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BIOMECHANICS
Principles and Practices
 BIOMECHANICS
Principles and Practices

Edited by
Donald R. Peterson
Professor of Engineering
Dean of the College of Science, Technology, Engineering,
Mathematics, and Nursing
Texas A&M University – Texarkana
Texarkana, Texas, U.S.A.

Joseph D. Bronzino
Founder and President
Biomedical Engineering Alliance and Consortium (BEACON)
Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20140922

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-7099-0 (eBook - PDF)

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 Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................. vii
Editors.............................................................................................................................................. ix
Contributors................................................................................................................................... xi

1 Mechanics of Hard Tissue . . .............................................................................. 1-1

J. Lawrence Katz, Anil Misra, Orestes Marangos, Qiang Ye, and Paulette Spencer
2 Musculoskeletal Soft-Tissue Mechanics......................................................... 2-1
Richard L. Lieber, Samuel R. Ward, and Thomas J. Burkholder
3 Joint-Articulating Surface Motion.. ................................................................ 3-1
Kenton R. Kaufman and Kai-Nan An
4 Joint Lubrication............................................................................................. 4-1
Michael J. Furey
5 Analysis of Gait............................................................................................... 5-1
Roy B. Davis III, Sylvia Õunpuu, and Peter A. DeLuca
6 Mechanics of Head/Neck................................................................................ 6-1
Albert I. King and David C. Viano
7 Biomechanics of Chest and Abdomen Impact................................................ 7-1
David C. Viano and Albert I. King
8 Cardiac Biomechanics. . ................................................................................... 8-1
Andrew D. McCulloch and Roy C. P. Kerckhoffs
9 Heart Valve Dynamics.................................................................................... 9-1
Choon Hwai Yap, Erin Spinner, Muralidhar Padala, and Ajit P. Yoganathan
10 Arterial Macrocirculatory Hemodynamics. . ................................................. 10-1
Baruch B. Lieber
11 Mechanics of Blood Vessels........................................................................... 11-1
Thomas R. Canfield and Philip B. Dobrin
12 The Venous System.. ....................................................................................... 12-1
Artin A. Shoukas and Carl F. Rothe

v
vi Contents

13 The Microcirculation Physiome.................................................................... 13-1

Aleksander S. Popel and Roland N. Pittman
14 Mechanics and Deformability of Hematocytes............................................. 14-1
Richard E. Waugh and Robert M. Hochmuth
15 Mechanics of Tissue/Lymphatic Transport................................................... 15-1
Geert W. Schmid-Schönbein and Alan R. Hargens
16 Modeling in Cellular Biomechanics.............................................................. 16-1
Alexander A. Spector and Roger Tran-Son-Tay
17 Cochlear Mechanics....................................................................................... 17-1
Charles R. Steele and Sunil Puria
18 Inner Ear Hair Cell Bundle Mechanics......................................................... 18-1
Jong-Hoon Nam and Wally Grant
19 Exercise Physiology........................................................................................ 19-1
Cathryn R. Dooly and Arthur T. Johnson
20 Factors Affecting Mechanical Work in Humans.......................................... 20-1
Ben F. Hurley and Arthur T. Johnson
 Preface

Biomechanics is deeply rooted throughout scientific history and has been influenced by the research
work of early mathematicians, engineers, physicists, biologists, and physicians. Not one of these disci-
plines can claim the sole responsibility for maturing biomechanics to its current state; rather, it has been
a conglomeration and integration of these disciplines, involving the application of mathematics, physi-
cal principles, and engineering methodologies that have been responsible for its advancement. Several
examinations exist that offer a historical perspective on biomechanics in dedicated chapters within a
variety of biomechanics textbooks. For this reason, a historical perspective is not presented within this
brief introduction, and it is left to the reader to discover the material within one of these textbooks. As
an example, Fung (1993) provides a reasonably detailed synopsis of those who were influential to the
progress of biomechanical understanding. A review of this material and similar material from other
authors commonly shows that biomechanics has occupied the thoughts of some of the most conscien-
tious minds involved in a variety of the sciences.
The study of biomechanics, or biological mechanics, employs the principles of mechanics, which is
a branch of the physical sciences that investigates the effects of energy and forces on matter or material
systems. Biomechanics often embraces a broad range of subject matter that may include aspects of clas-
sical mechanics, material science, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and thermodynamics in an attempt to
model and predict the mechanical behaviors of living systems.
The contemporary approach to solving problems in biomechanics typically follows a sequence of
fundamental steps that are commonly defined as observation, experimentation, theorization, valida-
tion, and application. These steps are the basis of the engineering methodologies, and their significance
is emphasized within a formal education of the engineering sciences, especially biomedical engineer-
ing. Each step is considered to be equally important, and an iterative relationship between steps, with
mathematics serving as the common link, is often necessary to converge on a practical understanding
of the system in question. An engineering education that ignores these interrelated fundamentals may
produce engineers who are ignorant of the ways in which real-world phenomena differ from mathemati-
cal models. Since most biomechanical systems are inherently complex and cannot be adequately defined
using only theory and mathematics, biomechanics should be considered as a discipline whose progress
relies heavily on research and the careful implementation of this approach. When a precise solution is
not obtainable, utilizing this approach will assist in identifying critical physical phenomena and obtain-
ing approximate solutions that may provide a deeper understanding as well as improvements to the
investigative strategy. Not surprisingly, the need to identify critical phenomena and obtain approximate
solutions seems to be more significant in biomedical engineering than in any other engineering disci-
pline, which is primarily due to the complex biological processes involved.
Applications of biomechanics have traditionally focused on modeling the system-level aspects of the
human body, such as the musculoskeletal system, the respiratory system, and the cardiovascular and car-
diopulmonary systems. Technologically, the most progress has been made on system-level device devel-
opment and implementation, with obvious implications on athletic performance, work–environment

vii
viii Preface

interaction, clinical rehabilitation, orthotics, prosthetics, and orthopedic surgery. However, more recent
biomechanics initiatives are now focusing on the mechanical behaviors of the biological subsystems,
such as tissues, cells, and molecules, to relate subsystem functions across all levels by showing how
mechanical function is closely associated with certain cellular and molecular processes. These initiatives
have a direct impact on the development of biological nano- and microtechnologies involving polymer
dynamics, biomembranes, and molecular motors. The integration of system and subsystem models will
enhance our overall understanding of human function and performance and advance the principles of
biomechanics. Even still, our modern understanding about certain biomechanical processes is limited,
but through ongoing biomechanics research, new information that influences the way we think about
biomechanics is generated and important applications that are essential to the betterment of human
existence are discovered. As a result, our limitations are reduced and our understanding becomes more
refined. Recent advances in biomechanics can also be attributed to advances in experimental methods
and instrumentation, such as computational and imaging capabilities, which are also subject to constant
progress. Therefore, the need to revise and add to the current selections presented within this section
becomes obvious, ensuring the presentation of modern viewpoints and developments. The fourth edi-
tion of this section presents a total of 20 chapters, 15 of which have been substantially updated and
revised to meet this criterion. These 20 selections present material from respected scientists with diverse
backgrounds in biomechanics research and application, and the presentation of the chapters has been
organized in an attempt to present the material in a systematic manner. The first group of chapters is
related to musculoskeletal mechanics and includes hard- and soft-tissue mechanics, joint mechanics,
and applications related to human function. The next group of chapters covers several aspects of bio-
fluid mechanics and includes a wide range of circulatory dynamics, such as blood vessel and blood cell
mechanics, and transport. It is followed by cellular mechanics, which introduces current methods and
strategies for modeling cellular mechanics. The next group consists of two chapters introducing the
mechanical functions and significance of the human ear, including a new chapter on inner ear hair cell
mechanics. Finally, the remaining two chapters introduce performance characteristics of the human
body system during exercise and exertion.
It is the overall intention of this section to serve as a reference to the skilled professional as well as an
introduction to the novice or student of biomechanics. Throughout all the editions of the biomechan-
ics section, an attempt was made to incorporate material that covers a bulk of the biomechanics field;
however, as biomechanics continues to grow, some topics may be inadvertently omitted, causing a dis-
proportionate presentation of the material. Suggestions and comments from readers are welcomed on
subject matter that may be considered for future editions.

Donald R. Peterson

Reference
Fung, Y.C. 1993. Biomechanics: Mechanical Properties of Living Tissues. 2nd ed. New York, Springer-Verlag.
 Editors

Donald R. Peterson is a professor of engineering and the dean of the College of Science, Technology,
Engineering, Mathematics, and Nursing at Texas A&M University in Texarkana, Texas, and holds a
joint appointment in the Department of Biomedical Engineering (BME) at Texas A&M University
in College Station, Texas. He was recently an associate professor of medicine and the director of the
Biodynamics Laboratory in the School of Medicine at the University of Connecticut (UConn) and
served as chair of the BME Program in the School of Engineering at UConn as well as the director of the
BME Graduate and Undergraduate Programs. Dr. Peterson earned a BS in aerospace engineering and
a BS in biomechanical engineering from Worcester Polytechnic Institute, in Worcester, Massachusetts,
in 1992, an MS in mechanical engineering from the UConn, in Storrs, Connecticut, in 1995, and a PhD
in biomedical engineering from UConn in 1999. He has 17 years of experience in BME education and
has offered graduate-level and undergraduate-level courses in the areas of biomechanics, biodynamics,
biofluid mechanics, BME communication, BME senior design, and ergonomics, and has taught sub-
jects such as gross anatomy, occupational biomechanics, and occupational exposure and response in
the School of Medicine. Dr. Peterson was also recently the co-executive director of the Biomedical
Engineering Alliance and Consortium (BEACON), which is a nonprofit organization dedicated to the
promotion of collaborative research, translation, and partnership among academic, medical, and indus-
try people in the field of biomedical engineering to develop new medical technologies and devices.
Dr. Peterson has over 21 years of experience in devices and systems and in engineering and medical
research, and his work on human–device interaction has led to applications on the design and develop-
ment of several medical devices and tools. Other recent translations of his research include the devel-
opment of devices such as robotic assist devices and prosthetics, long-duration biosensor monitoring
systems, surgical and dental instruments, patient care medical devices, spacesuits and space tools for
NASA, powered and non-powered hand tools, musical instruments, sports equipment, computer input
devices, and so on. Other overlapping research initiatives focus on the development of computational
models and simulations of biofluid dynamics and biomechanical performance, cell mechanics and cel-
lular responses to fluid shear stress, human exposure and response to vibration, and the acoustics of
hearing protection and communication. He has also been involved clinically with the Occupational and
Environmental Medicine group at the UConn Health Center, where his work has been directed toward
the objective engineering analysis of the anatomic and physiological processes involved in the onset of
musculoskeletal and neuromuscular diseases, including strategies of disease mitigation.
Dr. Peterson’s scholarly activities include over 50 published journal articles, 2 textbook chapters, 2 text-
book sections, and 12 textbooks, including his new appointment as co-editor-in-chief for The Biomedical
Engineering Handbook by CRC Press.

Joseph D. Bronzino is currently the president of the Biomedical Engineering Alliance and Consortium
(BEACON; www.beaconalliance.org), which is a nonprofit organization dedicated to the promotion of
collaborative research, translation, and partnership among academic, medical, and industry people in

ix
x Editors

the field of biomedical engineering to develop new medical technologies and devices. To accomplish this
goal, Dr. Bronzino and BEACON facilitate collaborative research, industrial partnering, and the devel-
opment of emerging companies. Dr. Bronzino earned a BSEE from Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1959, an MSEE from the Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California,
in 1961, and a PhD in electrical engineering from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1968. He was
recently the Vernon Roosa Professor of Applied Science and endowed chair at Trinity College, Hartford,
Connecticut.
Dr. Bronzino is the author of over 200 journal articles and 15 books, including Technology for Patient
Care (C.V. Mosby, 1977), Computer Applications for Patient Care (Addison-Wesley, 1982), Biomedical
Engineering: Basic Concepts and Instrumentation (PWS Publishing Co., 1986), Expert Systems: Basic
Concepts (Research Foundation of State University of New York, 1989), Medical Technology and
Society: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 1990), Management of Medical
Technology (Butterworth/Heinemann, 1992), The Biomedical Engineering Handbook (CRC Press, 1st
Edition, 1995; 2nd Edition, 2000; 3rd Edition, 2006), Introduction to Biomedical Engineering (Academic
Press, 1st Edition, 1999; 2nd Edition, 2005; 3rd Edition, 2011), Biomechanics: Principles and Applications
(CRC Press, 2002), Biomaterials: Principles and Applications (CRC Press, 2002), Tissue Engineering
(CRC Press, 2002), and Biomedical Imaging (CRC Press, 2002).
Dr. Bronzino is a fellow of IEEE and the American Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering
(AIMBE), an honorary member of the Italian Society of Experimental Biology, past chairman of the
Biomedical Engineering Division of the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE), a charter
member of the Connecticut Academy of Science and Engineering (CASE), a charter member of the
American College of Clinical Engineering (ACCE), a member of the Association for the Advancement
of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), past president of the IEEE-Engineering in Medicine and Biology
Society (EMBS), past chairman of the IEEE Health Care Engineering Policy Committee (HCEPC), and
past chairman of the IEEE Technical Policy Council in Washington, DC. He is a member of Eta Kappa
Nu, Sigma Xi, and Tau Beta Pi. He is also a recipient of the IEEE Millennium Medal for “his con-
tributions to biomedical engineering research and education” and the Goddard Award from WPI for
Outstanding Professional Achievement in 2005. He is presently editor-in-chief of the Academic Press/
Elsevier BME Book Series.
 Contributors
Kai-Nan An Michael J. Furey
Mayo Clinic Department of Mechanical Engineering
Rochester, Minnesota Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University
Thomas J. Burkholder Blacksburg, Virginia
School of Applied Physiology
Georgia Institute of Technology Wally Grant
Atlanta, Georgia Department of Biomedical Engineering
and
Thomas R. Canfield Department of Engineering Science and
Argonne National Laboratory Mechanics
Argonne, Illinois College of Engineering
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
Roy B. Davis III University
Motion Analysis Laboratory Blacksburg, Virginia
Shriners Hospitals for Children
Greenville, South Carolina Alan R. Hargens
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Peter A. DeLuca UCSD Medical Center
Center for Motion Analysis University of California, San Diego
Connecticut Children’s Medical Center San Diego, California
Farmington, Connecticut
Robert M. Hochmuth
Philip B. Dobrin Department of Mechanical Engineering and
Hines VA Hospital Materials Science
Hines, Illinois Duke University
Durham, North Carolina
and
Loyola University Medical Center Ben F. Hurley
Maywood, Illinois University of Maryland
Baltimore, Maryland
Cathryn R. Dooly
Department of Physical Education Arthur T. Johnson
Lander University University of Maryland
Greenwood, South Carolina Baltimore, Maryland

xi
xii Contributors

J. Lawrence Katz (deceased) Andrew D. McCulloch

Department of Biomedical Engineering School of Bioengineering
Case School of Engineering and School of Institute of Engineering in Medicine
Medicine University of California, San Diego
and La Jolla, California
Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
School of Dental Medicine Anil Misra
Case Western Reserve University Bioengineering Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio School of Engineering
University of Kansas
and
Lawrence, Kansas
Department of Mechanical Engineering and
Surgery, Orthopedics Jong-Hoon Nam
Schools of Engineering and Medicine Department of Biomedical Engineering
University of Kansas and
Lawrence, Kansas Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hajim School of Engineering and Applied
Kenton R. Kaufman Sciences
Mayo Clinic University of Rochester
Rochester, Minnesota Rochester, New York

Roy C. P. Kerckhoffs
Sylvia Õunpuu
School of Bioengineering
Center for Motion Analysis
Institute of Engineering in Medicine
Connecticut Children’s Medical Center
University of California, San Diego
Farmington, Connecticut
La Jolla, California
Muralidhar Padala
Albert I. King
Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery
Wayne State University
Emory University School of Medicine
Detroit, Michigan
Atlanta, Georgia
Baruch B. Lieber
Department of Neurosurgery Roland N. Pittman
State University of New York at Stony Brook Department of Physiology and Biophysics
Stony Brook, New York Medical College of Virginia Campus
Virginia Commonwealth University
Richard L. Lieber Richmond, Virginia
Departments of Orthopaedics, Radiology and
Bioengineering Aleksander S. Popel
Biomedical Sciences Graduate Group Department of Biomedical Engineering
University of California, San Diego School of Medicine
and Johns Hopkins University
Veterans Administration Medical Centers Baltimore, Maryland
La Jolla, California
Sunil Puria
Orestes Marangos Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bioengineering Research Center and
School of Engineering Department of Otolaryngology-HNS
University of Kansas Stanford University
Lawrence, Kansas Stanford, California
Contributors xiii

Carl F. Rothe Roger Tran-Son-Tay

Department of Cellular and Integrative University of Florida
Physiology Gainesville, Florida
School of Medicine
Indiana University David C. Viano
Indianapolis, Indiana Wayne State University
Detroit, Michigan
Geert W. Schmid-Schönbein
Department of Bioengineering Samuel R. Ward
University of California, San Diego Departments of Orthopaedics, Radiology and
La Jolla, California Bioengineering
Biomedical Sciences Graduate Group
Artin A. Shoukas University of California, San Diego
Department of Biomedical Engineering and
School of Medicine Veterans Administration Medical Centers
Johns Hopkins University La Jolla, California
Baltimore, Maryland
Richard E. Waugh
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Alexander A. Spector
University of Rochester
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Rochester, New York
School of Medicine
Johns Hopkins University
Choon Hwai Yap
Baltimore, Maryland
School of Biomedical Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Paulette Spencer Atlanta, Georgia
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bioengineering Research Center Qiang Ye
School of Engineering Bioengineering Research Center
University of Kansas School of Engineering
Lawrence, Kansas University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas
Erin Spinner
School of Biomedical Engineering Ajit P. Yoganathan
Georgia Institute of Technology School of Biomedical Engineering
Atlanta, Georgia Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia
Charles R. Steele
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, California
 1
Mechanics of Hard Tissue
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 1-1
J. Lawrence Katz
Case Western Reserve
1.2 Structure of Bone............................................................................... 1-2
University 1.3 Composition of Bone........................................................................ 1-4
University of Kansas 1.4 Elastic Properties............................................................................... 1-4
1.5 Characterizing Elastic Anisotropy................................................1-10
Anil Misra 1.6 Modeling Elastic Behavior............................................................. 1-12
University of Kansas
1.7 Viscoelastic Properties.....................................................................1-14
Orestes Marangos 1.8 Related Research...............................................................................1-17
University of Kansas 1.9 Dentin Structure and Composition...............................................1-17
1.10 Dentin Elasticity...............................................................................1-18
Qiang Ye Defining Terms............................................................................................ 1-20
University of Kansas
References..................................................................................................... 1-20
Paulette Spencer Further Information.................................................................................... 1-24
University of Kansas Appendix A.................................................................................................. 1-25

1.1 Introduction
Hard tissue, mineralized tissue, and calcified tissue are often used as synonyms for bone when
describing the structure and properties of bone or tooth. The hard is self-evident in comparison
with all other mammalian tissues, which often are referred to as soft tissues. The use of the terms
mineralized and calcified arises from the fact that, in addition to the principle protein, collagen, and
other proteins, glycoproteins, and protein-polysaccharides, comprising about 50% of the volume,
the major constituent of bone is a calcium phosphate (thus the term calcified). The calcium phos-
phate occurs in the form of a crystalline carbonate apatite (similar to naturally occurring minerals,
thus the term mineralized). Irrespective of its biological function, bone is one of the most interest-
ing materials known in terms of structure–property relationships. Bone is an anisotropic, hetero-
geneous, inhomogeneous, nonlinear, thermorheologically complex viscoelastic material. It exhibits
electromechanical effects, presumed to be due to streaming potentials, both in vivo and in vitro
when wet. In the dry state, bone exhibits piezoelectric properties. Because of the complexity of the
structure–property relationships in bone, and the space limitation for this chapter, it is necessary
to concentrate on one aspect of the mechanics. Currey (1984, p. 43) states unequivocally that he
thinks, “the most important feature of bone material is its stiffness.” This is, of course, the premiere
consideration for the weight-bearing long bones. Thus, this chapter will concentrate on the elastic
and viscoelastic properties of compact cortical bone and the elastic properties of trabecular bone as
exemplar of mineralized tissue mechanics.

1-1
1-2 Biomechanics

1.2 ​Structure of Bone
The complexity of bone’s properties arises from the complexity in its structure. Thus it is important to
have an understanding of the structure of mammalian bone in order to appreciate the related proper-
ties. Figure 1.1 is a diagram showing the structure of a human femur at different levels (Park, 1979). For
convenience, the structures shown in Figure 1.1 are grouped into four levels. A further subdivision of
structural organization of mammalian bone is shown in Figure 1.2 (Wainwright et al., 1982). The indi-
vidual figures within this diagram can be sorted into one of the appropriate levels of structure shown in
Figure 1.1 and are described as follows in hierarchical order. At the smallest unit of structure we have the
tropocollagen molecule and the associated apatite crystallites (abbreviated Ap). The former is approxi-
mately 1.5 × 280 nm, made up of three individual left-handed helical polypeptide (alpha) chains coiled
into a right-handed triple helix. Ap crystallites have been found to be carbonate-substituted hydroxy-
apatite, generally thought to be nonstoichiometric. The crystallites appear to be about 4 × 20 × 60 nm
in size. This is denoted at the molecular level. Next is the ultrastructural level. Here, the collagen and
Ap are intimately associated and assembled into a microfibrillar composite, several of which are then
assembled into fibers from approximately 3 to 5 mm thickness. At the next level, the microstructural,
these fibers are either randomly arranged (woven bone) or organized into concentric lamellar groups
(osteons) or linear lamellar groups (plexiform bone). This is the level of structure we usually mean when
we talk about bone tissue properties. In addition to the differences in lamellar organization at this level,
there are also two different types of architectural structure. The dense type of bone found, for example,
in the shafts of long bone is known as compact or cortical bone. A more porous or spongy type of bone is
found, for example, at the articulating ends of long bones. This is called cancellous bone. It is important
to note that the material and structural organization of collagen–Ap making up osteonic or Haversian
bone and plexiform bone are the same as the material comprising cancellous bone.
Finally, we have the whole bone itself constructed of osteons and portions of older, partially destroyed
osteons (called interstitial lamellae) in the case of humans or of osteons and/or plexiform bone in the
case of mammals. This we denote as the macrostructural level. The elastic properties of the whole bone
results from the hierarchical contribution of each of these levels.

Articular
cartilage

Trabecula
Spongy bone

Compact bone
Osteon Collagen fibers

Periosteum
Concentric
lamella
Nutrient (3–7 μm) Apatite
artery Haversian
canal mineral crystals
Intramedullary (200–400 Å long)
cavity

Line of
epiphyseal
fusion

FIGURE 1.1 ​Hierarchical levels of structure in a human femur. (From Park JB. Biomaterials: An Introduction.
New York: Plenum, 1979. Courtesy of Plenum Press and Dr. J.B. Park.)
Mechanics of Hard Tissue 1-3

(a)

01 μm

(c) (b)

10 μm 10 μm

(e) (f) (g)

(d)

0.5 μm

(i)

(h)
(h)
(h)
1 μm
(h)

FIGURE 1.2 Diagram showing the structure of mammalian bone at different levels. Bone at the same level is drawn
at the same magnification. The arrows show what types may contribute to structures at higher levels. (From Wainwright
SA. et al. Mechanical Design in Organisms. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982. Courtesy Princeton
University Press.) (a) Collagen fibril with associated mineral crystals. (b) Woven bone. The collagen fibrils are arranged
more or less randomly. Osteocytes are not shown. (c) Lamellar bone. There are separate lamellae, and the collagen fibrils
are arranged in “domains” of preferred fibrillar orientation in each lamella. Osteocytes are not shown. (d) Woven bone.
Blood channels are shown as large black spots. At this level woven bone is indicated by light dotting. (e) Primary lamel-
lar bone. At this level lamellar bone is indicated by fine dashes. (f) Haversian bone. A collection of Haversian systems,
each with concentric lamellae round a central blood channel. The large black area represents the cavity formed as a cyl-
inder of bone is eroded away. It will be filled in with concentric lamellae and form a new Haversian system. (g) Laminar
bone. Two blood channel networks are exposed. Note how layers of woven and lamellar bone alternate. (h) Compact
bone of the types shown at the lower levels. (i) Cancellous bone.
1-4 Biomechanics

TABLE 1.1 Composition of Adult Human and Bovine Cortical Bone

% Dry Weight
Species % H2 O Ap Collagen GAGa Reference
Bovine 9.1 76.4 21.5 N.Db Herring (1977)
Human 7.3 67.2 21.2 0.34 Pellegrino and Blitz (1965);
Vejlens (1971)
a Glycosaminoglycan.
b Not determined.

1.3 Composition of Bone

The composition of bone depends on a large number of factors: the species, which bone, the location
from which the sample is taken, and the age, sex, and type of bone tissue, for example, woven, cancel-
lous, cortical. However, a rough estimate for overall composition by volume is one-third Ap, one-third
collagen and other organic components, and one-third H2O. Some data in the literature for the compo-
sition of adult human and bovine cortical bone are given in Table 1.1.

1.4 ​Elastic Properties
Although bone is a viscoelastic material, at the quasi-static strain rates in mechanical testing and even
at the ultrasonic frequencies used experimentally, it is a reasonable first approximation to model corti-
cal bone as an anisotropic, linear elastic solid with Hooke’s law as the appropriate constitutive equation.
Tensor notation for the equation is written as

σ ij = Cijkl ε kl (1.1)


where σij and εkl are the second-rank stress and infinitesimal second rank strain tensors, respectively,
and Cijkl is the fourth-rank elasticity tensor. Using the reduced notation, we can rewrite Equation 1.1 as

σi = Cijεj i, j = 1 to 6 (1.2)


where the Cij are the stiffness coefficients (elastic constants). The inverse of the Cij, the Sij, are known as
the compliance coefficients.
The anisotropy of cortical bone tissue has been described in two symmetry arrangements. Lang
(1969), Katz and Ukraincik (1971), and Yoon and Katz (1976a,b) assumed bone to be transversely isotro-
pic with the bone axis of symmetry (the 3 direction) as the unique axis of symmetry. Any small differ-
ence in elastic properties between the radial (1 direction) and transverse (2 direction) axes, due to the
apparent gradient in porosity from the periosteal to the endosteal sides of bone, was deemed to be due
essentially to the defect and did not alter the basic symmetry. For a transverse isotropic material, the
stiffness matrix [Cij] is given by

⎡C11 C12 C13 0 0 0 ⎤

⎢C 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ 12 C11 C13 ⎥
⎢C13 C13 C 33 0 0 0 ⎥
[Cij ] = ⎢ ⎥ (1.3)
⎢0 0 0 C 44 0 0 ⎥
⎢0 0 0 0 C 44 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 C66 ⎥⎦

where C66 = 1/2 (C11–C12). Of the 12 nonzero coefficients, only 5 are independent.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
answer, stood on one leg, twisted his arms in a curious way he’s got
when nervous, and said he hoped they might be; but he said it as
though he knew jolly well they wouldn’t.
Then the lord and the lady cleared out, and a week later Carlo
came. His real name was Westonleigh, and he was a viscount or
something, being eldest son of an earl; but we called him Carlo, and
he grew jolly waxy when he found his nickname had got to Merivale
before him. He fancied himself to a most hideous extent for a kid of
nine, and explained he’d only come for a year or so before going to
Eton. He went into the Lower Fourth, so Tomlin ceased to be at the
bottom of that class.
The likeness between Carlo and my fag was really most peculiar. It
must have been for Carlo’s own mother to see it; but when Carlo
heard that Tomlin would be a hatter in the course of years he
refused to have anything to do with him. And Tomlin loathed Carlo,
too, from the start; so instead of being chums according to the wish
of the purple-veined lord, they hated one another, and the first
licking of any importance which Carlo got he had from Tomlin.
The chap was a failure all round, and it’s no good saying he
wasn’t. Everybody saw it but Doctor Dunston, and he wouldn’t. Carlo
proved to be a sneak and a liar of the deepest sort--not to masters,
but to the chaps; and he was also jolly cruel to animals, and very
much liked to torture things that couldn’t hit him back, such as mice
and insects. He had a square face and snubby nose, and a voice and
eyes exactly similar to Tomlin’s; but there was no likeness in their
characters, Tomlin being a very decent kid, as I have said. Fellows
barred Carlo all round, and he only had one real chum in the
miserable shape of Fowle. Fowle sucked up to him and listened for
hours about his ancestors, and buttered him at all times, hoping, of
course, that some day he would get asked to Carlo’s father’s castle
in the holidays. I may also note Carlo never played games, excepting
tossing behind the gymnasium for half-pennies with Fowle and
Steggles, Steggles, of course, winning.
Happening one day to go down through the playground, young
Tomlin saw Westonleigh near a little fir-tree which grew at the top of
the drill-ground. He was alone, and seemed to be doing something
queer, so Tomlin stopped and went over.
“What are you up to?” he said.
“Frying ants,” said Carlo, “though it’s no business of yours. You
see, there’s turpentine juice come out of this tree where I cut it
yesterday, and you can stick the ants in it, then fry them to a cinder
with a burning-glass, like this.”
“That’s what you’re doing?”
“It is.”
“Don’t you think you’re rather a little beast?”
“What d’ you mean, hatter?”
“I mean I’m going to kick you for being such a cruel beast.”
They stood the same height to an inch and were the same age, so
it was a perfectly sportsman-like thing for Tomlin to offer.
“You seem to forget who you’re talking to,” said Carlo.
“No, I don’t--no chance of that. Your ancestors came over with
William the Conqueror--carried his portmanteau, I expect, then
cleared out when the fighting came on. Yes, and another ancestor
stabbed a friend of Wat Tyler’s when he was face down on the
ground, after somebody else had knocked him over. That’s what you
are, ant-fryer.”
“I’ll thank you to let me pass,” said Carlo. “I’m not accustomed to
talking to people like you, and if you think I’m going to fight with a
future hatter you’re wrong.”
“Then you can put your tail between your legs and swallow this,”
said Tomlin, and he went on and licked Carlo pretty well. He also
broke his burning-glass.
“You’ll live to be sorry for this all your life!” yelled out Carlo, when
Tomlin let him get up off some broken flower-pots on the drill-
ground. “I’ll never forget it; I’ll get my father to make old Dunston
expel you; and when I’m a man I’ll devote all my time to wrecking
your vile hat business and ruining you and making you a shivering,
starving beggar in the streets!”
“Go and sneak, I should,” said Tomlin.
And blessed if Carlo didn’t! He tore straight off to the Doctor just
as he was, in his licked condition.
 That much I heard from my fag, young Tomlin, but the rest I saw
for myself, as the Sixth happened to be before the Doctor in his
study when Carlo arrived. He was white and muddy, and slightly
bloody and panting; he looked jolly wicked, and his collar had
carried away from the stud, and his trousers were torn behind.
“My good lad, whatever has happened?” began the Doctor. “Don’t
say you have met with an accident? And yet your appearance--”
“Nothing of the sort,” said Carlo, who soon found out the Doctor
had a weak place for him, owing to his being a lord’s son. “I’ve been
frightfully and cruelly mangled through no fault of my own; and I
believe some things inside me are broken too.”
“Sit down, sit down, my unfortunate lad,” said the Doctor. Then he
rang the bell and told the butler to bring Viscount Westonleigh a
glass of wine at once.
“It’s Tomlin done it,” said Carlo. “He came up behind me, and,
before I could defend myself, he trampled on me and tried to tear
me limb from limb. I’m not strong, and I may die of it. Anyway, he
ought to be expelled, and I’ll write to my father, the earl, about it,
and he’ll make the whole country-side resound if Tomlin isn’t sent
away and his character ruined.”
“Hush, Westonleigh!” said the Doctor. “Have no fear that justice
will not be done, my boy. You shall yourself accuse Tomlin and hear
what he may have to say in defence.”
Then Tomlin was sent for, and in about ten minutes came.
“Is this true, boy Tomlin?” said the Doctor, putting on his big
manner. “One glance at your victim,” he continued, “furnishes a
more conclusive reply to my question than could any word of yours;
nevertheless, I desire to hear from your own lips whether Viscount
Westonleigh’s assertions are true or not.”
“Don’t know what he’s asserted, sir,” said Tomlin, which was a
smart thing for a kid to say. “If he said I’ve licked him, it’s true, sir.”
“That is what he did assert, sir, in words chosen with greater
regard for my feelings than your own. And are you aware, George
Tomlin, that you have ‘licked’ one who, in the ordinary course of
nature, and subject to the will of an all-just, all-seeing Providence,
will some day take his seat in the House of Lords?”
 “I’ve heard him say he will, sir,” answered Tomlin, as though no
statement of Carlo’s could be worth believing.
“Don’t answer in that offensive tone, boy,” answered the Doctor,
his voice rising to the pitch that always went before a flogging. “If
your stagnant sense of right cannot bring a blush to your cheek
before the spectacle of your scandalous achievement, it will be
necessary for me--for me, your head-master, sir--to quicken the
blood in your veins and bring a blush to the baser extremity of your
person. Some learn through the head, George Tomlin; some can
only be approached through the hide; and with the latter category
you have long, unhappily, chosen to throw in your lot.”
Tomlin said nothing, but looked at Carlo.
“Before proceeding, according to my custom, I shall hear both
sides of this question--audi alteram partem, George Tomlin. Now say
what you have to say; explain why your lamentable, your unholy,
your aboriginal passions led you to fall upon Viscount Westonleigh
from behind--to take him in the rear, sir, after the unmanly fashion of
the North American Indian or other primitive savage.”
“I didn’t take him in the rear at all, sir,” said Tomlin. “I stood right
up to him, and he said he wouldn’t fight a future hatter.”
“A very proper decision, too, sir--a natural and wise decision,”
declared the Doctor. “Why should the son of Lord Golightly imbue his
hand in the blood of--I will not say a future hatter, for I yield to no
man in my respect for your father, Tomlin, and his business is alike
honorable and necessary; but why should he fight anybody?”
“If he’s challenged he’s got to, sir, or else take a licking.”
“No flippancy, sir!” thundered the Doctor again. “Who are you to
announce the laws which govern the society of Merivale? Shall it be
possible in a Christian land, at a Christian college for Christian lads,
to find infamous boys with tigrine instincts parading the fold for the
purpose of smiting when and where they will? This, sir, is the very
apotheosis of savagery!”
“I didn’t do it for nothing, sir,” said Tomlin. “I’m not going to
sneak, of course; but I--I licked Carlo for a jolly good reason, and he
knows what.”
 “Don’t know anything of the sort,” declared Carlo. “You flew at me
like a wolf from behind.”
“That’s a good one,” answered Tomlin.
“Anybody can see you did from the state I’m in,” said Carlo.
“You two boys,” began the Doctor again, “though you know it not,
stand here before me as types of a great social movement, I may
even say upheaval. In the democratic age upon which we are now
entering, we shall find the Tomlins at war with the Westonleighs; we
shall find the Westonleighs disdaining to fight, and the Tomlins
accordingly doing what pleases them in their own brutal way. Now,
here I find myself met with statement and counter-statement. The
indictment is all too clear against you, boy Tomlin, for even the glass
of old brown sherry which he has just consumed fails to soothe your
unfortunate victim’s nerve-centres. He is still far from calm; his
ganglions are yet vibrating. This work of destruction was yours. You
do not deny it, but you refuse any explanation, making instead a
vague and ambiguous reference to not sneaking. No man hates the
tale-bearer more than your head-master, sir, but there are occasions
when the school’s welfare and the protection of our little
commonwealth make it absolutely necessary that offences should be
reported to the ruler of that commonwealth. I have no hesitation in
saying that Westonleigh saw the present incident in this light. He
had no right to hush up the matter. Whatever his private instincts
towards mercy, his duty to his companions and to me, together with
a hereditary sense of justice and the fearless instincts of his race,
compelled him to come before me and report the presence of a
young garroter in our midst. I select the word, George Tomlin, and I
say that, having regard to the perverted, not to say inverted, sense
of justice and honor all too common among every community of
boys, Westonleigh’s act was a brave act. I accept his statement in its
entirety; consequently, Tomlin, you may join me this evening, at nine
o’clock, after prayers.”
That meant a flogging, and Tomlin said, “Yes, sir,” and hooked it;
but the wretched Carlo thought he was going to hear Tomlin
expelled. He burst out and said as much, and the Doctor started as
if a serpent had stung him, and told Carlo to control the instinct of
revenge so common to all human nature, and explained that chaps
were not expelled for trifles. He reminded Carlo that Tomlin had an
immortal soul like himself, and seemed to imply that being expelled
from Merivale would ruin a chap’s future in the next world as well as
this one. Finally, he allowed Carlo, in consideration of the dressing
he had got, to stop in the playground that afternoon with a book. So
the little skunk crept off, shattered ganglions and all, pretending to
walk lame; while the Doctor, evidently much bothered altogether,
took up our work where he had left it.

Tomlin got flogged all right, and there the matter ended,
excepting that a lot of fellows sent Carlo to Coventry and called him
“ant-fryer” from that day.
Then, within three weeks, came the Doctor’s howler, Steggles
being responsible. Steggles is a bit of a hound, but his cunning is
wonderful. As for the Doctor, he continued making much of Carlo
and sitting on Tomlin, till one day, going into chapel, he
unexpectedly patted Tomlin on the head. Tomlin was rather pleased,
because he thought the Doctor was relenting to him; but when
Steggles heard of it he said:
“Why, you fool, he thought he was patting Westonleigh!”
Then, on an evening when Tomlin was cooking a sausage for me
in the Sixth’s class-room, he said:
“Please, I should like to speak to you, if I may.”
So I chucked work, and told him to say what he liked.
“It’s only to show how things go against a chap, no matter what
he does,” said the kid. “This term I have been flogged for licking
Carlo, and caned three times since for other things, which were
more bad luck than anything else; and now I’ll be flogged again to-
morrow for absolute certain.”
“Why?”
“Well, it’s a jolly muddle. You know Steggles?”
“Yes, you’re a fool to go about with him,” I said.
“Perhaps I was. Anyway, Steggles and me made a plot to get
some of the medlars from the tree on the lawn, and we minched out
after dark to do it. They’re simply allowed to fall and rot on the
ground, which is a waste of good tuck, Steggles says. We went out
about ten o’clock last night, past Browne’s study window; and we
looked in from the shrubbery to see the window open, and soda-
water and whiskey and pipes on the table; but no Browne, strange
to say. Then we sneaked on, and Steggles suddenly heard
something and got funky, but I kept him going. We reached the tree
and Steggles lighted his bull’s-eye lantern, so as to collect the
medlars, when suddenly out from behind the tree itself rushed a
man. We hooked it like lightning, naturally, and I never saw Steggles
go at such a pace in my life, and he stuck to his lantern, too; but I
tripped and fell, and before I could get up the man had collared me.
If you’ll believe it, the man was Browne! He asked me who the other
chap was, and I said I couldn’t be quite sure; so he told me to go
back to bed, which I did. That was last night; and the one medlar
we had time to get Steggles had eaten before I got back, which
shows what Steggles is. To-day Browne will tell the Doctor. He
always chooses the evening after prayers, so that he can work the
Doctor up with his stories and get a chap flogged right away;
because it often happens when Doctor Dunston says he’ll flog a chap
next day he doesn’t do it.”
“And what is Steggles going to do?”
“He says he is watching events. He also says that Browne was
certainly stealing the Doctor’s medlars himself, and really we
surprised him, not he us; but, of course, Steggles says it’s no good
my telling the Doctor that. Steggles also says that he’s got an idea
which may come to something. I don’t know; but he’s a very cute
chap. I’ve got to keep out of the way after prayers to-night, and
Steggles is going to watch Browne. He won’t tell me his plan. I
thought once that perhaps he meant giving himself up for me, and I
asked him, and he said I ought to know him better.”
Tomlin then cleared out, and as the Doctor took Slade and me for
a short Greek lesson every evening after prayers, because of special
examinations, I had the good luck to see the end of the business
that very night.
 We’d just got to work by the Doctor’s green-shaded reading-lamp
when Browne came in with his grovelling way, pretending he was
awfully sorry for having to round on Tomlin, but that his duty gave
him no option, and so on.
“Last night,” he said, “I was sitting correcting exercises in my
study when I fancied I saw a form steal across the grass outside.
Thinking some vagabond might be in the grounds, I dashed out and
followed as quickly as possible. Presently I saw a light, and noted
two figures under the medlar-tree. Fearing they might be plotting
against the house, I went straight at them, and, to my
astonishment, saw that they were only boys. One darted away, and I
failed to catch him; the other, I much regret to say, was Tomlin.”
That is how Browne put the affair.
“Tomlin again!” exclaimed the Doctor. “Positively that boy’s
behavior passes the bounds of endurance.”
“Yes, taking the medlars of one who has always treated him as
you have. I couldn’t trust myself to speak to him. He’s a very
disappointing boy.”
“He’s a disgraceful, degenerate, disreputable boy! I can forgive
much; but the stealing of fruit--and that my fruit! Greediness,
immorality, ingratitude in the person of one outrageous lad! I thank
you, Browne. Yours was a zealous act, and argued courage of high
order. Oblige me by sending Tomlin hither at once. There shall be no
delay.”
Browne hurried off to find the wretched Tomlin; and Doctor
Dunston, who always had to work up his feelings before flogging a
chap, snorted like a horse, and took off his glasses, and went to the
corner behind the book-case where canes and things were kept. He
seemed to forget Slade and me, so we sat tight in the gloom outside
the radius of light thrown by the green-shaded lamp, and waited
with regret to see Tomlin catch it. The Doctor talked to himself as he
brought out a birch and swished it through the air once or twice.
“Upon my soul,” he said, “Lord Golightly’s son was right. His
knowledge of character is remarkable in so young a lad. Tomlin will
have to be expelled; Tomlin must go; such consistent, such inherent
depravity appears ineradicable. Pruning is of no avail; the branch
must be sacrificed. My medlars under cover of darkness! And I
would have given them freely had he but asked!”
He evidently wasn’t going to expel Tomlin this time, but he meant
doing all he knew with the birch; and as Tomlin was some while
coming, the Doctor’s safety-valves were regularly humming before
he turned up. When he did come he walked boldly in; and the
Doctor, who had been striding up and down like a lion at the Zoo,
didn’t wait for any remarks, but just went straight for him, seized
him by the nape of the neck, nipped his hand round his back--in a
way he did very neatly from long practice--and began to administer
about the hottest flogging he’d given to any boy in his life.
“So--you--add--the--eighth--com--mand--ment--to--the--others--
you--have--already--shattered--deplorable--boy!” roared the Doctor,
giving Tomlin one between each smack. “You--would--purloin--steal-
-rob--the medlars--of your preceptor. You would lead others--to--
share--your--sin. You would bring--tears--of--grief--to--a--good--
mother’s--eyes!”
Here the Doctor stopped a moment for breath, but he still held on
to Tomlin, who, much to my surprise, wriggled about a good deal. In
fact, he shot out his legs over and over again at intervals, like a
grasshopper does when it gets into the water; and when he got a
chance he yelled back at the Doctor:
“It’s a lie--a filthy lie!” he shrieked out. “Beast--devil! Let me go!
Let me go! I never touched your rotten old medlars--oh!--oh!”
Then the Doctor went off again.
“Silence, miserable child! Cease your blasphemies. Falsehood--will-
-not--save--you--now!”
“I never touched them, I tell you, you muddle-headed old beast!
You’re killing me, and my father’ll imprison you for life for it. I wish
they could hang you. I’ll make you smart for this if you only live till I
grow up--devil!”
But the Doctor had shot his bolt. He gave Tomlin a final smack,
then shook him off like a spider, picked up his mortar-board, which
had fallen off in the struggle, and put the birch in its place.
“Now go, and don’t speak another word, or I shall expel you,
wretched lad!”
 Meantime Slade and I were fairly on the gasp, for from the time
that Tomlin, as we thought, had called the Doctor a devil we realized
the truth. Now his passion nearly choked him; he danced with pain
and rage; only when the Doctor took a stride towards him he
opened the door and hooked it.
The Doctor puffed and grunted like a traction-engine trying to get
up a hill.
“These are the black days in a head-master’s life, Slade,” he said.
“That misguided lad thinks that I enjoyed administering his
punishment, yet both mentally and physically the operation caused
me far greater suffering than it brought to him. I am wounded--
wounded to the heart--and the exertion causes and will cause me
much discomfort for hours to come, owing to its unusual severity. I
may say that not for ten years has it been necessary for me to flog a
boy as I have just flogged George Tomlin. Now let us proceed.”
I couldn’t have broken it to him, but Slade did. He said:
“Please, sir, it wasn’t Tomlin.”
“Not Tomlin--not Tomlin! What d’ you mean, boy? Who was it,
then?” said the Doctor, his eyebrows going up on to his forehead,
which was all quite dewy from the hard work.
“It was young Carlo--I mean Westonleigh,” said Slade.
“Viscount Westonleigh!” gasped the Doctor, his mouth dropping
right open in a very rum way by itself, if you understand me.
“Yes, sir.”
“Then why in the name of Heaven didn’t you say so? How dare
you stand there and watch me commit an offence against law and
justice? How did you dare to watch me ignorantly torture an
innocent boy, and that boy-- Go! go both of you--you, Slade, and
you, Butler, also. Go instantly, and send Browne and Viscount
Westonleigh to me. Good God! this is terrible--terrible!”
So that was his howler, and to see him in his chair looking so old
and haggard and queer was rather frightful. He seemed suddenly
struck with limpness, and his hands shook like anything, and so did
his bald head; and he puffed as if he’d been running miles; and
Slade said afterwards that he looked jolly frightened too. He put his
face in his hands as we went out, and we heard him say something
about Lord Golightly and ruin, and universal opprobrium on his gray
hairs, though really he had none worth mentioning; and Slade said
he almost thought the Doctor was actually going to cry, if such a
thing could be possible.
We sent Browne off to him, but Carlo wasn’t to be found. He’d
been seen yelling somewhere, but couldn’t be traced. What had
happened was this: Tomlin, in obedience to Steggles, had kept
rather close after prayers; in fact, he had spent the half-hour to bed-
time in a cupboard in the gymnasium, under the rubber shoes. So
Browne, not finding him, had told the first boy he saw to do so; and
that boy happened to be Steggles, who had been at his heels ever
since he went to the Doctor. Steggles is a miserable, unwholesome
thing, but his strategy certainly comes off. Once having the
message, all was easy, because Steggles merely found Carlo, and
told him the Doctor wanted him. The result was much better than
even Steggles hoped; because, though the Doctor generally fell on a
chap who came to be flogged straightaway, like he did on Carlo, it
wasn’t often anybody got such a frightful strong dose as Carlo had.
Afterwards, when taxed, Steggles swore, of course, that he thought
he was talking to Tomlin. Seeing the likeness, this might have been
perfectly true, though in their secret hearts everybody knew
Steggles too jolly well to really believe it.
Carlo didn’t turn up, and after an hour or more of frantic rushing
about, somebody said perhaps he’d jumped down the garden well
owing to the indignity of what he’d got. But soon afterwards, in reply
to a special telegram sent for the Doctor by the people at the railway
station, an answer came from Golightly Towers, twenty miles off,
where the purple-veined lord, father of Carlo, hung out. The kid, it
seemed, had sloped down to Merivale railway station after his
licking, and taken a ticket right away for Golightly, and gone home
by the last train but one that night. He never returned either, but
next day his father dropped in on Doctor Dunston, and Fowle
managed to hear a little of what went on through the key-hole. He
said that as far as he could make out the lord didn’t think much of
the matter, and said one thrashing more or less wouldn’t mar Carlo.
But the lord’s wife, who didn’t come, evidently took the same view
as Carlo, for he never returned to Dunston’s again. The Doctor’s
howler ended in his losing the little bounder altogether, which, with
his views about lords in general, and especially earls, must have
been frightfully rough on him.
As to Tomlin, actually the Doctor never flogged him after all! I
think his spirit had got a bit broken, and though Tomlin went at the
end of the term, he wasn’t expelled, but withdrawn by mutual
consent, like you hear of things in Parliament sometimes. He
wouldn’t have gone at all, but he refused to say who was under the
medlar-tree with him, and stuck to it; and Steggles absolutely
declined to give himself up, because, as he truly said, he had more
than kept his promise to Tomlin about helping him out of the mess.
So Tomlin went. He was a very decent little chap indeed, and
nearly all the fellows at Dunston’s promised faithfully to buy their
hats entirely at his place in Bond Street, London, when they left
school; which will be very good business for him if they do. As for
the Doctor, it’s a peculiar fact that for a whole term after Carlo’s
affair he never flogged a single chap. He didn’t seem to have any
heart in him, somehow, owing to the rum way the howler told upon
his spirit.
 Morrant’s Half-Sov.

Of course, as Steggles said truly, the rummest thing about the

whole story of Morrant’s half-sov. was that he should have one.
Morrant, in fact, never got any pocket-money in his life, owing to his
father being a gentleman farmer. Not that he had nothing. On the
contrary, his hampers were certainly the best, except Fowle’s, that
ever came to Dunston’s, both for variety and size and fruit. The
farming business, Morrant said, was all right from his point of view
in the holidays, as the ferreting, both rats and rabbits, was good
enough for anything, and three packs of hounds met within walking
distance of his farm, one pack being harriers, which Morrant, by
knowing the country well, could run with to a certain extent while
they hunted. But Morrant’s father was so worried about chemical
manures and other farming things, including the price of wheat, that
he didn’t see his way to giving Morrant any pocket-money. He
explained to Morrant once that he was putting every halfpenny he
could spare into Morrant’s education, so as to save him from having
to become a gentleman farmer too when he grew up.
But Morrant didn’t get a farthing in a general way; so when there
arrived a hamper with an envelope in it, and in the envelope a bit of
paper, and in the paper a half-sovereign, Morrant was naturally
extremely surprised and also pleased. It came from his godfather,
who had never taken any notice of Morrant for thirteen years,
though he was a clergyman. But the previous term Morrant had got
a prize for Scripture history, and when that came to his godfather’s
ears, through Morrant’s mother mentioning it in a letter, he wrote
and said it was good news, and very unexpected. So he sent the
money; and really Morrant was quite bewildered with it, being so
utterly unaccustomed to tin even in the meanest shape.
He had a friend by the name of Ferrars, who was much more
religious than Morrant himself, and knew even more Scripture
history; and as a first go-off he asked Ferrars what he ought to do
with the money. And Ferrars said that before everything Morrant
ought to give a tithe to charity. But when it was explained to Morrant
that this meant chucking away a shilling on the poor, he didn’t take
to the idea an atom. He said his father had set him against giving
tithes, not believing in them very much.
So Morrant went to Gideon, who knew much more about money
than Ferrars, and he said on no account to give a penny away in
charity, because Morrant wasn’t up in the subject, and might do
more harm than good. He also said that in the case of a chap who
had never had a half-sovereign in his life before, it was a great
question whether he could be expected to give away any; and
Morrant said there was no question about it at all, because he wasn’t
going to. And it made even a difference in his feeling towards
Ferrars, for, as he very truly said, a chap who advised him like
Ferrars had couldn’t be much of a friend.
Having decided to keep it, the point was what to do with it. The
novelty of the thing staggered him, and, knowing he would probably
never have another half-sovereign till he grew up, Morrant felt the
awful importance of spending it right, because an affair once bought
could never be replaced if lost. And, as Bray said, “If you get used to
a thing, like a watch-chain or a tie-ring, and then lose it, the feeling
you get is much worse than if you had never had it at all.”
I thought about it too for Morrant, as he once sent me a brace of
rabbits by post, shot by himself in the holidays. I pointed out to him
that half a sovereign was a most difficult sum really, being, as it
were, not small and not exactly huge, and yet too much to make
light of, especially in Morrant’s case. If he had got a sovereign, for
instance, he might have bought a silver watch-chain to take the
place of one which he had. It was made of the hair of his
grandmother when she was young, and Morrant didn’t much like it,
and had often tried to sell it and failed. But ten bob wouldn’t buy a
silver chain worth having. Morrant had an idea about braces, and of
course he might have bought such braces for the money as would
have been seldom seen and very remarkable; but braces are a poor
thing to put good money into, and I dissuaded him.
There came a change in Morrant after he had had the half-
sovereign for four days and not thought of anything to buy. He
began to worry, because time was going on and nothing being done.
Fellows gave him many ideas, some of which he took for an hour or
two, but always abandoned after a while. Murray told him of a
wonderful box of new conjuring tricks which was to be had, and he
nearly bought it, but luckily remembered just in time that the new
tricks would get old after a while, and some might be guessed and
would become useless. Then Parkinson had a remarkably swagger
paint-box, and knew where Morrant could get another with only
three paints less for ten shillings. And Morrant as near as a toucher
bought that, but happened to remember he couldn’t paint, and
didn’t care in the least about trying to. Corkey minimus said he
would run the risk and sell Corkey minor’s bat to Morrant for ten
bob, the bat having cost twelve. The bat was spliced and Corkey
minor was in Australia, having, luckily for him, sailed to sea just
before an exam., owing to a weak lung. If Morrant had played
cricket he would certainly have bought the bat; but there again,
even though Gideon told him he might easily get ten-and-six or
eleven shillings for the bat next term, he hesitated, and finally
Gideon bought the bat himself--as an investment, he said.
Well, there was Morrant stuck with his tin. He wouldn’t even
change it, because Gideon warned him against that, and told him his
father knew men who had made large fortunes simply by not
changing gold when they had it. Gideon said there was nothing like
never changing gold; so Morrant didn’t, only of course there was no
good in keeping the money specially stitched into a private and
unknown part of his trousers, as he did, for safety.
That half-sovereign acted like a regular cloud on Morrant’s mind;
and then came an extraordinary day when it acted more like a cloud
than ever, owing to its disappearing.
 Morrant had sewn it, with a needle and thread borrowed from the
housekeeper, into a spot at the bottom of his left trouser-pocket, and
from this spot it mysteriously vanished in the space of two hours and
a half. He had changed in the dormitory for “footer,” and left his
trousers on his bed at three o’clock, returning to them at 4.45. Then,
naturally feeling for his half-sovereign, he missed it altogether, and
when he examined the spot he found his money had been cut out of
the bottom of the pocket with a knife.
Very wisely Morrant, seeing what a tremendous thing had
happened, did not make a lot of row, but just told about ten chaps
and no more. I was one. My name is Newnes. I said:
“The first question is, Who knew your secret hiding-place?” and
Butler said it was a very good question and showed sense in me.
Butler is, of course, high in the Sixth.
Morrant, on thinking it over, decided that three chaps, or four at
the outside, knew his hiding-place. They were Ferrars, Gideon,
Fowle, and, Morrant thought, Phipps. So first Butler, who very kindly
undertook the affair for Morrant, had Phipps brought up. Phipps
stammers even when most calm and collected, and, being sent for
by Butler, caused him so much excitement that Butler made him
write down the answers to his questions, and even then Phipps lost
his nerve so that he spelled “yes” with two s’s. But he solemnly put
down and signed that Morrant had never told him where he kept his
half-sovereign; and after he had gone Morrant said that, now he
came to think about it, he felt sure Phipps was right. Which reduced
the matter to Ferrars, Gideon, and Fowle; and the first two were set
aside by Morrant because Ferrars was, of course, his personal friend,
despite the passing coldness about Ferrars’ advice, and Gideon,
though very keen about money and a great judge of it, was known
to be absolutely straight, and had never so much as choused a kid
out of a marble.
Butler said:
“That leaves Fowle; and if you told Fowle you were a little fool.”
And Morrant said:
“We were both Roman Catholics by religion, and that makes a
great tie; and though many chaps hate Fowle pretty frightfully, I’ve
never known him try to score off me, except once, when he failed
and apologized.”
And Butler said:
“That’s all right, I dare say; but he’s a little beast and a cur, and
also a sneak of the deadliest dye. I don’t say he’s taken the money,
because that’s a libel, and he might, I believe, go to law against me;
but I do say that only one out of three people could have taken it,
and we know two didn’t, therefore Q.E.D. the other must have.”
Morrant didn’t follow this very clever reasoning on the part of
Butler. He only thought that Fowle, being a Roman Catholic, would
never rob another; and Butler said he would, because it wasn’t like
Freemasons, who wouldn’t score off one another for the world. He
explained that history was simply choked up with examples of
Roman Catholics scoring off one another.
Butler said:
“Religion’s quite different. One Buddhist is often known to have
done another Buddhist in the eye, so why shouldn’t one Roman do
another? In fact, they have thousands of times, as you’ll know when
you come to read a little history and hear about the Spanish
Inquisition. Especially this may have happened seeing that Fowle is
the chap. I tell you candidly that, in my opinion, after a good deal of
experience of fellows in general, I take Fowle to be the most likely
boy in Merivale to have done it; and knowing him to have had the
secret of the private pocket reduces it to a certainty in my mind. Tax
him with it suddenly in the night, and you’ll see.”
Morrant slept in the same dormitory with Fowle, and that night the
whole room was woke up at some very late hour by the sound of
Morrant taxing Fowle. Fowle took a long time to realize what was
being said, and when he was awake enough to realize what Morrant
was getting at, he showed tremendous indignation, and asked what
he had ever done that such a charge should be brought against him,
especially at such a time. He reminded Morrant that they were of the
same way of thinking in holy affairs, and said he was extremely sick
with Morrant, and thought Morrant’s religion must be pretty rocky if
it allowed him to wake a chap up in the night and charge him with
such a crime. In fact, Fowle went on so that Morrant finally
apologized rather humbly.
From that day forward began the extraordinary disappearance of
coin in general at Dunston’s. Shillings constantly went, and also half-
crowns. Gideon got very excited about it, and said watches must be
kept and traps set. There was evidently a big robbery going on, and
Gideon said if the chaps weren’t smart enough to catch the thief
they deserved to lose their tin. Certainly he never lost a penny
himself. But, despite tremendous precautions, money kept going in
small sums. Ferrars was set to watch in the pavilion, I remember,
during a football match, and Morrant himself, and even Butler once
or twice, also watched. Some chaps thought it was the ground-man;
but as money also disappeared at school, that showed it couldn’t be
him. And then there was a theory that it might be a charwoman who
came from Merivale twice a week. I believe she was a very good
charwoman of her kind, and Ferrars, who is great about helping the
poor and so on, told me she was a very deserving woman with a
husband at home who drank, and children too numerous to mention.
Which Gideon remembered against the charwoman when the money
began to go, and it turned his suspicion towards her, because, as he
said, with the state of her home affairs, money must be a great
temptation. So a watch was set on her, and a curious thing
happened.
Being small, I can get into a boot cupboard very easily, and I can
also breathe anywhere through a hole bored with a gimlet. This was
done to the door of the boot cupboard, and two other rather larger
holes were also made for my eyes. Mrs. Gouger, which was the
charwoman’s name, had to do a lot of work in this room--a large one
leading out of the gym. And there, on a certain half-holiday, I was
watching her.
She worked jolly hard as far as I could say, and made a good deal
of dust, and a curious noise through her teeth when she scrubbed,
which I thought only men did when they washed horses; but there
was nothing suspicious, if you understand me. She didn’t touch a
coat or anything, though many were hanging against a wall; and the
few caps about she merely picked up and hung on the pegs.
 Then, just before she finished, who should come in but Ferrars,
and, to my great astonishment, Mrs. Gouger courtesied to him as
though he had been the housekeeper or the Doctor.
Ferrars treated her with great loftiness, and evidently knew all
about her private affairs.
He said:
“And how is the child that’s got mumps?” and she said it was
better. He then gave her some advice about her husband, which I
didn’t hear, and she blessed him for all his goodness to her, and said
God had sent him to a lone, struggling woman, and that he would
reap a thousandfold what he had sown. All of which, coming from
Mrs. Gouger to Ferrars, seemed very curious to me. Presently he
said:
“Well, I cannot stop longer. I’m glad the child is better. Keep on at
your husband about the pledge; and here’s a shilling.”
Then Mrs. Gouger put the shilling in her pocket and blessed him
again. And Ferrars went.
That very day young Forrest lost a shilling out of his desk, which
doesn’t lock, owing to Forrest having taken the lock off to sell to
Meadowes last term.
I told Butler and Gideon what I had seen, and Butler thought it
rum, and Gideon said there was more in it than met the eye.
Butler said:
“Evidently the kid” (Ferrars is a kid from Butler’s point of view)
“has given the charwoman tin before, or else she wouldn’t have
blessed him. Now the question is, How much pocket-money does
Ferrars get?”
And I said:
“A shilling a week.”
“When does he get it?”
“Mondays.”
Butler said, “Ah!” but nothing seemed to strike him, and Gideon
thought that Mrs. Gouger ought to be spoken to. This Gideon
undertook to do; and the next week he did. What happened was
that Mrs. Gouger said all that she had before said to Ferrars about
her husband and children, but added that a young gentleman with a
most Christian heart had lately interested himself in her misfortunes.
Gideon asked if it was a Dunston chap, and Mrs. Gouger answered
that she was not at liberty to say. She seemed rather defiant about
it, Gideon thought, and, in fact, when he pressed her for the amount
the chap gave her, she told Gideon to mind his own business. A
watch was still kept, especially on Ferrars; and once Butler did an
awfully cunning thing by setting Ferrars to watch and setting another
chap to watch Ferrars, if you follow what I mean. The other chap
was Butler himself, and the room was a dormitory. But it came out
rather awkwardly for Butler, because he sneezed at the very start,
and Ferrars got out from under the bed where he had arranged to
watch, and found Butler watching behind a coat against the wall.
Then they had a row, because Ferrars evidently thought Butler was
there to watch him; which he was.
The end of the affair came out rather tame in its way, and only
shows what awfully peculiar ideas some chaps have. Gideon finally
spoke to Slade, the head of the school, and though Slade doesn’t
like Gideon, owing to his way of making money by usury, yet it was
such a serious affair that he listened all through and promised to go
to the Doctor. Gideon had actually kept an account of all the money
stolen, and it amounted now to the tremendous sum of four pounds
five shillings and sixpence, including Morrant’s half-sovereign.
Then, after Dr. Dunston knew, we heard one day from Fowle that
he had sent for Mrs. Gouger to his study, and that she had been
there fully half an hour and come out crying. Fowle had listened as
best he could till the Doctor’s butler had come by and told him to
hook it; but he had heard nothing except one remark in the voice of
Mrs. Gouger, and that remark was, “Four pound five and sixpence,
sir, and a godsend if ever money was.”
Gideon said her mentioning of the exact sum was a very ominous
thing for Ferrars. And what was more ominous still happened that
evening, for Ferrars wasn’t at prep. or prayers.
There were a number of ideas about as to what it all meant, and
Corkey minimus, who always tries to get among chaps bigger than
himself and say clever things, came out with a theory that Mrs.
Gouger was Ferrars’s mother, and that Ferrars was therefore stealing
and making the money over to her. But Butler merely smacked his
head when he heard it, and told Corkey minimus not to be a little
ass.
Gideon was the only chap who hadn’t any idea. He knew Ferrars’s
great notions about helping the poor and giving tithes to parsons,
and so on, but he said for a chap to steal money and hand it over to
a charwoman in charity was contrary to human nature. All the same,
if a thing actually happens, it can’t be contrary to human nature.
Anyway, after prayers next morning the Doctor stopped the school in
chapel and explained everything.
He said:
"My boys, while it is true that you come to Merivale to be
instructed by me and those who labor here among you on my
behalf, it is also true that I learn occasionally from those whom I
teach. Indeed, new problems are almost as often set by you for my
solution as by me for yours, and seldom has a more intricate
difficulty confronted me than that which yesterday challenged my
attention. There has recently happened among us a mysterious
disappearance of coins of the realm. Now a shilling, a sixpence, a
penny-piece, if deposited in one spot, will usually remain there until
removed by human agency. And the human agent who removes
money which belongs to another without that other’s sanction is a
thief. Boys, briefly there has been a thief among you--a thief whose
moral obliquity has taken such an extraordinary turn, whose views of
rectitude have become so distorted, that even my own experience of
school-boy ethics cannot parallel his performance. This lad has
looked around him upon the world, and found in it, as we all must
find, a vast amount of suffering and privation, of honest toil and of
humble heroism, displayed by the lowest among us. He has also
observed that Providence is pleased to make wide distinctions
between the rich and the poor; he has noted that where one labors
for daily bread another reaps golden harvests without the trouble of
putting in the sickle. This extraordinary boy contrasted the position
of one of these humble workers with that of those among whom his
own lot was thrown here, and he found that whereas that obscure
but necessary and excellent person, Mrs. Gouger, she whose duty it
is to cleanse, scour, and otherwise purify the disorder produced by
our assemblies--he found, I say, that whereas Mrs. Gouger worked
extremely hard for sums not considerable, albeit handsome in
connection with the nature of her labors, others of the human
family--yourselves--were in receipt of weekly allowances of varying
amounts for which you toiled not, neither did you spin.
“This unhappy lad allowed his mind to brood on the apparent
injustice of such an arrangement, and instead of coming to his head-
master for an explanation of this and other problems which arose to
puzzle his immature intelligence, permitted himself the immoral, the
scandalous, the disgraceful and horribly mistaken course of righting
the balance from his point of view. This could only be effected by
defiance of those divine laws which govern all properly constituted
bodies of human society. Ferrars--I need not conceal his name any
longer--Ferrars broke one commandment in order to obey another.
His fatuous argument, as it was elaborated yesterday to me, stands
based on error; his crime was the result of the most complicated
ignorance and vicious sophism it has ever been my lot to discover in
a boy of twelve. He did evil that good might come. Ascertaining from
the inspired Word that ’charity covereth a multitude of sins,’ he
imagined it must extend to cover that forbidden by the Eighth
Commandment. This commandment he broke no less than fourteen
times. You ask with horror why. That the domestic affairs of Mrs.
Gouger might be ameliorated. He took the pocket-money of his
colleagues, and with it modified those straits into which poverty and
conjugal difficulties have long cast Mrs. Gouger. It was Ferrars’s
unhappy, and I may say unparalleled, design to go on appropriating
the money of his school-mates until a sum of five pounds had been
raised and conveyed to Mrs. Gouger. Of this total, with deplorable
ingenuity, he had already subtracted from various pockets the sum
of four pounds five shillings and sixpence; it was his intention to
continue these depredations until the entire sum had been collected.
But the end has come. The facts have been placed before me, and I
confess to you that perhaps never have I been confronted with a
problem more peculiar. After a lengthy conversation with those who
support me here, and after placing the proposition before a higher
tribunal than any which earth has to offer, I have come to a curious
decision. I have determined to leave the fate of the boy Ferrars in
your hands. This time to-morrow I shall expect Slade, as
representing the school, to inform me of your decision, and to-day,
contrary to custom, will be a half-holiday, that the school may
debate the question and conclude upon it. I would point out that
there is no middle course here, in my opinion. Either Ferrars must be
forgiven after a public apology to the establishment he has
outraged, or he must be expelled. As for the money, if those who
have lost it will apply to me between one and two o’clock to-day,
each shall have his share again.”
Well, you may guess what a jaw there was that afternoon; and
finally, after hours of talk, Slade decided the point must be arranged
by putting papers into a hat. If you drew a cross on the paper it
meant that you wanted Ferrars to be expelled; and if you drew a
naught, that meant he was to be let off. You were not bound to say
how you voted, and the excitement when the votes were counted
was something frightful. Ferrars little knew what was going on.
At last the numbers were read out:
For expulsion 124
Against expulsion 101
And Slade and Bradwell were mad when Slade read them, and said
that Merivale was disgraced. But Gideon and Butler and Ashby major
and Trelawny said not, and thought it wasn’t a case for anything but
justice. The Doctor made no remark when he heard what had
happened, but I heard him tell the new master, Thompson, a day
afterwards that perhaps the Lower School ought not to have been
allowed to vote, as small boys would merely have understood that
Ferrars had stolen money and nothing else. Their minds, the Doctor
said, were not big enough to take in the peculiar nature of the case.
But Thompson said he honestly believed the school was perfectly
right, and that the subtleties of the case were not for that court; and
the Doctor sighed and said it might be so.
Anyway, Ferrars went. We never saw him again, and the only
cheerful thing about the end of it was that Steggles was badly
scored off. You see he nipped off to the Doctor among the first, and
said Ferrars had stolen ten shillings from him too. But it happened
that Ferrars had kept the most careful account of all the money he
had raised for Mrs. Gouger and the people he had raised it from. But
he had never taken a farthing from Steggles. So Steggles was
flogged by Mannering in his best form; which shows that things
which are frightfully sad in themselves often produce fine results in a
roundabout sort of manner.
 The Buckeneers

Of corse even a kid can get a good idea sometimes, and Maine,
who I was fagging for, said afterwards that the idea was alright.
Whether young Bailey or me thort of it first I don’t know, but Maine
lent me a book about coarseers and buckeneers and such like
people, and he said it was a great life, though not much followed in
present times. He was no good for a coarseer himself, becorse the
sea always made him dredfully bad, and, besides, he was going to
be a bushranger some day, being an Australian and well up in it. But
he said that Drake and Raleigh and many other men in our English
history were buckeneers of the dedliest sort and had made England
what it was; so me and Bailey thort a lot about it and wished a good
deal we could begin that sort of life. Bailey said that in the books
he’d read, if a boy began young, he was generally a super cargo and
went on getting grater and grater slowly; but I thort boys began as
cabin-boys and got grater very quickly by resquing people. But
Bailey said that was only in books, and that nobody got on quickly at
sea owing to the compettitishun. He did not much think there were
any buckeneers left, but Maine said there were, cheefly off the coast
of Africa, and that daring and dedly deeds were done in the
Mediterranan to this day. He said the lawlessness there was awful,
and that nobodi knew what went on along the north side of Africa in
little bays and inletts there not marked on maps.
When Bailey herd that, he took more interest in it and wished he
had been born the son of a pirit insted of a doctor, because he said
we should have come eesily to it if our fathers had been in that
corse of life; but when I told Maine, he sed that the best and most
splendid pirits had had to overcome grate dificultees in their youth,
and that it was the pirit who began as a meer boy at school who
often made the gratest name.
Bailey sed he was a pirit at heart, and I sed I was to; but not
untell we red a butiful book by Stevenson could we see any way to
be one reelly. Then we saw that we must go away from Merivale in
secret--in fact, we must fly; and Bailey sed it would have to be by
night to avoid capture, and Maine sed it was so. But it was a
tremendous thing to do, and I asked Bailey about his mother, and
Bailey sed his mother would blub a good deal at first, but she would
live to be proud of him when his name was wringing through
England. And I felt the same in a way, becorse, though I have got
no mother to blub, I have got an uncle, who is my gardian, and he is
a lawer and a Conservitive who has tried to get into Parleyment and
failed.
Then me and Bailey talked it out when chaps were asleep in our
dormitory, and the thing was what we should reelly and truly be,
becorse there were coarseers and buckeneers and pirits, and they all
had their own pekuliar ways. So we asked Maine which was best,
and he sed “buckeneers.” He didn’t seem to know exacktly what a
coarseer was; but he told us all about pirits, and he sed they kill
womin and childrin, and Bailey said he’d rather be a docter, like his
father, than do that, and I said the same. But a buckeneer is very
diferent, being like Raleigh and Drake; and a buckeneer may have
his name wringing through England, but a pirit never has, being
rather a beast reelly. Maine sed it was like this: a pirit always thinks
of himself, and nobody else; but the best sort of buckeneer thinks of
himself, of corse, but thinks of his country to; and after he has
replennished his coffers he makes his soverein a present of islands,
and so on, which are gennerally called after him, so that his name
may never be forgottun. And Bailey sed that was the sort he wanted
to be, and I sed so to.
We thanked Maine a good deal, and he sed it was a big idea for
such kids as us to get, and hoped we were made of the right stuff,
and promised not to say a word to a soul. And we finally desided to
try it, and Bailey sed we must have a plan of ackshun; so we made
one.
 He said we must run away and work gradully by night to the coast
and go to Plymouth, and get into the docks, and find a ship bound
for the north coste of Africa. I asked him what next, and he sed,
very truly, that that was enuff to begin with, and that by the time we
had done that much manny adventures would have fallen to our lot,
and we might alredy be in the way to become buckeneers. And I sed
I hoped we should make freends at sea; but he sed the fewer
freends we made the better buckeneers we should probbably be,
because it is not a life where you can make freends safely. In fact,
no reel buckeneer would trust his own brother a yard. And I sed that
we must trust one annuther at any rate. And Bailey sed, as far as
that went, he supposed we must; but he sed it relluctantly.
The thing was then to save up for the diferent weppons. Maine
sed we shouldn’t want arms, and that money was all we should
require till we got down south; but Bailey felt sure we must at leest
have pistells, becorse in books the man armed to the teath is never
mollested if people know, but the unarmed man often looses his life
for want of a weppon. We had one shilling pocket-money a week
each, and Bailey getting a birthday, very fortunately, made a whole
pound by it after we had been saving for three weeks. So between
us we suddinly had one pound six shillings, and Bailey sed it was
share and share alike for the present, and always would be unless
some dedly hatred sprang up between us. And I sed it never would;
but he sed it might, and if it did, it would probabbly be about a girl if
books were true. And I larfed, becorse we both have a grate
contemp for all girls.
Well, things went alright, and on a half-holiday we managed to get
to Merivale and buy pistells. They were five shillings and sixpence
each, and the man didn’t seem to much like selling them; but we got
them, and amunition--fifty rounds each. And Bailey sed that would
be enough. Maine sed they were very good pistells for close work,
but advised us never to use them unless in soar straights. And we
sed we wouldn’t.
It was the day of the menaggeree at Merivale that me and Bailey
finally took the grate step of going. We had collected a lot of food,
and studdied geography so as to get to Plymouth, and we arranged
that we should travel by night and hide by day in the hart of
impennetrable woods, which we did. After the menaggeree, at a
certain point on the way home, we slipped it round a corner, and
Thompson didn’t see us, and in a breef time we were at the edge of
Merivale Woods, free.
“To-night,” Bailey sed, “we will get across this forest and do eight
or ten miles along the high-road, and so reach Oakshott Woods at
dawn. They are on the edge of the moor and quite impennetrable.”
So we got well into Merivale Woods first and made a lair of braken
under a fir-tree. And we cut off some of the fir-tree bark and licked
the sap, which is very nourishing and feeding, because we wanted to
save our food as much as possible. But we had each a cold sorsage
and a drink of water. And then night came on, and I felt, for the first
time, that we had done a tremendous deed.
“We’re fairly started,” I sed to Bailey. “It’s just call over at Merivale
now.”
And he sed, “Yes; if the fellows in the upper third could only see
us!”
I sed, “It’s a small begenning.”
And he sed, “It is; but if things go rite, and we are made of the
propper stuff for buckeneers, we’ll make England wring yet.”
Then it began to rain rather hard, and I found that a wood isn’t
really a dry place by night if it rains, and Bailey lighted a match, and
sed it was nearly nine.
“That’ll mean ‘lights out’ at Merivale,” he sed; “but for us it’ll mean
the begenning of the night.”
I sneazed just about then, becorse water from the fir-tree was
dropping down my neck rather fast, and Bailey sed if I was going to
get annything the matter with me I had better go back at once,
becorse no buckeneer ever had a cold, being men of steel and iron.
And I sed a sneaze was nothing.
Then we started very corsiously through the wood, and Bailey
cocked his pistell, and I asked him kindly to walk in front, feeling a
curious sensashun when he walked behind me with his pistell
cocked. I told him, and he sed it was fear, but I sed it was kaution.
 Sometimes he whispered, “Cave!” and we sunk down and got
fritefully dripping in the wet, but nothing happened, and we were
getting well on through the wood when Bailey sed, “Cave!” again,
and this time, when we had sunk down, we distinkly herd a footstep,
and Bailey sed it was our first adventure, and I sed I wished it had
come by daylight, becorse it wants grate practise to face adventures
in the dark at first.
Anyway the noise got nearer and got louder, and Bailey and me
both cocked our pistells, and he sed, “Reserve your fire to close
range,” and I sed, “Yes.” Then he sed, “I see the thing. It’s bigger
than a beast you would expect in an English wood”; and I sed, “I
have got a sort of fealing it is something out of the menaggerie”;
and he sed, “Then it will be a real adventure, and I wish we were up
trees.”
But it was to late, and something went quite close. I sore a red
spark, and Bailey sed, “Fire!” which we did. At leest my pistell went
off with fereful effect; but Bailey’s didn’t, and he sed afterwards that
he’d make the pistell man biterly rew the day he sold him a
treecherous weppon.
But after I fired we herd a human voice, and it sed, “Hell!” Then it
sed other fearful words, which Bailey sed we ought to remember
because they were buckeneering words curiously enuff. And then the
man dashed towards us, which showed I had not slain him, or even
hit him in a vittle spot; and we fled, and soon we found that we had
distanced him, though we had a squeek for it.
“He was a keeper,” sed Bailey, “and he will think we were
poachers, and raise a hue-and-cry. We must keep on and get into
Oakshott Woods, or we shall very likely have to yield to supereer
force.”
After this eksitement I got a curious feeling in my stomach, and
telling Bailey, he sed it was either hunger or fear. And I sed it was
hunger; but Bailey sed, seeing what a hevy meal we had made with
sorsage and bred and turpentine juice only two hours before, that it
was fear.
I sed if he thought so he’d better go on without me, as I hadn’t
taken to this corse of life to be cheeked by him. And he sed he was
leeder of the gang, and I was the gang, and the first thing was to
lern to obey orders. And then I got rather cross with Bailey, and
asked him who he thort he was to give me orders, and reminded
him my pistell could go off anyway, which was more than his could.
This worried him a good deal, becorse, of course, the man whose
pistell went off had the best of it. Then he sed that it was no good
having a quarrel between ourselves while we were not yet out of
danger. He also said that he beleeved we might venture to take one
hour’s sleep to strengthen us before getting on to Oakshott, and I
sed, “Yes,” but thought that one of us ought to watch while the
other slept. Bailey said he would watch first, and he sed also that we
might get to the woodman’s hut in the middle of Merivale Woods if
we kept on past a ded fir-tree with its stem white, becorse all the
bark was off, which we did, becorse the moon was now shining very
britely, and the rain had stopped. The cold was also friteful, and my
teath chattered once or twice, but I broke sticks and things to attract
Bailey, becorse if he had herd my teath he would have sed it was
fear again.
Once a bough jumped back and hit Bailey a friteful smack in the
face, and I was glad, and he sed he rather thort his eye was done
for; and he sed it didn’t much matter if it was, so long as he had one
good eye to see with, becorse most buckeneers lost an eye sooner
or later, though generally with a stroak from a cutlass.
We found the hut, and there was some dry fern in it, and we
lighted a candle-end we had, and took off our boots, and wrung out
our socks, and each had half a currant dumpling. Then Bailey looked
at his watch and sed I might turn in for half an hour. Then he would
wake me and turn in for half an hour himself. He went on gard with
another candle-end, and advised me to draw my pistell and sleep
with it cocked under my head. But I sed I never herd of such a
dangerous thing as that being done, and kept my pistell reddy
cocked near my hand. I didn’t fall off to sleep, as I expected, owing
to anxiaty as to our fate, but I shut my eyes and thort a good deal,
and after my eyes had been shut some time I opened one a little
and was grately surprised to see Bailey coming towards me
steelthily. He had his pistell in his hand, and first I had a horrible
thort he wanted to kill me, so that he mite have all our food and
money; and then I felt sure he was coming to change pistells, so
that he might have the one that went off. This made me get in a
friteful wax with him, becorse I saw he was very unreliable and not
reely as much of a chum as I had thort. So I waited untill I saw him
stretch out his hand for my pistell, and then I leapt at his throat in a
very ferocious way, that much surprized him. I also sed “Hell!” like
the keeper had.
It must have been a solumn site by the lite of the candle-end
when we began to fight tooth-and-nail for the pistell which could go
off. We were both desperet, and it was reelly a battle to deside
which should be the leeder of the enterprise and which should be
merely the gang. Then, while we wresled and straned every nerve, a
curious thing happened, for we fell against the candle-end, stuck on
the top of a stick, and the candle-end fell against the side of the hut,
and the hut, being made of wood, with walls of dried heather, was
very inflameable and cort fire almost immediately.
And then Bailey sed we must aggree to settle our dispute later on
and fli at once. So we each took our own pistell, and were just going
to leave the scene, when, to our grate horror, we herd voices, and
among them the voices of Browne and Mainwaring, who were, of
corse, house-masters at Merivale.
Exhorsted though we were, me and Bailey made a terrible effort
to escape, and I think we mite have done so even then, but, oweing
to the moon and two other men who were with Mainwaring, we
could not reach an impennetrable part of the wood, and finally
Mainwaring cort me, and a man cort Bailey, and they dragged us
into the light of the blazing ruins of the hut, and we found out that
Browne and Mainwaring had come after us, like beestly blood-
hounds, and had met the keeper, who told them he had been fired
upon, and then the unfortunate burning of the hut had directed their
steps towards us. And it’s a lesson in a way, showing what risks it is
for buckeneers to fall out among themselves at kritikal moments.
Of corse we had to walk back merely as prisoners of Mainwaring,
but Bailey told me not to answer questions and rather let them cut
our tongues out than know the truth. So they didn’t get anything out
of us, and when we got back, at two o’clock in the morning, Dunston
was up to meet us; and by that time, what with cold and bruises and
the failure of the skeem, I wasn’t equal to defying Dunston, and
merely sed we wanted to change our corse of life for something
different, and had started to do so. And I also sed that burning the
hut was an axsident which might have happened to anybody. And
Bailey sed the same.
Then Doctor Dunston sent for the matron, and we had brandy-
and-water and a hot bath, which was very refreshing to me, but
Bailey sed biterly when he was in it that he had thought that
morning never to have had a bath again. He also sed we should be
put in sepperate bedrooms that night, and that if either of us got an
opportunety to eskape, it was his duty to reskue the other. But I sed
I didn’t want to eskape, being fritefully sleepy and exhorsted, and I
sed that if he eskaped he needn’t trubble to reskue me, becorse if I
returned again to being a buckeneer it certinnly wouldn’t be with
him.
I didn’t see any more of him until next day; then we were taken in
like prisinners of war before the school, and Doctor Dunston
lecktured upon us as if we were beests of pray, and he sed that a
corse of falty literatuer was to blame for our running away, and sed
that the school liberary must be reformed. But he never knew the
grate truth, becorse he sed we were onley running away to sea
becorse of the fascenation of the ocean to the British karacter, when
reely it was to be buckeneers and the terrer of the Mediterranan.
Maine showed us all the points we had done wrong afterwards,
and he sed the way we had fought for the best pistell was very
interesting to him and a grate warning not to trust in your fellow-
creetures. And, after he had lecktured upon us, Doctor Dunston
flogged me and Bailey in publick, which showed the stuff we were
made of, becorse, though Bailey gets very red when flogged, he has
never been known to shedd a tear; and I get very white, curiously
enuff; but I have never been known to shedd a tear either.
THE END
 Transcriber’s Note
The text at times uses a semi-literate narrator’s voice
and spelling. Only two obvious punctuation errors have
been corrected. The references here are to the page and
line in the original.
198.18 in a cupboard in the Replaced.
gymnasium[./,] under the
rubber shoes.
201.10 flogged a single chap[,/.] Replaced.
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