Child and Adolescent Development, 2nd Edition

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 Human
Development
For Students in Southern Africa
(A combination of Child and
Adolescent Development &
Adult Development and Ageing)

e-Book

Dap Louw and Anet Louw

Department of Psychology, U n iversity of the Free State

sb SUNBONANI
BOOKS
Human Development - For Students in Southern Africa
(A combination of Child and Adolescent Development &
Adult Development and Ageing)

Published by SunBonani Books

All rights reserved

Copyright © 2020 (e-book in PDF) Dap Louw and Anet Louw

First Edition (e-book) 2020

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

electronic, photographic or mechanical means, including photocopying and recording
on record, tape or laser disk, on microfilm, via the Internet, by e-mail, or by any other
information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission by the
author. In this regard a request should be submitted to Prof Dap Louw:
< [email protected]>

Views reflected in this publication are not necessarily those of the publisher.

Graphic design: Carrin Scott.

ISBN 978-1-928424-52-9 (e-book)

https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424529

AVAILABLE FROM: https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424529

The recommended citation for this book is:

Louw, D. & Louw, A. (2020). Human Development for Students in
Southern Africa (e-Book). B loem fontein : Su n Bonan i Books. https://doi.
org/1 0.18820/9781928424529

Do not sell or discard your books, notes or other learning materials once you have
completed a course. When you embark upon your career you will find that your memory is
not nearly as good as you thought it was --- and that you will need those materials
again. Start building up your future professional library and knowledge bank now. The
learning materials are not only meant to help you pass Q test or exam, but a/so to assist
you in the future.
 CHILD and
ADOLESCENT
development
Second Edition

Oap Louw & Anet Louw

•
 Oap Louw is an extraordinary professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of
the Free State. He holds master's degrees and doctorates in both Psychology and Criminology.
He has studied and lectured in the USA and still has strong links with academic institutions in
America. He is the editor and author of several textbooks which are widely prescribed at South
African universities. He has published more than 100 artides in accredited national and
international scientific journals.

Anet Louw was an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of the

Free State and is currently a research fellow. She coordinated the PhD programme in Child

Psychology, as well as the Child Practice Programme in the master's course in Professional

Psychology for several years. She is the author, co-author and editor of several publications in

the field of human development. She has lectured in developmental p s ychology in the USA In

her private practice she mainly works with children and their parents.
,

, ,
,

..

9
httJl<:f/doi.org/1O.18fQ0/97 81928424471
 Child and Adolescent
development
Second edition

Dap Louw and Anet Louw

Department of Psychology, University of the Free State

Copyright © 2020 (e-book) Dap Louw and Anet Louw

This e-book is based on the

2014 Second Edition Softcover Printed Book

published by Psychology Publications

sb SUNBONANI
BOOKS
Child and Adolescent development
Published by SunBonani Books

All rights reserved

Copyright © 2020 (e-book in PDF) Dap Louw and Anet Louw

This book is based on the 2014 Second Edition: printed copy

First Edition (e-book) 2020

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

electronic, photographic or mechanical means, including photocopying and recording
on record, tape or laser disk, on microfilm, via the Internet, by e-mail, or by any other
information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission by the
author. In this regard a request should be submitted to Prof Dap Louw:
[email protected] / 083 391 8331

Views reflected in this publication are not necessarily those of the publisher.

COVER: A special word of thanks to our American cyber friend Joni Rose for
permission to use her painting Children on the Beach as cover page
(see http://www.jonirosefineart.comj).

ISBN 978-1-928424-47-5 (e-book)

https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424475

AVAILABLE FROM: https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424475

The recommended citation for this book is:

Louw, DA & Louw, A. E. (2020). Child and Adolescent development (e-Book).

Bloemfontein: SunBonani Books. https://doi.org/10.18820/9781928424475

Do not sell or discard your books, notes or other learning materials once you have
completed a course. When you embark upon your career you will find that your memory is
not nearly as good as you thought it was --- and that you will need those materials
again. Start building up your future professional library and knowledge bank now. The
learning materials are not only meant to help you pass Q test or exam, but a/so to assist
you in the future.
This book is dedicated to Antoinette, Dappie, Janine, Dian and Mia
 PREFACE

The development of children is one of the most fascinating wonders of life. From the
moment conception takes place until the end of adolescence when the person enters the
adult world, the developmental road is characterised by numerous miracles and mysteries.
We would very much like to share with you our training and experience in the field of child
psychology, not only as a clinical and counselling psychologist respectively, but also as the
proud parents of two children, a grandson and a granddaughter.
The following should be kept in mind as you read this book: The media, and even some textbooks,
unfortunately tend to present the development of the child and adolescent as if all children and
adolescents develop according to a specific formula. However, such a presentation or viewpoint
contradicts one of the most important principles in Psychology - every person, and therefore also
the child and adolescent, is unique. Students and others interested in human behaviour should
therefore continually realise that research and similar information on human beings refer primarily
to 'averages' or guidelines. Special caution should be taken not to label children and adolescents
who do not meet these predetermined formulas or expectations. The uniqueness of the individual
should be respected, encouraged and nurtured. Disregarding this characteristic could easily lead to
the wasting of unique and valuable potential.
The target audience of this book is primarily undergraduate students in psychology,
education, social work, psychiatry and related disciplines. The nature and extent of Child and
Adolescent Development, however, also makes it suitable for use on the postgraduate level
(especially where this field was not a focus area in the undergraduate course). Furthermore,
the book contains valuable information which will be of interest to anyone who has an
interest in child and adolescent development.

Our main goals with this book are the following:

1) We are fully aware that information on child and adolescent development is available in
abundance in the media such as the Internet, magazines and newspapers. However, this
'information overflow' has created a problem of its own: it is very difficult to separate
the wheat from the chaff. The inevitable result is that many students arrive at
university believing in unproven 'facts', while there are parents who raise their children
according to principles that are often not much more than folklore! We do not imply
that psychology has all the answers. In fact, we are reminded on a daily basis that much
more research is needed before the last word can be spoken. This is why one of the
objectives of the book is to provide the reader with the most recent scientific information.
2) One of our most important aims is to make the book as relevant as possible to the
unique South African situation. It never ceases to amaze us to see how many students,
including those who enrol for psychology, are trained for a profession in South Africa -
by using international and especially American handbooks that basically have no
relevance and therefore no practical application value (except for the students to pass
their exams). We thus went to great lengths to trace and include local research data and
South African examples. This was no easy task, especially because some research data
and other information were, for example, part of unpublished reports and theses or
 published in relatively unknown sources. However, the search exceeded our expectations
and it is a pleasure to share the results with you.
A significant part of the book, however, still relies heavily on international and
particularly Western research. There are mainly two reasons for this. Firstly, it cannot be
denied that there are certain 'universal truths' (information or data which, to a greater
or lesser degree, hold true for most or all cultures). These universal truths have been
uncovered by international researchers and it would be an academic omission to
disregard these important contributions. Secondly, many research areas in child
development still lie fallow in South Africa, with the result that we had no other option
but to use international data. We would thus like to strongly encourage present and
future researchers to assist us in improving the relevancy level in future editions by
bringing empirical data and other information on the South African situation to our
attention. We owe it to our students, colleagues and other interested parties to provide
them with relevant material.
3) We are aware that the majority of students will be reading this book in their second or
even third language. We are equally aware that many students bring with them a
scholastic backlog, for whatever reason. Thus, the book has been made as user- and
especially student-friendly as possible; the writing style and the language level have
therefore been made very simple and accessible. For this purpose, we also incorporated
the services of professional language editors. Furthermore, new concepts and terms have
been defined, while keywords have been printed in bold. To assist students in their
studies, additional information is provided in inserts (boxes) to facilitate further
understanding. These boxes include topics for critical thinking, focus on interesting
South African and other research or concentrate on the practical application of the
issues discussed. At the end of each major section, questions are provided to aid the
student in the review of the material. A short summary is provided at the end of each
chapter to further facilitate the student's revision of the learned material.

In order to understand our method of working, a few points need clarification:

a) We decided to reduce the number of references in this book somewhat. The reasons were:

In some of our other books the number of pages of the reference list almost equals that of
a full chapter in the book. The cost implications of an unnecessary detailed reference list
therefore speak for itself.
I nformation that may be regarded as part of the 'general knowledge' of psychologists has
not been referenced.
At most tertiary institutions the course in child development is presented on the first- or
second-year level where it is seldom expected from students to know the references or to
use them in the exams.
Many readers find 'unnecessary' references annoying as they block the flow of the
sentences.
At the same time, we do acknowledge the academic importance of good referencing. Any
reader who therefore needs any information on a source mentioned or unmentioned is welcome to
contact the editors.
b) The reference system of the American Psychological Association is used by most psychologists.
Especially due to the fact that some of their requirements differ from language and other (e.g.,
statistical) principles in South Africa, it was only used as a guideline in this book. We did,
however, strive to fulfil the core aim of any reference system - to make it easy to trace sources.
c) As far as terminology is concerned:
• Child and adolescent. The title of this book Child and Adolescent Development reflects the
demarcation generally used in psychology. However, it should be emphasised that
according to the Constitution of South Africa, a child is a person under the age of 18 years.
The legal definition of child is therefore used for children of all ages, from infancy to
adolescence. Although we naturally acknowledge the legal definition, they will sometimes
distinguish between a child and an adolescent, mainly for practical and academic reasons.
In most cases, however, the term child will be used to indicate children younger than 18
years.
• Gender. Sexist writing is offensive and the editors have done their best to avoid it. Their
solution has been to use the plural form they. However, in cases where the plural is
inappropriate or unnatural, either he or she is used. In some instances both terms he and
she are used.
• Racial differences. The current authors are dead set against the (sometimes unintentional)
racist conveyance of information that is found often in the media and unfortunately also in
scientific sources. Especially in South Africa, where science was employed during the years
of apartheid in an attempt to indicate discriminating differences between races, such
differences must be presented with great responsibility in the current era. The authors
pursued this aim. Several irrelevant references to race differences in the previous edition
have been removed. Where references to race and ethnicity still appear, the aim is mainly
to acknowledge and indicate the rich and unique differences in our country - in the same
way in which other interesting differences (e.g. with regard to sexes and socio-economic
status) are pointed out. It is of utmost importance that readers and students accept the
generally accepted fact - that differences within one race are just as great as, and even
greater than between races.
• Coloured. We acknowledge that the term Coloured is offensive to some classified in this
way. After consulting with various so-called Coloureds, it was decided to retain the term
for practical reasons. Most South African research, including that of the Central Statistical
Service, makes use of the category Coloured. Leaving out the category altogether or
combining it with another category would create unnecessary confusion.
• Parent/caregiver. Due to factors such as divorce, separation and death, a significant
number of children are not being cared for by their parents. In such cases, the children are
usually being looked after by a family member or friend. As it was impractical to always
use both terms, it was decided to use mostly parent. This term therefore also implies
caregiver.

To deal with the central theme of child and adolescent development in an orderly and
structured way, each chapter is divided into the following sub-themes:
• Introduction / Orientation
• Physical Development
 • Cognitive Development
• Personality Development
• Social Development

This classification is accepted internationally and will also contribute to making the content
more logical and 'digestible'.
Finally --- no work is without mistakes and can therefore always be improved. The present text,
of course, is no exception. We would therefore appreciate any recommendations from students
and other readers.
Most importantly, it is our wish that you will find this book as enriching as we did writing it.

Dap uuw and Anet uuw

Department 0/Psychology
University 0/the Free State
Bloemfontein
November 20 13
[email protected] ! 083 3918331
LIST OF CO-WORKERS

This book would not have been published had it not been for the direct and indirect contributions of
various academic colleagues and support staff. We can hardly thank them enough for their
contributions, feedback, recommendations and general support. The following colleagues made
contributions to the first and/or second edition:

a) Academic

Alberts, Charlie - University of Fort Hare

Andipatin, Michelle - University of the Western Cape
Basson, Pieter - University of Johannesburg
Basson, Wilna - University of Limpopo (Medunsa Campus)
Bender, Gerda - University of Pretoria
Bester, Suzanne - University of Pretoria
Bezuidenhout, Monique - University of Pretoria
Bates, Mareza - University of Venda
Botha, Anja - University of the Free State
Card, Melissa - University of Johannesburg
Cilliers, Francois - University of the Free State
Cockcroft, Kate - University of the Witwatersrand
Coetzee, Heleen - North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus
Cronje, Elsje - University of South Africa
De Wet, Corene - University of the Free State
Du Preez, Elizabeth - University of Pretoria
Du Plessis, Graham - University of Johannesburg
Du Toit, Marli - University of the Free State
Duncan, Norman - University of the Witwatersrand
Eloff, Irma - University of Pretoria
Erasmus, Petro - North-West University, Mafikeng Campus
Essendrup, Eugene - University of Fort Hare
Esterhuyse, Karel - University of the Free State
Ferns, lise - University of South Africa
Fouche, Paul - University of the Free State
Haidula, Lea - Un iversity of Namibia
Haycock, Anelia - University of Limpopo (Turfloop Campus)
Idemudia, Sunday Erhabor - University of Limpopo (Turfloop Campus)
Isaacs, Serena - University of the Western Cape
Kgantsi, Rose - North-West University, Mafikeng Campus
Killian, Bev - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg
Loxton, Helene - University of Stellenbosch
Macleod, Catriona - Rhodes University
Malefane-Tadi, Florence - University of the Free State
Mampane, Ruth - University of the Western Cape
Meyer, Anneke - University of Limpopo (Turfloop Campus)
Mohatlane, Edwin - University of the Free State
Naidoo, Pravani - University of the Free State
Niemand, Hanru - University of Stell en bosch
Okoli, Naledi - University of Limpopo (Medunsa Campus)
Padmanabhanunni, Anita - University of the Western Cape
Pedro, Anthena - University of the Western Cape
Prinsloo, Adri - University of Pretoria
Ravgee, Champavati - University of Fort Hare: Alice
Richter, Linda - Human Sciences Research Council
Roche, Steven - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban Westville
Rose, Jenny - University of the Western Cape
Savahl, Shazly - University of the Western Cape
Schoeman, Willie - University of Johannesburg
Shefer, Tamara - University of the Western Cape
Shino, Elizabeth - University of Namibia
Thwala, Jabulani - University of Zulu land
Tjelele-Mqaise, Winkie - University of the Western Cape
Tlali, Tsepo - University of Fort Hare: East London
Tomlinson, Mark - University of Stellenbosch
Van der Merwe, IIze - University of Johannesburg
Van Eeden, Chrizanne - Northwest University: Vanderbijlpark
Van Rensburg, Esme - Northwest University: Potchefstroom
Van Rooyen, Kempie - Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Van Schalkwyk, Gerda - Un iversity of Macau
Van Zyl, Erna - University ofthe Free State
Van Zyl, Henriette - Rhodes University
Van der Merwe, Karen - - North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus
Van Der Watt, Ronel - University of the Free State
Waldeck, Chantal - University of Johannesburg
Wessels, Paul - University of the Free State
Wilbraham, Lindi - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban
Wild, Lauren - University of Cape Town

b) Technical and general

Collett, Stephen for photographic assistance

Denobili, Anneke for the design of the manuscript
Du Preez, Annemarie for electronic and other data searches
Jordaan, Louise for checking the references
Raubenheimer, Jacques for computer assistance and index
Steyl, Danie for English language editing
Van Wyk, Lezahne for assistance with proofreading
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

1.1 ORIENTATION ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 THE GOALS OF CHILD PSyCHOLOGy ................................................................................... 4
1.3 VIEWS ON CHILDREN: AN HISTORICAL OVERViEW ............................................................ 4
1.4 DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES AND DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT ......................................... 7
1.5 DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES ................................................................................................. 10
1.5.1 Nature or nurture? ........................................................................................................... 10
1.5.2 Continuity or discontinuity? ............................................................................................. 12
1.5.3 Passive or active involvement? ........................................................................................ 13
1.5.4 Universality or cultural context? ...................................................................................... 13
1.6 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................................... 1S
1.6.1 The biological perspective ................................................................................................ 17
1.6.2 The psychodynamic perspective ...................................................................................... 20
1.6.3 The learning theory perspective ...................................................................................... 23
1.6.4 The cognitive developmental perspective ....................................................................... 25
1.6.5 The contextual perspective .............................................................................................. 28
1.6.6 The African perspective ........................................................................................... ......... 32
1.6.7 The bigger picture ............................................................................................................ 36
1.7 RESEARCH IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................ 38
1.7.1 Kinds of research .............................................................................................................. 38
1.7.2 Methods of gathering information .................................................................................. 39
1.7.3 General research designs ................................................................................................. 41
1.7.4 Research designs for studying child development ........................................................... 45
1.7.5 Cross-cultural research ..................................................................................................... 47
1.7.6 Research ethics ................................................................................................................ 48
OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................................................... SO

CHAPTER 2: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE BIRTH PROCESS

2.1 THE PRENATAL PERIOD .................................................................................................... S4
2.1.1 The beginnings of a new life ............................................................................................. 54
2.1.1.1 Conception ....................................................................................................................... 54
2.1.1.2 Chromosomes, genes, DNA and RNA ............................................................................... 56
2.1.1.3 The human genome project ............................................................................................. 57
2.1.1.4 Cell division and crossover ............................................................................................... 58
2.1.1.5 Dominance and recessivity .............................................................................................. 59
2.1.1.6 Sex determination, sex-linked characteristics and polygenic inheritance ....................... 61
2.1.1.7 M u ltiple births .................................................................................................................. 63
2.1.1.8 Cloning ............................................................................................................................. 64
2.1.1.9 Genetic abnormalities ...................................................................................................... 65
2.2 THE PRENATAL STAGES .................................................................................................... 67
2.2.1 The germinal stage ........................................................................................................... 67
2.2.2 The embryonic stage ........................................................................................................ 68
2.2.3 The fetal stage .................................................................................................................. 71
2.3 PRENATAL ENVIRONM ENTAL INFLUENCES ...................................................................... 73
2.3.1 The age of the parents ..................................................................................................... 74
2.3.2 Nutrition of the mother .................................................................................................... 75
2.3.3 Radiation ........................................................................................................................... 76
2.3.4 Diseases during pregnancy ............................................................................................... 76
2.3.5 The use of medication and drugs ..................................................................................... 77
2.3.6 The emotional state of the mother .................................................................................. 78
2.4 THE BIRTH PROCESS ......................................................................................................... 79
2.4.1 The normal birth process ................................................................................................. 79
2.4.2 Caesarean birth ................................................................................................................ 81
2.4.3 Childbirth complications .................................................................................................. 82
OVERVI EW .......................................................................................................................................... 83

CHAPTER 3: THE NEONATAL PHASE AND INFANCY

3.1 THE NEONATAL PHASE ..................................................................................................... 87
3.1.1 The physical appearance of the newborn ........................................................................ 87
3.1.2 Assessment of the newborn ............................................................................................. 89
3.1.3 Adjustment to basic life processes ................................................................................... 89
3.1.4 Perception ........................................................................................................................ 92
3.1.5 Sleep and dreaming .......................................................................................................... 93
3.1.6 Feeding ............................................................................................................................. 94
3.1.7 Neonatal Learning ............................................................................................................ 96
3.1.8 Individual differences ....................................................................................................... 96
3.2 I N FANCY ........................................................................................................................... 97
3.2.1 Physical development ...................................................................................................... 98
3.2.1.1 General physical development ......................................................................................... 99
3.2.1.2 Motor development ......................................................................................................... 99
3.2.1.3 Perceptual development ................................................................................................ 102
3.2.2 Cognitive development .................................................................................................. 104
3.2.2.1 Piaget's view of the first two years: sensorimotor development ................................. 105
3.2.2.2 I nformation processing .................................................................................................. 108
3.2.2.3 Memo� .......................................................................................................................... 100
3.2.2.4 Language development .................................................................................................. 112
3.2.3 Personality development ............................................................................................... 119
3.2.3.1 Defining personality ....................................................................................................... 119
3.2.3.2 Personality development during infancy ....................................................................... 121
3.2.4 Social development ........................................................................................................ 132
3.2.4.1 Attachment .................................................................................................................... 132
3.2.4.2 Socialisation .................................................................................................................... 143
3.2.4.3 Sibling interactions ......................................................................................................... 145
3.2.4.4 Peer interactions ............................................................................................................ 146
OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................................ 149

CHAPTER 4: EARLY CHILDHOOD

4.1 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................... 1S2