous signals is known as analog device and the device works
with discrete signals is known as digital device. In present days most of the computers are digital
so we will mainly deal with Digital Computer .

Basically computer works on two levels of signal as High and Low. Where High-level signal
corresponds to 5 Volt or 12 Volt and Low-level signal corresponds to 0 Volt. But at the time of
designing a new computer system or understanding the working principle ,it is always difficult to
write or work with 0V or 5V for that reason we use some logical value,
LOW (L) - will represent 0V and
HIGH (H) - will represent 5V

But computer is used to solve mainly numerical problems so at the place of symbolic
representation we introduced numeric representation.

0 means LOW
1 means HIGH

With the symbol 0 and 1, we used a mathematical system( binary number system).The binary
number system is used to represent the information and manipulation of information in computer.
This information is basically combination of 0s and 1s.

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Where the smallest unit of information is known as Bit (Binary Digit), which is either 0 or 1.
Four bits together is known as Nibble, and Eight bits together is known as Byte.

Computer Organization and Architecture

Computer technology has made incredible improvement in the past half century. In the early part
of computer evolution, there were no stored-program computer, the computational power was
less and on the top of it the size of the computer was a very huge one.

Today, a personal computer has more computational power, more main memory, more disk
storage, smaller in size and it is available in affordable cost.

This rapid rate of improvement has come both from advances in the technology used to build
computers and from innovation in computer design. In this course we will mainly deal with the
innovation in computer design.

The task that the computer designer handles is a complex one: Determine what attributes are
important for a new machine, and then design a machine to maximize performance while staying
within cost constraints.

This task has many aspects, including instruction set design, functional organization, logic
design, and implementation.

While looking for the task for computer design, both the terms computer organization and
computer architecture come into picture.

It is difficult to give precise definition for the terms Computer Organization and Computer
Architecture. But while describing computer system, we come across these terms, and in
literature, computer scientists try to make a distinction between these two terms.

Computer architecture refers to those parameters of a computer system that are visible to a
programmer or those parameters that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program.
Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to
represent different data types, I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing memory.

Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications. Examples of organizational attributes include those hardware details
transparent to the programmer, such as control signals, interfaces between the computer and
peripherals, and the memory technology used.

In this course we will touch upon all those factors and finally come up with the concept how
these attributes contribute to build a complete computer system.

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Basic Computer Model and different units of Computer

The block diagram of a computer mainly described by four basic units likes:

 Central Processor Unit

 Input Unit

 Output Unit

 Memory Unit

CPU

Input Unit CU ALU Output Unit

Memory unit

Basic Unit of a Computer

A. Central Processor Unit (CPU):

Central processor unit consists of two basic blocks:

• Control Unit has a set of instruction and control circuit to control signals.
• The execution unit or data processing unit contains a set of registers for storing data and
an Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) for execution of arithmetic and logical operations.

Note: CPU may have some additional registers for temporary storage of data.

B. Input Unit:

Through input unit data from outside can be supplied to the computer. Program or data is read
into main storage from input device or secondary storage under the control of CPU input
instruction.

Example of input devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Hard disk, Floppy disk, CD-ROM drive etc.

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C. Output Unit:

The output unit can be provided result to the user or it can be stored instorage device permanently
for future use. Output data from main storage go to output device under the control of CPU output
instructions
Example of output devices: Printer, Monitor, Plotter, Hard Disk, Floppy Disk etc.

D. Memory Unit:

Memory unit is used to store the data and program. CPU can work with the information stored in
memory unit. This memory unit is termed as primary memory or main memory module. These
are basically semiconductor memories.

There are two types of semiconductor (primary) memories -

• Volatile Memory : RAM (Random Access Memory).

• Non-Volatile Memory: ROM (Read only Memory), PROM (Programmable ROM)
EPROM (Erasable PROM), EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM).

Secondary Memory: There is another kind of storage device, apart from primary or main
memory, which is known as secondary memory. Secondary memories are non-volatile memory
and it is used for permanent storage of data and program.

Example of secondary memories: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic Tape (These
are magnetic devices), CD-ROM (is optical device), Thumb drive (or pen drive)
(is semiconductor memory)

Digital and Analog Signals:

Signals carry information and are defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space,
or any other independent variable. For example, a sine wave whose amplitude varies with respect
to time or the motion of a particle with respect to space can be considered as signals. A system
can be defined as a physical device that performs an operation on a signal. For example, an
amplifier is used to amplify the input signal amplitude. In this case, the amplifier performs some
operation(s) on the signal, which has the effect of increasing the amplitude of the desired
information-bearing signal.

Signals can be categorized in various ways; for example discrete and continuous time domains.
Discrete-time signals are defined only on a discrete set of times. Continuous-time signals are
often referred to as continuous signals even when the signal functions are not continuous; an
example is a square-wave signal.

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Analog Signal

Intensity

1 0 1 0 1
Digital Signal Time

Basic Working Principle of a Computer:

Before going into the details of working principle of a computer, we will analyze how computers
work with the help of a small hypothetical computer.

In this small computer, we do not consider about Input and Output unit. We will consider only
CPU and memory module. Assume that somehow we have stored the program and data into
main memory. We will see how CPU can perform the job depending on the program stored in
main memory.

Consider the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) of Central Processing Unit:

Consider an ALU which can perform four arithmetic operations and four logical operations
To distinguish between arithmetic and logical operation, we may use a signal line,

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0 - in that signal, represents an arithmetic operation and

1 - in that signal, Represents a logical operation.

In the similar manner, we need another two signal lines to distinguish between four arithmetic
operations.

The different operations and their binary code is as follows:

Arithmetic Logical
000 ADD 100 OR
001 SUB 101 AND
010 MULT 110 NAND
011 DIV 111 NOR

Consider the part of control unit; its task is to generate the appropriate signal at right moment.

There is an instruction decoder in CPU which decodes this information in such a way that
computer can perform the desired task.

The simple model for the decoder may be considered that there is three input lines to the
decoder and correspondingly it generates eight output lines (In decoder with n input there have
2n output). Depending on input combination only one of the output signals will be generated and
it is used to indicate the corresponding operation of ALU.

In our simple model, we use three storage units in CPU,

Two -- for storing the operand and
one -- for storing the results.
These storage units are known as register.

But in computer, we need more storage space for proper functioning of the Computer.

Some of them are inside CPU, which are known as register. Other bigger chunk of storage space
is known as primary memory or main memory. The CPU can work with the information
available in main memory only.

To access the data from memory, we need two special registers

Memory DataRegister (MDR)
Memory Address Register (MAR).

Data and program is stored in main memory. While executing a program, CPU brings instruction
and data from main memory, performs the tasks as per the instruction fetch from the memory.
After completion of operation, CPU stores the result back into the memory.

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Main Memory Organization:

Main memory unit is the storage unit; there are several locations for storing information in the
main memory module. The capacity of a memory module is specified by the number of
memory location and the information stored in each location.

Just like a memory module of capacity 16 X 4 indicates that, there are 16 location in the memory
module and in each location, we can store 4 bit of information.

We have to know how to indicate or point to a specific memory location. This is done by address
of the memory location.

We need two operations to work with memory.

READ This operation is to retrieve the data from memory and bring it
Operation: to CPU register
WRITE This operation is to store the data to a memory location from
Operation: CPU register

We need some mechanism to distinguish these two operations READ and WRITE.

With the help of one signal line, we can differentiate these two operations. If the content of this
signal line is
0, we say that we will do a READ operation; and if it is
1, then it is a WRITE operation.
To transfer the data from CPU to memory module and vice-versa, we need some connection.
This is termed as DATA BUS.

The size of the data bus indicates how many bit we can transfer at a time. Size of data bus is
mainly specified by the data storage capacity of each location of memory module.

We have to resolve the issues how to specify a particular memory location where we want to
store our data or from where we want to retrieve the data.

This can be done by the memory address. Each location can be specified with the help of a
binary address.

If we use 4 signal lines, we have 16 different combinations in these four lines, provided we use
two signal values only (say 0 and 1).

To distinguish 16 locations, we need four signal lines. These signal lines use to identify a
memory location is termed as ADDRESS BUS. Size of address bus depends on the memory size.
For a memory module of capacity of 2n location, we need n address lines, that is, an address bus
of size n.

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We use an address decoder to decode the address that is present in address bus

As for example, consider a memory module of 16 location and each location can store 4 bit of
information
The size of address bus is 4 bit and the size of the data bus is 4 bit
The size of address decoder is 4 X 16.

There is a control signal named R/W.

If R/W = 0, we perform a READ operation and
if R/W = 1, we perform a WRITE operation

If the contents of address bus is 0101 and contents of data bus is 1100 and R/W = 1, then 1100
will be written in location 5.

If the contents of address bus is 1011 and R/W=0, then the contents of location 1011 will be
placed in data bus.

Memory Instruction:

We need some more instruction to work with the computer. Apart from the instruction needed to
perform task inside CPU, we need some more instructions for data transfer from main memory to
CPU and vice versa.
In our hypothetical machine, we use three signal lines to identify a particular instruction. If we
want to include more instruction, we need additional signal lines.

Instruction Code Meaning

1000 LDAI imm Load register A with data that is given in the program
1001 LDAA addr Load register A with data from memory location addr
1010 LDBI imm Load register B with data
1011 LDBA addr Load register B with data from memory location addr
1100 STC addr Store the value of register C in memory location addr
1101 HALT Stop the execution
1110 NOP No operation
1111 NOP No operation

With this additional signal line, we can go upto 16 instructions. When the signal of this new line
is 0, it will indicate the ALU operation. For signal value equal to 1, it will indicate 8 new
instructions. So, we can design 8 new memory access instructions.

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We have added 6 new instructions. Still two codes are unused, which can be used for other
purposes. We show it as NOP means No Operation.

We have seen that for ALU operation, instruction decoder generated the signal for appropriate
ALU operation.

Apart from that we need many more signals for proper functioning of the computer. Therefore,
we need a module, which is known as control unit, and it is a part of CPU. The control unit is
responsible to generate the appropriate signal.

As for example, for LDAI instruction, control unit must generate a signal which enables the
register A to store in data into register A.

One major task is to design the control unit to generate the appropriate signal at appropriate time
for the proper functioning of the computer.

Consider a simple problem to add two numbers and store the result in memory, say we want to
add 7 to 5.

To solve this problem in computer, we have to write a computer program. The program is
machine specific, and it is related to the instruction set of the machine.

For our hypothetical machine, the program is as follows

Instruction Binary HEX Memory Location

LDAI 5 1000 0101 85 (0, 1)
LDBI 7 1010 0111 A7 (2, 3)
ADD 0000 0 (4)
STC 15 1100 1111 CF (5, 6)
HALT 1101 D (7)

Main Memory Organization: Stored Program

The present day digital computers are based on stored-program concept introduced by Von
Neumann. In this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored in separate storage unit
called memories.

Central Processing Unit, the main component of computer can work with the information stored
in storage unit only.

In 1946, Von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a stored-program computer at the
Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton.This computer is referred as the IAS computer.

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The structure of IAS computer

Structure of a first generation computer : IASThe IAS

Basic CPU structure

computer is having three basic units:

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU).

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 The Main Memory Unit.

 The Input/Output Device.

Central Processing Unit:

This is the main unit of computer, which is responsible to perform all the operations. The CPU of
the IAS computer consists of a data processing unit and a program control unit.

The data processing unit contains a high speed registers intended for temporary storage of
instructions, memory addresses and data. The main action specified by instructions is performed
by the arithmetic-logic circuits of the data processing unit.

The control circuits in the program control unit are responsible for fetching instructions,
decoding opcodes, controlling the information movements correctly through the system, and
providing proper control signals for all CPU actions.

Main Memory Unit (Registers) :

It is used for storing programs and data. The memory locations of memory unit is uniquely
specified by the memory address of the location. M(X) is used to indicate the location of the
memory unit M with address X.

1. Accumulator: Stores the results of calculations made by ALU.

2. Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory location of the next instructions to be dealt
with. The PC then passes this next address to Memory Address Register (MAR).
3. Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the memory locations of instructions that need to
be fetched from memory or stored into memory. The address of the memory location that is used
during memory read and memory write operations are stored in the memory register AR.
4. Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from memory or any data that is to
be transferred to, and stored in, memory.
5. Current Instruction Register (CIR): It stores the most recently fetched instructions while it is
waiting to be coded and executed.
6. Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be executed immediately is
placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.

Input Output Device:

Input devices are used to put the information into computer. With the help of input devices we
can store information in memory so that CPU can use it. Program or data is read into main
memory from input device or secondary storage under the control of CPU input instruction.

Output devices are used to output the information from computer. If some results are evaluated
by computer and it is stored in computer, then with the help of output devices, we can present it
to the user. Output data from the main memory go to output device under the control of CPU
output instruction.

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• Buses :Data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another, connecting all major internal
components to the CPU and memory, by the means of Buses. Types:
 Data Bus: It carries data among the memory unit, the I/O devices, and the
processor.
 Address Bus: It carries the address of data (not the actual data) between memory
and processor.
 Control Bus: It carries control commands from the CPU (and status signals from
other devices) in order to control and coordinate all the activities within the
computer.
Von Neumann bottleneck –
Whatever we do to enhance performance, we cannot get away from the fact that instructions can
only be done one at a time and can only be carried out sequentially. Both of these factors hold back
the competence of the CPU. This is commonly referred to as the ‘Von Neumann bottleneck’. We
can provide a Von Neumann processor with more cache, more RAM, or faster components but if
original gains are to be made in CPU performance then an influential inspection needs to take place
of CPU configuration.

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