CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Framework

People are embracing the impact, entertainment, and convenience that technology provides along

with its support for communications since its advent. The industry has transitioned from text

messaging to email and social networking for communication. This tendency prompts companies

to provide their clients or partners with enhanced communication channels and value-added

services. Even the government is shifting to internet services or more convenient means for

concerned individuals to obtain information (Bhole et al., 2021).

People are afraid of becoming involved in emergencies and crime scenes, thus they don't report

them to the police. Because it is expensive and time-consuming to go to police stations that are

located distant from their homes and places of employment, some people choose not to report

criminal offenses. This demonstrates how distance plays a significant role in how crimes are

handled. Since many crimes go unreported, crime occurs everywhere, and visiting the police

department and municipal hall takes a long time because these organizations still use manual

processes and take a week or two to respond to complaints (Bhole et al., 2021).

2.2 The concept of crime

The rules of each jurisdictions define criminal behavior, and the kinds of behavior that are

forbidden might vary greatly between and even within nations. Activities that amount to a minor

infringement in one area may be considered a severe crime another, while conduct that is legal in

one nation or jurisdiction may be illegal in another. Criminal laws may alter as a result of

shifting societal mores and historical trends, making actions that were formerly illegal legal. For

instance, gay behavior between consenting adults in private is now legal in most Western
nations, while it is still illegal in other regions of the world. Similarly, abortion, which was once

illegal except in the most extreme cases, is now legal in many other countries (Allott et al.,

2024).

2.2.1 Crime in Nigeria - statistics & facts

Nigeria's criminal scene is characterized by violence, terrorism, alienation of citizens, and

political instability. The Global Peace Index has listed Nigeria as one of the nations with the least

amount of peace in the globe as of late. It is the eighteenth state with less peace. According to the

Global Terrorism Index, Nigeria is also the sixth most afflicted nation by terrorism. The potential

for genocide, or mass murder, is another grave hazard facing Nigeria. Nigeria ranks sixth

globally and second in Africa for highest danger of genocide. Over 200 million people live in the

nation, which has a high child mortality rate, a history of mass killings, ongoing battle-related

fatalities, ethnic fractionalization, and other factors that increase risk (Doris, 2023).

2.3 Computerized Crime Detection and Criminal Tracking Systems

The advancement of computer technologies has led to advancement of computer technologies

has led to more effective ways of detecting and fighting crime in society (Accenture, 2013).

Today, engineers and researchers have proposed and developed several computer-based systems,

especially for crime detection and reporting. This section presents an overview of some of the

most powerful computer-based crime-fighting systems developed within the past six years. The

overview pays attention to the functionalities and principles of operations of these systems.

Smartphones as computer devices have various functions to support different user interests. GPS

in Smartphones offers geo-positioning services and this function can be helpful when someone is

in an emergency (Bhole et al., 2021).

2.4 Review of Related Works

Mwiya et al., (2015) developed a public crime reporting and monitoring system model using

GSM and GIS technologies. In their study, they proposed a crime reporting and management

model using GSM and GIS technologies to mitigate the challenges faced by most developing

countries in reducing crime rates. They began with a baseline study that was carried out to

ascertain how citizens report crime to the police. This was followed by a study that looked at

how the Police receive and manage crime information. Based on the baseline study, they further

designed a Public Crime Reporting and Management System that integrates GMS and GIS

Technologies. In their baseline study, the results showed that 68% of the citizens walked to the

police station, 30% made phone calls and less than 1% used Short Message Service (SMS), the

Internet, or social media platforms to report crime. In crime reports management, the result of

their study showed an absence of an electronic capturing/recording system by the police with

98% of the police stations using a physical log book to record crimes. Using the results from the

baseline study, a mobile crime reporting and management system model was developed. Using

this model, they developed a prototype that showed improved results in terms of crime reporting

by the public using mobile devices and improved management of reports due to automation of

crime reporting and monitoring.

Oh et al., (2018) performed a study on the Implementation of Sex Crime Prevention Systems

Using the Indoor Location Tracking System. They suggested the location of indoor and outdoor

positioning systems, tracking the location of sex offenders based on Beacon. The systems

proposed in this thesis provided safety information about the user’s current location based on

statistics from the public data portal and real-time location information of sex offenders. To
calculate the general-specific gender-critical threat, the proposed system analyzed the date, time,

and geographic information of sex crimes. If a sex offender wearing an electronic ankle tag goes

indoors, an electronic ankle monitor recognizes the nearby Beacon signal and recognizes the

interior location. A warning message is sent to user’s mobile device if a sex offender with an

electronic ankle tag is near a user who installed an application. Through the Sexual Crime

Prevention System proposed in their thesis, users can identify risks in advance, and the

government can reinforce the area of jurisdiction to prevent sex crimes from occurring.

Yadav et al., (2019) proposed a system in their research which they tagged “We Safe (Anti-

Crime Application)”. In the proposed system, users can register to this application and can give

detailed reports of crimes that happened. In the modification part, there were three logins 1. User

2.Police 3. Admin. Users can give the crime report along with the initiation of the current GPS or

can give location details manually with crime details with Photos, Audio, Video, Description of

crime & and category, etc. dates sent to the server. Actions taken by police can be viewed by the

admin and user. User can also transfer their files from the Android to the remote server, which is

split into several blocks and can be retrieved whenever it is required.

Phiri, (2020) carried out a study on a crime mapping model based on cloud and spatial data: a

case study of Zambia police service. Their research aimed at automating the processes involved

in crime mapping using spatial data. A baseline study was conducted to identify the challenges in

the current crime mapping system used by the Zambia Police Service. The results showed that

85.2% of the stations conducted crime mapping using physical geographical maps and pins

placed on the map while 14.8% indicated that they don’t use any form of crime mapping

technique. In addition, the study revealed that all stations that participated in the study collected

and processed the crime reports and statistics manually and kept the results in books and papers.
The results of the baseline study were used to develop the business processes and a crime

mapping model, this was implemented successfully using Use Case, Sequence, Entity

Relationship and system architecture designing models. The proposed model included a spatial

data visualization of crime data based on Google Maps. The proposed model was based on the

Cloud Architecture, Android Mobile Application, Web Application, Google Map API, and Java

programming language. A prototype was successfully developed and the test results of the

proposed system showed improved data visualization and reporting of crime data with reduced

dependency on manual transactions. It also proved to be more effective than the current system.

Gadekallu et al., (2020) developed a computational system to classify cybercrime offenses using

machine learning. In their study, they proposed a flexible computational tool using machine

learning techniques to analyze cybercrime rates state-wise in a country that helps to classify

cybercrimes. Security analytics with the association of data analytic approaches help their

research in analyzing and classifying offenses from India-based integrated data that may be

either structured or unstructured. The main strength of their work was testing analysis reports,

which classify the offenses accurately with 99 percent accuracy.

Moses et al., (2020) developed an Android location-based crime reporting system using the

Google map API. This android crime reporting system coordinates the Google Map/Places APIs

in reporting a crime to a nearby police station. It gives options to report crime through an App-

To-App call, audio recording, and sending images of the crime scene. The developed application

was proven to be effective (when compared to the existing method of reporting a crime) in terms

of timely intervention to a crime scene by law enforcement agencies and the confidentiality of

the person reporting the crime.

Kefilwe et al., (2020) in their paper proposed an automatic crime reporting and immediate

response system that was developed based on system integration which combines Raspberry Pi,

Microsoft IoT, mobile application, and web application. An automatic crime reporting and

immediate response system does not only guarantee the informer's safety and secrecy, it also

stops cases and reports from being deleted or removed and guarantees information integrity. The

automatic crime reporting system developed has an incredible potential to assist informers in

reporting crime anonymously or by providing their details using mobile phones. It also assists

police in providing proper security and reduces the manual work in crime reporting. This system

uses a non-Structured Query Language (non-SQL) database that allows crime evidence such as

pictures, videos, and audio to be retrieved faster. The quality of pictures and video evidence

never degrades, it was always 99.9% accurate when retrieving and saving to the database and

97% accurate concerning detecting location automatically. The system also ensured the average

time for reporting crime to the police dispatch center was less than 30 seconds. The developed

system reduced time consumption to finish crime research or investigation.

Sandamali, (2021) proposed a solution for a mobile-based crime reporting app. The proposed

solution was to develop a mobile application that can be used to report any crime incidents. The

mobile application was developed on the Android platform and will integrate the use of GPS

location services. It was developed concurrently with a web application developed in ReactJS

language to supplement its functionality and MYSQL was used as the database server. The

solution has an administrative web-based backend that will be accessed by the police force to

ensure they get detailed information on criminal activities. The web application was adapted to

the MVC architecture with an object-oriented environment. In addition to that online UML tool

is being used to draw UML diagrams. Thus, the mobile application comes in trend to provide a
solution to the way users report crime incidents. The suggestions made by users were used to

enhance the application's functionality and performance. The application will allow users to

report crime incidents that happen in anywhere anytime. Based on the overall statistics of user

testing and evaluation, can say that the application fulfills its simplicity and usability

requirements and based on the questionnaire responses, the application is generally considered

easy to understand and use.

Bhole et al., (2021) proposed an Interactive Crime Reporting system in their study. The proposed

system was aimed at achieving crime reporting goals and providing a complete end-to-end

solution for real-time crime reporting along with location tracking. The application consisted of

an interactive and user-friendly map application for the public to inform the authorities about

crimes and emergencies in real-time. The interactive map showcased all the nearby emergency

services such as police stations, hospitals, etc. The crime or emergency was to be reported in real

time along with the location marked on the map. The emergency or crime could be reported with

images or voice recordings as well. The appropriate authorities could receive the reports which

will be available to them on a dashboard. The status of the response to a report could also be

monitored in real-time. The details of the reporting, tracking and response times could also be

recorded in the system.

Phuthego & Al-Turjman, (2021) in their study “Intelligent Mobile Application for Crime

Reporting in the Heterogenous IoT Era” demonstrated the design and implementation of an

Android mobile application-based geographic information system. The system was built by

adapting the Google Maps API library and building an application in which users can report

crime as it occurs by providing details, like type and description when the report is made. The

application automatically captures the current location of the user in the form of coordinates and
sends them to the cloud along with other details. Other functionalities include viewing tips on

how one should act in preventing crimes.

Agushaka et al., (2022) developed an intelligent crime management system for Lafia metropolis.

The Intelligent Crime Management System was developed specifically for the Nigeria Police

Force using a case study of Lafia metropolis in Nasarawa State. The java development kit (JDK),

android software development kit (SDK), sinch sdk for app-to-app call, android studio, firebase,

and a virtual emulator, were used to accomplish the research objectives. This system is

comprised of an android-based mobile application for crime reporting and awareness, a

geospatial database that houses both legacy and new crime data, and a web-based intelligent

application. The system could utilize the crime data stored in the database to identify hotspots

and clusters in the Lafia metropolis. It could also predict the crime likely to occur at a location

and analyze risk assessment and situation assessment of crime in Lafia metropolis.

Jimoh et al., (2022) performed a study on Software Development for Crime Management in

Nigeria. In their study, a web-based Graphical User Interface (GUI) application was designed to

aid Nigerian police in capturing criminal records across various Police Stations. This study

adopted the Object Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) approach by employing Unified

Modeling Language (UML) tools. In the implementation stage, Mongo Database (Mongo DB)

was used at the backend and Python programming language was chosen to design the user

interface at the frontend. The results indicate that user authentication, criminals’ biometric

capturing, criminal data entry and criminal information updates were successfully implemented.

Besides, a module is also implemented to extract features from the crime database and export

extracted crime datasets into Python for further data analytics.

Gallera, J. M., (2023) conducted research in the Development of Crime and Incident Reporting

Mobile Application with SMS Notification. In their research, they presented the design and

development of a mobile application for crime and incident reporting with SMS notifications.

The application allows users to report crimes and incidents by capturing pictures, videos, and

text descriptions of the event. The reported incidents are then geo-tagged and sent to the nearest

police station for immediate response. The application also provided a dashboard for police

officers to view and manage reported incidents. Furthermore, the application sends SMS

notifications to both the reporter and the nearest police station for immediate action. The

system's accuracy and effectiveness were evaluated through a usability test, and the results

indicated a high level of satisfaction and efficiency. The application's development was based on

the agile software development methodology, ensuring a user-centered and iterative design

process. The application's unique features, including SMS notification, geo-tagging, and

multimedia reporting, make it a reliable and efficient tool for reporting crimes and incidents. The

application's potential to enhance public safety and improve response time for law enforcement

agencies makes it a valuable contribution to the field of crime prevention.

2.5 Summary of Related Works

Table 2.1: Summary of related works

Authors/year Work Method Result

Mwiya et al., Public crime reporting GSM and GIS The developed prototype
(2015) and monitoring system technologies showed improved results in
model using GSM and terms of crime reporting by
GIS technologies the public using mobile
devices and improved
management of reports due
to the automation of crime
 reporting and monitoring.
Oh et al., (2018) Implementation of Sex An electronic ankle Users can identify risks in
Crime Prevention monitor advance, and the
Systems Using the government can reinforce
Indoor Location the area of jurisdiction to
Tracking System. prevent sex crimes from
occurring
Yadav et al., We Safe (Anti-Crime GPS Users can register to this
(2019) Application) application and can give
detailed reports of crimes
that happened
Phiri, (2020) Crime mapping model Using Use Case, Showed improved data
based on cloud and Sequence, Entity visualization and reporting
spatial data Relationship and of crime data with reduced
system architecture dependency on manual
designing models transactions. It also proved
to be more effective than
the current system.

Gadekallu et A computational Machine learning The main strength of their

al., (2020) system to classify techniques work was testing analysis
cybercrime offenses reports, which classify the
using machine offenses accurately with 99
learning percent accuracy
Moses et al., An Android location- Google map API Developed application was
(2020) based crime reporting proven to be effective
system using the (when compared to the
Google map API existing method of reporting
a crime) in terms of timely
intervention to a crime
scene by law enforcement
 agencies and the
confidentiality of the person
reporting the crime

Kefilwe et al., An automatic crime Raspberry Pi, The average time for
(2020) reporting and Microsoft IoT, reporting crime to the police
immediate response mobile application, dispatch center was less
system and web application than 30 seconds. The
developed system reduced
time consumption to finish
crime research or
investigation.
Sandamali, A mobile-based crime GPS location The application fulfills its
(2021) reporting app service and simplicity and usability
MYSQL as the requirements and based on
database server the questionnaire responses,
the application is generally
considered easy to
understand and use
Bhole et al., An Interactive Crime The crime or emergency
(2021) Reporting was to be reported in real
time along with the location
marked on the map. The
emergency or crime could
be reported with images or
voice recordings as well
Phuthego & Al- Intelligent Mobile Google Maps API The application
Turjman, Application for Crime library automatically captures the
(2021) Reporting in the current location of the user
Heterogenous IoT Era in the form of coordinates
and sends them to the cloud
 along with other details
Agushaka et al., An intelligent crime The java The system could utilize the
(2022) management system development kit crime data stored in the
for Lafia metropolis (JDK), android database to identify hotspots
software and clusters in the Lafia
development kit metropolis. It could also
(SDK), sinch sdk predict the crime likely to
for app-to-app call, occur at a location and
android studio, analyze risk assessment and
firebase, and a situation assessment of
virtual emulator crime in Lafia metrop

Jimoh et al., Software Object Oriented User authentication,

(2022) Development for Analysis and criminals’ biometric
Crime Management in Design (OOAD) capturing, criminal data
Nigeria approach by entry and criminal
employing Unified information updates were
Modeling Language successfully implemented
(UML) tools and
Mongo Database
(Mongo DB)
Gallera, J. M., Development of Crime Agile software The system's accuracy and
(2023) and Incident Reporting development effectiveness were
Mobile Application methodology, evaluated through a
with SMS Notification ensuring a user- usability test, and the results
centered and indicated a high level of
iterative design satisfaction and efficiency
process
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