The Quest for Immortality Science at the Frontiers of Aging

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 Foreword

Just remember, once you’re over the hill,

you begin to pick up speed.

CHARLES SCHULZ

IT IS ALWAYS AN ADVENTURE when my in-laws come to visit. The

day before they arrive, I am sent out in search of foods high in vitamins and
fiber, and free of fat, sugar, salt, and taste. Once they have distributed gifts
to their grandchildren, a large sack containing every vitamin, mineral,
antioxidant and the latest “scientifically proven” antiaging substance
reported on the news is emptied on the counter. Pouches of fresh oatmeal
and bran are placed neatly on the kitchen counter next to containers of
prunes and other dried fruits. Pointing to the countertop, my eighty-year-old
father-in-law boasts that each of these dietary supplements will do nothing
less than prevent heart disease and cancer. He proudly proclaims that he is
feeling fit, and ready to go on his daily forty-five-minute power walk. My
mother-in-law asks whether she would be better off buying copper rings or
magnets to wear around her joints to alleviate the nagging pain of her
arthritis. Her latest health kick is a “breakthrough” discovery that will clear
out arteries and eliminate the risk of heart disease—soy protein. Variations
on this scenario have been played out for over ten years.
My in-laws are alive today not because they take vitamins, eat oat bran,
or ingest hormones. Both were saved by medical technologies that
successfully treated the cancer and cardiovascular diseases that occurred in
spite of following dietary practices they were led to believe would prevent
these diseases. To their credit, they have been physically fit throughout
most of their lives because they exercise almost every day.
 The quest for immortality, the war with disease, and the fear of death
have preoccupied humanity for thousands of years. Today is no different.
Can aging-related diseases be eliminated, the aging process reversed, and
an ageless body achieved, as some experts claim.? Is there a longevity
strategy people can follow that will lead us all down the path to a healthy
and happy 100-year lifespan? Can a combination of home remedies, herbs,
and antioxidants forestall aging indefinitely and serve as miracle cures for
heart disease and cancer? Can you grow younger with growth hormone,
experience the miracle anti-aging properties of melatonin, and find the
antidote to aging by replenishing other lost hormones? Does your biological
age actually decline when you floss your teeth and avoid using cell phones?
Can a lifetime of caloric restriction lead to a 120-year lifespan? What does
science have to say about these approaches to extending longevity? Can the
science of today offer alternative strategies for increased lifespans?
The news media perpetuates confusion about aging and disease by
presenting conflicting messages to the public. We are bombarded by reports
that just about everything but pure spring water causes cancer—even tap
water is declared dangerous by some people. In the 1960s, the late Nobel
laureate Linus Pauling extolled the health benefits of ingesting large doses
of vitamin C, an idea quickly snapped up by others to promote the belief
that antioxidants can slow down the aging process. Today, news reports
suggest that more than 500 milligrams of vitamin C per day may damage
the genetic material of our chromosomes (DNA) rather than protect it. It is
no wonder that some people are confused and ignore all health advice while
others believe everything they hear or read. Scarcely a week goes by
without some new book or news report on the latest “scientifically proven”
way to extend life, reverse aging, or prevent heart disease and cancer.
Extensive marketing campaigns attempt to convince baby boomers and the
elderly that the secret to combating disease, maintaining health, retaining
youth, and extending longevity has been discovered. Fads that were once
restricted to health-food stores have mushroomed into a multi-billion-dollar
industry that taps into the human obsession with aging, health, and disease.
The life extension industry begins with a grain of truth but quickly gets
mixed with a tablespoon of bad science, a cup of greed, a pint of
exaggeration, and a gallon of human desire for a longer, healthier life—a
recipe for false hope, broken promises, and unfulfilled dreams. The quest
for immortality has produced countless chefs who have cooked up fantastic
stories about aging, and people are consuming their products in massive
quantities.
Our goal in writing this book is to help you understand how and why
aging occurs so that you can make informed decisions about your health,
longevity, and quality of life. Thanks to modern-day technology, the
proponents of extreme longevity spread their slick messages more widely
than ever before. The bad news is that these new messages contain the same
false promises that have been marketed and sold for thousands of years. The
good news is that falsehoods, deceptions, and exaggerations are
unnecessary. Scientists are on the threshold of discoveries about aging that
are likely to have consequences for personal health and longevity that we
could only have dreamed of just a few decades ago. We are optimistic that
aspects of the aging process will eventually fall within the control of the
biomedical sciences—permitting humanity, for the first time, an
opportunity to influence the biological forces that govern life and death.
In this book, we offer a vision of human aging and longevity that is more
realistic and far more promising than the false images and messages about
aging that are so prevalent today. If we tell the story of aging correctly, then
this book should give you a much better understanding of how and why we
age, an expanded awareness of disease and death, and a greater appreciation
of health and longevity. You will certainly be awed and maybe even
frightened by the advances in biomedical technology that are going to
change the meaning of life and death as they are currently understood.
Perhaps more important, we hope that you will learn from this book that
aging is far more than a biological process of decline and decay that
culminates in death. Growing older can and should be a rewarding physical
and emotional journey. For most of us throughout the majority of our lives,
the passage of time can and should be marked by good health, improvement
in physical fitness, emotional growth, and enhanced wisdom.
For over a decade, we have been conducting scientific research on
individual, societal, and population consequences of aging. We have helped
develop the emerging field of science known as the biodemography of
aging, are recognized experts in population aging and the comparison and
prediction of mortality between species, have participated in public policy
debates about forecasts of human longevity and the solvency of the Social
Security trust funds, and have advised life insurance companies in the
United States and abroad. After years of publishing scientific papers, we
believe the time has come for us to create something other than publications
only scientists can understand. We felt an obligation to translate our own
research on aging, and that of other scientists whose work sheds light on
this topic, into something that can entertain, enlighten, influence, and
hopefully benefit people outside the ivory towers of academia. We hope that
you enjoy reading this book as much as we enjoyed writing it; we also hope
that we have managed to convey the enthusiasm for research on aging that
has made our work an avocation as well as an occupation.
 The
QUEST
for
IMMORTALITY
 CHAPTER 1

Death and Immortality: Early Views

Of all the questions which, throughout the centuries,

have escaped from the lips of man, there is none which
has been asked with such persistence than [sic]
“Where do I come? Whither shall I go?”

ANNIE BESANT

IN THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY, the French physiologist

Charles-Edouard Brown-Séquard announced a miraculous discovery: the
secret to rejuvenation. He removed and crushed the testicles of
domesticated animals, extracted “vital” substances from them, then used the
resulting concoction to inoculate older people against the “aging disease.”
His treatment appeared to work. Those inoculated reported improved
mental acuity and physical vigor. When Brown-Séquard injected himself
with this extract at the age of seventy-two, he claimed to have better control
over his bladder and bowels.
Eugen Steinach, a professor of physiology in Vienna in the 1920s, found
fame and fortune by convincing older men that they would be rejuvenated
by a vasectomy or by having the testicles of younger men grafted onto their
own. Soon, rejuvenation clinics sprang up everywhere and enterprising
surgeons devised a number of antiaging therapies, including the application
of electricity to the testicles and “stimulating” doses of X rays and radium
to the sex organs.
Today, rejuvenation clinics throughout the world are employing modern
versions of these bizarre methods. For example, at a rejuvenation clinic in
the United States, a combination of hormones and antioxidants is ingested
by and injected into people who have been led to believe that these
“treatments” will slow down or reverse the aging process. A popular
antiaging therapy in Europe is to journey into mountain mines where the
elevated temperature, high humidity, and radon gas are believed to have
therapeutic properties. For thousands of years, mankind has sought ways to
halt or reverse aging, cheat death, and achieve immortality.
Death is an uncomfortable and often frightening subject. What most of us
know about death we have learned from the movies. The feigned and often
violent deaths portrayed in movies are abrupt terminations of life that rarely
have anything to do with the process of aging. In the real world, terminal
illnesses are often protracted, and death, when it comes, is so
incomprehensible to those who witness it that it seems unreal.
Despite intense scrutiny, aging and death remain as two of humanity’s
great unsolved mysteries. In a world of high-tech medicine and extensive
knowledge of human biology, aging and death continue to evade
comprehension just as they have throughout a history dominated by magic,
superstition, and pseudoscience. Perceptions of aging and death have
changed dramatically over the course of history, influencing everything
from religion and philosophy to science and medicine. What has remained
constant is the effort to explain aging and death, and to find ways to escape
them.

EARLY FATALISTS
The early history of religion, science, and philosophy was infused with an
acceptance of aging and death as an inevitable and perhaps even desirable
end to earthly life. Our ancestors were nearly defenseless in the face of a
relentless onslaught of disease. They responded to their vulnerability by
developing concepts such as life after death to soften its harsh reality.
From within this fatalistic view of aging and death sprang forth an
idealized notion of what life could and perhaps should be. The tragedy of
losing children to infectious diseases, young women during childbirth, and
the eventual loss of old people to aging-related diseases, has led nearly
every culture to create an idealized world within its written and oral
folklore. In these utopian worlds, life exists without disease, disability, or
death. The pleasures and vigor of youth are not only maintained indefinitely
but are greatly enhanced by the wisdom that comes with increasing age. If
human beings must struggle through pain and anguish just to live a few
decades, then it was believed that there must be forms of life that benefit
from our struggles, or places on earth where paradise reigns. There must be
gods and a handful of lucky mortals who are not only free from disease but
throughout their immortal lives remain forever young. These utopian worlds
appear repeatedly throughout history as hopeful images of what life must be
like somewhere—either on earth for mortals or in heaven for the deceased
or the gods.
When our ancestors first wrote about such utopian worlds, they did not
settle for the mere elimination of just one plague or disease. They wanted it
all—eternal youth and immortality. For those who had already experienced
the ravages of time, they wanted rejuvenation. For their loved ones who had
already died, they wanted resurrection. These idealized worlds, created to
soften the reality of life in a world filled with pain and suffering, continue
to play a prominent role in the myth, legend, and folklore of aging and
death today. The unending quest for immortality has transcended
geography, culture, and time—a quest that has probably touched not only
your life but the lives of most people in modern times.
The Greek legend of Prometheus and Pandora, from the eighth or ninth
century B.C., provides one of the first mythical accounts of the origin of
death. Prometheus, known for his cunning and favor with mortals, was a
son of Iapetus, the Titan who was overthrown by the god Zeus. When
Prometheus aroused the wrath of Zeus by offending him, Zeus punished
Prometheus and the humans to whom he was sympathetic by barring fire
from mortals. In defiance, Prometheus stole the fire and carried it down to
earth. In retaliation for this act, Zeus decided to “give men as the price for
fire an evil thing in which they may all be glad of heart while they embrace
their own destruction.” Zeus created Pandora, the first woman, who had
“charming traits” to hide her wicked nature. The jar that Pandora brought
with her to the world was filled with evil things, including among them
plagues, disease, and old age. The Prometheus legend was intended to
illustrate not only the great power of Zeus, but also that old age and death
are due to the will of the gods and are thus unchangeable. The idea that
women are responsible for aging and death is a recurring theme in a history
chronicled principally by men.
The Babylonian legend about Gilgamesh, who was part-man, part-god, is
another lesson on the inevitability of aging and death. Gilgamesh was an
arrogant young king who treated his subjects poorly. In an attempt to teach
the king humility, the gods created Enkidu—a man of incredible strength
who promptly engaged the young Gilgamesh in combat. Combat eventually
gave way to mutual admiration; they became the best of friends and
traveled the world seeking adventure. But after they had inappropriately
directed their bravado at a goddess, the gods killed Enkidu—leading
Gilgamesh to contemplate his own mortality.
Obsessed with obtaining immortality, Gilgamesh sought the advice of a
sage. He was first told that immortality could be achieved by mastering
sleep and was instructed to stay awake for six days and seven nights. Weary
from his long travels, he eventually fell asleep. His last hope was to obtain a
plant at the bottom of the sea that was believed to possess the power of
rejuvenation. After obtaining the plant, Gilgamesh took time to bathe in a
pool of cold water. As he bathed, a serpent appeared and ate the plant—
providing an early rationale for why snakes appear to renew their lives by
shedding their old skins. The moral of this legend was that if death was
inevitable for a part-god with Herculean strength, then ordinary people must
also accept the fate of their mortal lives.
The story of Adam and Eve provides a biblical explanation for the origin
of death. Upon being placed in the Garden of Eden, God told Adam that he
could eat fruit from any tree except the Tree of Knowledge. He could gain
immortality by eating fruit from the Tree of Life, but death would be the
penalty if he ate from the Tree of Knowledge. Eve, seduced by the serpent
to eat from the Tree of Knowledge, enticed Adam to do the same. The
consequence was that humans became subject to death: “in the sweat of
your face you shall eat bread till you return to the ground, for out of it you
were taken; you are dust, and to dust you shall return” (Genesis 3:19;
Revised Standard Version and other translations for subsequent quotes).
Epicurus, the fourth-century B.C. Greek philosopher, carried the fatalistic
view a step further. He proposed that a tranquil life could be attained by
removing the fear of death through a proper attitude. The Epicureans also
believed in the “fullness of pleasure,” a concept derived from the premise
that it was futile to live forever because life offered only a limited number
of gratifications. An oversimplified version of this concept goes something
like, eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die—a modified passage
from Isaiah in the Old Testament. The Roman poet Lucretius in the first
century B.C. also argued that it was pointless to prolong life because no
matter how long you live, the length of the time you spend alive is
insignificant compared with the infinite time you spend dead.
In the second century A.D. while Marcus Aurelius was emperor, Stoicism
was the official philosophy of the Roman Empire. Average length of life
then was roughly 25 years, which implies that approximately one-third to
one-half of all the babies born at that time died before reaching their first
birthday. Contemporary philosophers tried to rationalize this cruel reality by
suggesting that length of life then was a matter of no importance, and that
death was a fact of life that everybody must accept. The Stoics even went so
far as to suggest that death should be embraced because it was natural and
necessary for the proper functioning of the universe. In a world where
infectious diseases routinely decimated the young, it is not surprising that
the Stoics developed a philosophy that not only rejected the extension of
life but embraced death.

The EARLY BIOLOGY of FATALISM

A biological perspective on old age and death first appeared in essays
written by the Hippocratic physicians of the fifth century B.C. and
epitomized by the work of Aristotle. The Hippocratic physicians divided the
lifespan of mankind into four “regions,” each with its own unique qualities
associated with aging. Childhood was hot and moist; youth was hot and dry;
adulthood was cold and dry; and old age was cold and moist. Aristotle
modified this scheme by merging adulthood and old age into a single region
that he described as cold and dry. Aristotle believed that aging and death
came about by a transformation of the body from one that was hot and
moist to one that was cold and dry—a change that he believed not only
inevitable but also desirable.
Aristotle’s cosmology was based on fundamental differences between the
physical components of earth and heaven. He believed that all things on
earth, including living things, were composed of four basic elements: earth,
air, fire, and water. Everything in the heavens (sun, planets, and stars)
contained the four basic elements plus an additional one called ether. Only
things containing ether remained unchanged through time. Immortality was
a state of existence restricted to the heavens. On earth, aging and death were
considered by Aristotle to be the natural consequences of inevitable change
and decay. Aristotle admired nature’s ingenuity because everything
appeared to occur in a well-planned and organized way. For example, he
noticed that teeth fall out in old age because the nearness of death makes
them no longer necessary.
Two other intellectuals whose ideas about old age and death continue to
influence modern thinking about aging were the Greek physician Galen
from the second century A.D. and the Arabic philosopher/physician
Avicenna from the tenth to eleventh century A.D. Galen believed that aging
began at conception. He believed that heat from the male sperm began a
drying process that initially stimulated growth and development, but by
early adulthood, the drying process shifted from a beneficial to a harmful
mode. This transition was characterized by a loss of innate moisture—
eventually leading the body to become cold and dry. Although immortality
could theoretically be achieved by retaining the innate moisture of the body,
Galen believed the drying process was not only inevitable but a natural part
of the order of the universe. According to Galen, aging was not a disease
but a natural and expected phenomenon.
The views of Avicenna from the Islamic tradition were similar to those of
Aristotle and Galen. Besides believing that aging was inevitable, Avicenna
had the remarkable insight to suggest that “the art of maintaining the health
is not the art of averting death . . . or of securing the utmost longevity
possible . . . the art of maintaining health consists in guiding the body to its
natural span of life. . . .” Even a thousand years ago, insightful scholars like
Avicenna knew that life should not be lived as a constant battle against
death, but rather as the daily pursuit of a healthy life.

The RELIGIOUS LEGACY

The Old and New Testaments of the Bible have had an important influence
on the philosophical concept of fatalism (the belief that aging and death are
not only inevitable but desirable) as well as on scientific hypotheses about
old age and death. In the Old Testament, a period of human history is
described during which the ancient patriarchs supposedly lived much longer
than subsequent generations. Naturally, there is considerable debate about
whether these reported ages are a metaphor or should be taken literally.
Adam supposedly lived 930 years and was 130 years old when his third
son, Seth, was born. Methuselah, who lived 969 years, holds the record as
the longest-lived patriarch, while Noah, who was reported to have lived 950
years, was the last of the extremely long-lived patriarchs. Just before the
Great Flood, God said: “My Spirit will not contend [remain in] man forever,
for he is mortal; his days will be a hundred and twenty years” (Genesis 6:3).
This biblical reference to a 120-year lifespan for mankind is often
erroneously presented as scientific fact.
The Old Testament states clearly that God is in complete control over
aging, disease, and the longevity of every living thing. For example, from
Ecclesiastes (3:19), “Man’s fate is like that of the animals; the same fate
awaits them both: As one dies, so dies the other. All have the same breath
[spirit]; man has no advantage over the animal.” From Job (14:5), “Man’s
days are determined; you have decreed the number of his months and have
set limits he cannot exceed.” And from Proverbs (10:27), “The fear of the
Lord adds length to life, but the years of the wicked are cut short.” In Isaiah
(65:20), God promised the Babylonian exiles who returned to Jerusalem
that he would give them health and longevity in their new kingdom: “Never
again will there be in it an infant who lives but a few days, or an old man
who does not live out his years; he who dies at a hundred will be thought a
mere youth; he who fails to reach a hundred will be considered accursed.”
A significant transition occurs in the New Testament. Long life is no
longer offered as a reward for righteousness; instead, there is almost an
indifference to matters of the body. While the Old Testament makes it clear
that the original sin of Adam is responsible for the judgment that brought
death to mankind, the New Testament decrees that eternal life is accessible
to everyone because of the sacrifice that God made of His only son: “. . . by
the trespass of one man [Adam], death reigned through that one man . . . so
also the result of one act of righteousness was justification that brings life
for all men . . . eternal life through Jesus Christ. . . .” (Romans: 5:15–21).
The New Testament promises spiritual immortality through death and
subsequent resurrection. Death becomes, once again, not only necessary but
desirable.
Some of the most interesting ideas on fatalism come from the writings of
the thirteenth-century mystic St. Thomas Aquinas and of the earlier
Christian father St. Augustine. According to St. Thomas, before Adam ate
from the Tree of Knowledge, his body was subject to the ravages of time.
However, God gave him a supernatural power to combat the natural
deterioration experienced by other living things. After eating the apple from
the Tree of Knowledge, God withdrew this supernatural power. Thereafter,
all humans were subject to the natural process of deterioration that led to
old age and death. Interestingly, Aquinas linked death to the inability of
men and women to control their minds or maintain their willpower. The
implication is that by reasserting control over the mind, the supernatural
power taken by God could be restored and perfect health and immortality
achieved. This mind-over-body philosophy remains an important element of
the ideology that drives the modern antiaging movement.
For his part, Augustine of Hippo believed that the loss of mind-body
control not only leads to death but also to sexual lust. This sexual tension
and linkage between sex and death can be found throughout the Old and
New Testaments. In a broader sense, this linkage is also a common thread
that weaves its way through the extensive historical literature on longevity.

PROLONGEVITY
Not everyone shared the resignation of the fatalists. Prolongevists, as they
have come to be known, believe that aging and death are amenable to
modification, and that longevity can be extended through human
intervention—a belief that has persisted throughout history. Although all
prolongevists believe that longevity can be extended, their techniques to
achieve this goal have differed dramatically. Some prolongevists have
claimed that a few years can be added to life, while the more radical
prolongevists have claimed that the elimination of human disease is going
to make the dream of eternal youth and immortality a reality.
Taoists were the first to develop a systematic effort to prolong the
lifespan. Taoism is a religion formed in ancient China during the third
century B.C. Its ideology and strict regimens for living are based on a
fundamental belief that the prolongation of life is not only possible but
highly desirable.
At the center of Taoist philosophy is the concept of tao (pronounced
dow), which translates into “the way” but has been interpreted to mean “the
mother of all things” or “the unity of nature.” Unlike the Greek
philosophers, the ancient Chinese did not strictly separate spirit and matter
—making it possible and even desirable to experience a transformation
from the physical body into an immortal spiritual being. An early and
influential Taoist thinker, Ko Hung, suggested that animals could be
changed from one species to another, that lead could be transformed into
gold (the basis of alchemy), and that mortal humans should strive to
become immortal beings (known as hsien). The legends about hsien gave
birth to the Taoist methods for extending the lives of mortals.
There are many prolongevity elements in Taoist thinking, but perhaps the
most important are the concepts of quietism and primitivism. Quietism is a
philosophy of life and a way of living that is captured by the term wu wei,
which translates to “effortless action.” Effortless action involves a lifestyle
and way of thinking that dampens the emotions. Taoists believed that
people are endowed from birth with a fixed amount of “vital breath” that is
consumed like fuel by emotions that come from the heart. A more passive
life without honors and riches would conserve vital breath and thus permit
the person to live longer. With proper discipline, the use of vital breath
could be stopped altogether and the person would be transformed from a
mortal being to a hsien. The ancient Chinese considered the “true men of
old” to be those who perfected quietism and embraced primitivism—
devoting themselves to a simple and modest lifestyle.
Taoists developed dietary practices in order to starve and drug “evil
beings”—referred to as the Three Worms—who were thought to inhabit the
body and hasten its demise by causing physical problems and disease.
Battling the evil beings took the form of denying them the grains (such as
wheat and rice) thought to be responsible for their existence, and eating
magical foods like cinnamon, licorice, cinnabar, and ginseng that would kill
them. Other hsien medicines included herbs, roots, and minerals, and
animal and plant products such as eggs, turtles, peaches, and parts of trees.
All were revered for their ability to enhance longevity. Some of these
products are still being sold and promoted today. A peach-flavored tea
referred to as Longevity Tea is popular in many restaurants in the United
States. Many modern myths about remedies that forestall or reverse aging
are descendants of these ancient Taoist beliefs.
Central to early Taoist thinking was a linkage between the mortal body
and the immortal heavens. Taoists envisioned the air entering the lungs as
blending with the sky—the same sky that reached up to merge with the
heavens. By controlling the breath, a more intimate physical contact with
the heavens could be achieved. If breathing techniques could be perfected,
then immortality could be attained. A series of breathing exercises was
devised to achieve the ultimate goal of holding one’s breath for the time
normally required for 1,000 respirations. Techniques were also devised to
promote the conscious guidance of inhaled air through various parts of the
body, and through a method referred to as “embryonic respiration” to
nourish the body by extracting nutrients from the air rather than food.
Adherents of these practices learned how to dramatically reduce their
metabolic rate and use of oxygen; they also adopted a near-starvation diet
consisting mostly of roots, berries, and other fruits. (There are scientific
studies today that appear to support the benefits of the dietary practices of
Taoists.)
According to Gerald Gruman, a scholar of prolongevity, “Taoism’s
greatest achievement was to take prolongevitism from the realm of magic
and carry it forward to a stage which is best termed proto-science. Although
Taoists did not originate the notion of prolongevity; what they did was to
take the prolongevitist vagaries of folklore and form them into an organized
body of concepts and hypotheses suitable for assimilation by science.” In
addition, the Taoists provided the first systematic effort to identify specific
foods, medicines, and chemicals associated with aging and disease. They
also proposed behavioral changes that form a conceptual basis for several
scientific and pseudoscientific efforts currently being promoted as ways to
slow down or reverse the process of aging. Taoist exercises associated with
longevity have been an influential force throughout the centuries and are
still practiced today in the form of Tai Chi Chuan, acupuncture, and
techniques of what is now known as Swedish massage.
 The ALCHEMY of PROLONGEVITY
Alchemy grew out of the ancient belief that ordinary metals could be
transmuted into silver and gold. Considered by most to be a noble
profession, alchemists were revered members of their community.
According to Dr. John Read from The University in Scotland, who
chronicled the historical roots of this ancient form of chemistry in his book
From Alchemy to Chemistry (1995), the great alchemists thought of their
work as a sacred trust. Famous alchemists stood beside rulers and kings,
commanded great sums of money, and lived privileged lives. Some of the
more unsavory ones used chemistry that would be rudimentary by today’s
standards in order to dazzle investors and an unsuspecting public into
believing that they would eventually be able to transform elementary metals
into gold.
Like any good scientist today, the alchemists of the early prolongevity
movement were systematic and methodical. Immortality was simply a
puzzle; it was only necessary to find the right pieces and put them together
in the right order. Alchemists believed that a Fountain of Youth existed, and
their investors backed this belief with massive sums of money. Through an
orderly line of reasoning and rigorous scientific investigation, the
alchemists believed that all the proper steps required to transform mortal
men into immortal beings would eventually be discovered.
The earliest applications of alchemy involved efforts by the Chinese to
cure disease and extend longevity. Ko Hung, the Taoist, was one of the first
outspoken proponents of prolongevity. He considered arrogant and
dogmatic the prevailing attitude that death was inevitable and immortality
impossible, especially given the limited knowledge about aging and death
that existed at his time. The metamorphosis of caterpillars into butterflies,
tadpoles into frogs, and seeds into flowers gave visible proof from nature
that the transformation of living things was possible. If metals and living
things could be transformed from one thing to another, then transformations
from sickness to health, and from mortality to immortality, should also be
possible.
To achieve these transformations, Ko Hung believed it was necessary to
find and purify highly vitalized foods—herbs, minerals, chemicals, and
other substances that, when ingested, would increase the “life force.” These
life-sustaining substances had visible properties which he described in