UNIT 3 PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURES

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Organisational Learning
3.2.1 System Thinking
3.2.2 Team Learning
3.2.3 Shared Vision
3.2.4 Mental Models
3.2.5 Personal Mastery
3.2.6 Strategies for Organisational Learning

3.3 Parallel Learning Structures

3.3.1 Shared Area of Interest
3.3.2 Community
3.3.3 Practice
3.3.4 Features of Parallel Learning Structures
3.3.5 Encouraging Development of Parallel Learning Structures

3.4 Let Us Sum Up

3.5 Unit End Questions
3.6 Suggested Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION
In the present unit, initially we will try to understand the term organisational learning,
which is basic to understanding parallel learning strategies. Further we will discuss the
concept of parallel learning structures and try to understand the significance of these
structures in organisational context. The unit will highlight features of such structures
and also discuss ways of promoting their development in the organisation.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 Define organisational learning;
 Describe characteristic features of organisational learning;
 Explain parallel learning structures;
 Describe the features of parallel learning structures; and
 Analyse the ways of developing parallel learning structures.

3.2 ORGANISATIONAL LEARNING

Learning can take place at individual level, team level or at organisational level.
Though we mainly focus and relate learning to an individual, more and more
organisations are adopting the concept of organisational learning in order to survive
30 in the competitive world.
Organisational learning can be described as the ability of an organisation to develop Parallel Learning
Structures
an understanding and gain insight from experience through experimentation, observation
and analysis and thus make it more efficient and effective in competition to other
organisations.
Organisational learning thus studies models and theories about the way an organisation
learns and adapts. Effective organisational learning entails modifying the procedure
themselves and may be even the assumptions, values, and objectives on which they
were based to not only solve current problems, but to prevent their recurrence in the
future (Coffey et al, 1997).
It not only contributes to resolving organisational issues, but promotes individual
development of knowledge and skills. Organisational learning is also related to
organisational change as it can contribute and is conducive to organisational change.
An organisation in the process of learning may utilise any one of the three learning
styles, viz., (i) single loop learning, (ii) double loop learning and (iii) deuteron
learning.
i) Single loop learning mainly deals with the identification and rectification of errors.
This is the fundamental level of organisational learning where the effectiveness
of rules and policies in the organisation are focused on. One disadvantage of this
style is that, the organisations may focus only on the errors and not on
developmental aspects. This style can be most effective when solving problems
with high level of urgency.
ii) Double loop learning when compared to single loop learning is in-depth. It is
normally used in an organisation when there is a need to focus on norms,
structures and identify the root causes of an error. The use of this learning style
may lead to certain changes that may impact the values, beliefs and strategies
in an organisation.
Double loop learning directly deals with the root cause of the problem thus may
require a long period of time and cannot be utilised for dealing with immediate
problems. Double loop learning is definitely more advantageous to any
organisation compared to single loop learning. However, there is hesitation on
part of the organisations to use it because of its complexity, time consuming
process and also because it involves disclosure of errors and questioning of
values, beliefs and strategies in an organisation.
iii) In deuteron learning, not only there is an in-depth analysis of error and questioning
of values, beliefs and strategies as in double loop learning, but it goes one step
further and also attempts to evaluate and analyse the whole process of learning.
This style thus enhances the learning practice in the organisation.
The above are the three learning styles that might be adopted in an organisation.
However, it is not that only a single style is utilised. A successful organisation will
apply each of these learning styles depending on the demands of the situation.
Organisational learning is based on five core areas, namely, system thinking, team
learning, shared vision, mental models and personal mastery. Of these five areas,
system thinking is the most important. These five core areas also distinguish a learning
organisation from a bureaucratic organisation.

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Assumption, Beliefs and 3.2.1 System Thinking
Values in Organisational
Development System thinking is like looking at the organisation as a whole and then focusing on
the relationship between its varied parts. It helps in working along with the system
rather than against it. In order to develop system thinking, the employees in an
organisation need to participate actively in the varied activities taking place in the
organisation. System thinking lies at the heart of organisational learning because all
the members of the organisation are able to develop an understanding of the whole
rather than parts of the organisation like structure, processes and behaviour.

3.2.2 Team Learning

Various types of team exist in organisations that are crucial to the overall functioning
of the organisation. Thus it can be said that teams are fundamental units of an
organisation and form basic learning units of an organisation.
Team learning occurs when the team members develop a feeling of cohesiveness and
collectively experience productiveness while working on a particular task. It involves
sharing of knowledge and application of this knowledge in collective thinking
environment. For team learning to take place it is extremely important that the team
members are involved in effective team behaviour and team work. Further, effective
interaction between the team members is extremely important for the team learning
to take place and to overcome the barriers that interferes with learning.

3.2.3 Shared Vision

Shared vision means that all the employees in an organisation have common objectives
and goals, and they are collectively committed to achieving them. Shared vision is
extremely important in an organisation as it sets a performance standard against
which each employee can compare his/ her contribution to the organisational goal.
Shared vision also develops a feeling of cohesiveness amongst employees and may
enhance organisational citizenship. However, in the process of developing a shared
vision, it important to take in to consideration, the mental models existing in that
particular organisation. The employees should also be encouraged to express their
personal vision that can form basis of the shared vision. Care must also be taken to
evaluate the shared vision on regular basis.

3.2.4 Mental Models

Mental models determine our perception about the world and they are formed in
order to help us look at the world in a simple manner. In an organisational set up
mental models guide the way in which employees perceive the organisational structures
and its processes. It is thus extremely important for an organisation to focus and be
aware about the mental models of its employees, as mental models may limit the
perception of the employees and stop them from being creative and innovative and
may compel them to perceive things from a single perspective. Thus the existing
mental model in the organisation needs to be identified and challenged if necessary.
Further, a shared mental model may also be developed in an organisation.

3.2.5 Personal Mastery

Personal mastery occurs when an employee is committed to self and professional
development and involved in enhancement of his/ her learning skills and competencies.
An organisation should encourage development of personal mastery amongst its
employees by providing them with training and development programmes, coaching,
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mentoring and other facilities. Personal mastery is relevant at all hierarchal levels in Parallel Learning
Structures
an organisation and every employee should be able to develop it in order to enhance
organisation learning.

3.2.6 Strategies for Organisational Learning

Varied strategies are employed to promote organisational learning. They are as follows:
i) Action learning: It is process carried out by a group of people with different
levels of skills and experience to analyse a real problem and develop an action
plan. Learning here takes place by actually working on the problem or carrying
out the problem related work activity. The group also supervises the implementation
of the action plan and may make changes throughout the implementation process.
This strategy is mainly used to deal with complex problems, to identify root
cause of the problem and derive a suitable solution and to develop new strategic
plans and increase developmental opportunities.
ii) Cross-functional teams: It is composed of people with varied levels of skills
and experience who are brought together to accomplish a task.
Cross functional teams help deal with an impending problem in organisations
referred to as ‘functional silos problem’, that occurs when the employees in an
organisation focus only on the matters concerning their department or function
and interact minimally with other departments or units in the organisation. This
leads to effective functioning of a single department but not of the organisation
as a whole as there is no much communication and coordination between the
difference departments and units of the organisation.
With the help of cross functional teams, employees from different departments
or units come together, interact, discuss and share their point of view with
regard to a particular issue or problem. This not only provides with a number
of alternatives for dealing with a single issue but also enhances organisational
learning as the employees with varied skills, knowledge and expertise are involved
in sharing and learning from each other. They may also use action learning as
one of their strategies.
iii) Work-outs: These are meetings of employees representing all levels and functions
of the organisation or unit, except management, to identify ways the organisation
can work together more efficiently and effectively. Work outs can be effectively
used to facilitate organisational change and to ensure active participation of all
employees in change process, to develop creative and practical strategies of
dealing with varied problems in an organisation. It can also be used to redesign
work practices and processes.
iv) Groupware: It is technology used to facilitate a group’s communication, problem-
solving, and decision-making processes. The group members here may come
from different geographical locations. It is extremely useful as it makes
communication effective and fast thus accelerating the problem solving a and
decision making process.
v) Benchmarking: It is a process through which the performance, best practices
and achievements of other organisations are compared with one’s own
organisation. It can be mainly used to identify the areas in an organisation where
improvements can be carried out. It also helps an organisation learn from the
performance and achievements of other organisations.
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Assumption, Beliefs and vi) Parallel learning structures: Also known as communities of practice, parallel
Values in Organisational
Development
learning structures, promotes innovation and change in large bureaucratic
organisations while retaining the advantages of bureaucratic design. These
structures are also effective in bringing about organisational change.
All the above strategies are similar as they promote organisational learning. They
differ however in their processes and practices.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Describe the concept of organisational learning.
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2) Explain the any two core areas of organisational learning.
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3) Discuss action learning and work-outs as strategies of organisational learning.
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3.3 PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURES

Parallel Learning Structures may be a form of Knowledge Management. Knowledge
Management involves capturing the organisation’s collective expertise wherever it
resides (in databases, on paper, or in people’s heads) and distributing it to the people
who need it in time. They promote innovation and change in large bureaucratic
organisations while retaining the advantages of bureaucratic design. It is also referred
to as communities of practice.
Though recently coined the practice has been around for since a very long time. It
is widely used in various organisations in order to promote learning and development
because knowledge is viewed as a critical asset that requires suitable management.
Parallel learning strategies focus on people and on the social structures that enable
them to learn with and from each other.
The concept of Parallel Learning Structures was first introduced by Dale and Zand
in 1974 under the label Collateral Organisations. They described it as a supplemental
organisations existing with usual formal organisations, which are mainly useful to deal
with structural problems that the formal organisation is unable to deal with.
These structures are modes of learning how to change the structure and leading the
34 whole change process. It can also be described as a structure or a coordination of
employees that emerges or is created parallel to the formal structure of the organisation, Parallel Learning
Structures
which can be beneficial in promoting organisational learning, encouraging innovation
and creativity and their implementation amongst the employees.
Parallel Learning Structures consists of a steering committee and number of working
groups that study changes that need to be made, make suggestions for improvement
and monitor the change process. The steering committee might also be supported by
idea or action groups.
There are three important elements of parallel learning structures namely, shared area
of interest, community and practice.

3.3.1 Shared Area of Interest

The members of the group involved in parallel learning structure necessarily have a
shared area of interest and the members are committed to this interest. This area
of interest can be a problem, an issue requiring decision making. The group members
have collective competence in dealing with the shared area of interest and they learn
from each other in the process.

3.3.2 Community
The members of the group engage in activities and sharing of knowledge and
information in the process of dealing with shared area of interest. It might not be
necessary for the members to interact on daily basis. An interpersonal relationship
develops between the members and they involve in give and take of ideas and
information. They interact and learn together as one community.

3.3.3 Practice
The group members share information and ideas about the issue or area of interest
and are able to identify certain solutions. They develop a shared gamut of resources,
experiences, stories, tools, and ways of addressing recurring problems that can also
be referred as shared practice. This may take time and sustained interaction.
The parallel learning strategies are a combination of the above three elements. These
structures are valuable to both individuals and organisations. The individual members
greatly benefit from these structures especially when they come across a particular
problem and need some kind of assistance dealing with it. In such a situation they
have an easy assess to expertise and help from other members. Thus they are able
to deal effectively with the problem within a short period of time.
The individuals also benefit from the sharing of knowledge and may develop expertise
in this process. Overall the individuals in parallel learning structures are found to be
highly motivated towards learning and self development. This also has a positive
impact on their performance and productivity in the organisation.
At organisational level, such structures are extremely significant not only because it
leads to individual development of the employees in the organisation, but also because
it leads to overall development of the organisation and achievement of its goals.
Parallel learning structures are useful when the organisation needs the employees to
be creative and innovative in their approach to work, promote the give and take of
knowledge and information amongst the employees in the organisation and to enhance
and utilise the collective expertise of the organisation.
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Assumption, Beliefs and An organisational culture with continuous learning is created and developed with the
Values in Organisational
Development
help of such structures. The younger and newer employees in the organisation also
benefit through sharing with certain senior employees in the organisation and able to
adjust to the new situation in better manner. The members develop a sense of identity
and become more participative and empowered.
Parallel learning structures can be compared with two other groups commonly found
in organisational set up, namely, interest groups and project teams. Parallel learning
structures are similar at the same time different from these two groups in various
ways.
An interest group is a group of employees taking interest and working on an issue
or a problem and a project team is a team constituted to achieve a particular goal.
The similarities between these three types of groups are that they are face to face
or virtual, in either case there is a continuous and consistent interaction taking place
between the members.
With regard to the differences, the goal of parallel learning structures and interest
groups is knowledge sharing and knowledge creation where as project teams mainly
deal with tasks and projects. Parallel learning structures and interest groups have a
culture of learning, are spontaneous, voluntary, informal and may have short or long
lifespan, where as project teams have a culture of action, are intentional, is formal
in terms of its administration and is constituted for a limited period of time.
The structure of parallel learning structures is homogeneous, on the other hand the
interest groups and project teams have a heterogeneous structure. With regard to
membership, parallel learning structures have core and voluntary members, interest
groups have an open membership, where as project teams have membership as a
result of assignment. The parallel learning structures focus on same topic, problems
and interests and this is the main reason that the structures emerge. Interest groups
focus on mixed topics, different problems but same interest and project teams focus
on deliverables.
Thus it can be noticed that though the three groups do have lots of similarities, they
do differ mainly in terms of their focus.

3.3.4 Features of Parallel Learning Structures

Though parallel learning structures may vary from organisation to organisation, they
do possess certain common features. These features are discussed as follows:
i) Sharing of Knowledge: One of the main features of parallel learning structures
is sharing of knowledge and information amongst the members of its groups.
The knowledge is shared through discussions, interactions and participation.
This kind of sharing helps the members become more aware of the issues in an
organisation and also help them come up with effective solutions.
ii) Spontaneous: Most parallel learning structures emerge spontaneously without
any efforts on behalf of the organisation, as the members get together voluntarily.
It is however beneficial for organisations to promote growth of such structures
for successful sharing of knowledge and effective resolution of certain issues.
iii) Common Objective: Most commonly parallel learning structures emerge as a
result of a group of people with common objective or interest or shared vision
coming together. These people in an informal set up start sharing knowledge
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with regard to their common concern. These individuals may also have a common
 set of values and beliefs. Though the group members might not work together Parallel Learning
Structures
or meet regularly there is a consistent sharing of knowledge that takes place
between them. The members may also share equal passion and commitment
towards the common issue which enhances the overall functioning of the structure.
The group members may interact with each other either face to face or virtually.
Technological advancement can facilitate development of such structures and
enhance their overall functioning.
iv) Informal nature: As the emergence of these structures is spontaneous, the
groups are informal in nature thus creating a conducive environment for interaction
and give and take of knowledge. These informal networks in an organisation
facilitate faster and better accomplishments of tasks and effective problem solving
and decision making. These informal networks may later be formally incorporated
into the organisational structure.
v) Formal guidance: Though these structures emerge spontaneously and are
informal in natures. The overall functioning of these structures can be enhanced
if they receive formal guidance from the management and the organisation. It is
not only important for the organisation to formalize certain structures that greatly
contribute to the resolution of issues and overall development of the organisation,
but also to provide guidance and direction for the structures and its members
to work.
vi) Size of the structure: The size of different structures will vary depending on
the shared issue. The size can range from few members to more than hundred
members. The size will also determine the activities and practices of structures.
vii) Lifespan: The life span of the structure will again vary depending on the
common objective, activities and practices of the structures. Thus the lifespan
may be short or long. The lifespan will also depend on the trust and support
amongst the members and whether the structure is informal or formalised.
viii) Leader: A leader of a particular structure plays an extremely significant role in
the functioning of the structure. The leader serves as a bridge between the
structure and organisation besides ensuring smooth sharing of knowledge and
focus on the shared objective. The leader may be one of the most respected
and influential members of the structure.

3.3.5 Encouraging Development of Parallel Learning

Structures
The organisations need to be aware and identify the informal interactions that naturally
occur amongst the employees, as it might not be possible for an organisation to
initiate a particular structure. But they can definitely create conducive environment for
such structures to develop and flourish in the organisation.
The organisations should also develop an understanding of what a parallel learning
structure is. They need to understand that these structures are informal and spontaneous
in nature and may exist across department and hierarchies and boundaries in same
organisation.
It is also important that these informal structures are identified by the organisation and
provided with suitable guidance, direction and environment. But it should also be
ensured that there is no interference on behalf of the organisation in the overall
functioning of these structures.
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Assumption, Beliefs and Organisations need to promote trust, open communication, mutual understanding and
Values in Organisational
Development
support to foster successful development of such communities. An interaction format
may also be developed by the organisation and adequate time should be provided
for social interaction between the employees.
The organisations need to distinguish between sharing of information and sharing of
knowledge. Sharing of information via emails, notices, minutes of meetings and other
modes is not at same level as sharing of knowledge which occurs at a deeper level
where the insights and analysis of any information is shared.
The organisations may also promote technological advancements in order to enhance
development and functioning of parallel learning structures.
The organisation may offer incentives and rewards for the contributions of parallel
learning structures. This will encourage further growth of such structures and emergence
of new ones. The basis of such rewards can be innovation, creativity or spontaneity.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Define and describe parallel learning structures.
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2) Discuss various elements of parallel learning structures.
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3) Explain any three features of parallel learning structures.
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4) How do you encourage development of parallel learning structures?
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3.4 LET US SUM UP

Parallel learning structures are everywhere, in schools, universities, in sports, at work
etc. They are about people and are of great benefit to its members and the organisation.
38 They can be described as groups of people who share a common interest and
concern. They enhance the sharing of knowledge and information and also provide Parallel Learning
Structures
quick solutions to complex problems. It is thus extremely important for an organisation
to identify the parallel learning structures within its environment as it can contribute
greatly to the overall development of the organisation.. But it is important to focus
on these structures and guide their development without too much of interference on
part of the organisation and management. Their presence in an organisation enhances
organisational learning and change and they also contribute to the knowledge
management process in an organisation.

3.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain the concept of organisational learning and its core areas.
2) Describe various strategies of organisational learning.
3) Describe parallel learning structures and highlight its features.
4) Discuss how development of parallel learning structures can be encouraged in
an organisation.

3.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

Al-Hawamdeh, Suliman.( 2003). Knowledge Management. Oxford. Chandos
Publishing Limited.
Coffey, R. R., Cook, C.W., & Hunsaker, P.L. (1997). Management and
Organisational Behaviour, 2nd Ed. New Delhi. McGraw- Hill Companies.
French, W.L., Bell, C. H., & Vohra, V. (2006) Organisational Development. 6th
Ed. New Delhi. Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

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