Processing of Aerospace Materials – I (ME-772)
Lecture 22: CFRP manufacturing
a) Autoclave consolidation and curing of open mould pre-preg
lay-ups
b) Out-of-autoclave consolidated and cured parts
Amol A Gokhale, Professor
ME Department
Extn 7399
Reference:
1. A Mouritz, Chapter 14.5.1, 14.2, 14.6.1 (VARTM), 14.6.2,
14.6.4
2. F C Campbell: 7.6, 7.8, 7.9, 7.9.1, 7.9.1, Fig. 7.38, 7.9.6
(cracking), 7.13,
3. Pradip K Saha, Chapter FC Campbell, Chapter 6
Simultaneous consolidation and curing
Pre-preg based part in vacuum bag, where
excess air is removed
Autoclave (a kind of pressure cooker) used
with pressurised (700 kPa) nitrogen and
carbon dioxide for consolidation
Autoclave Epoxy curing: 120 to 180 C
Composites with fibre contents as high as
60% can be processed by autoclave
Size limitation in general: 15 m x 4 m
Primary and secondary components for aircraft
and helicopters are made using this process
During the initial temperature ramp, resin
Process cycle
viscosity reduces easing resin flow through
1 atm ≈ 101 kPa
all locations. External pressure on the bag is
high, and there is vacuum within the bag (700 kPa)
which ensure consolidation of plies. No Cross linking, ply compaction,
void suppression
significant cross linking in resin during this
phase 177 C
Resin flow,
After the second temperature ramp, cross evaporation of
linking in resin takes place. Pressure excess resin
increased for better consolidation
115 C
The characteristics that are determined by
autoclaving:
Per ply thickness,
Degree of cross linking,
Void content
Translation of the autoclave pressure to the resin depends on fiber content and the laminate
configuration, and is usually reduced because of pressure losses in the tortuous channels between
fibres.
Defects in autoclave cured parts
If PVoid >PHydrostatic→ then void formation and growth take
place
• Porosity forms when entrapped volatiles’ (often due to moisture) pressure
exceeds hydrostatic pressure in liquid resin and the bubbles cannot escape
• When cross linking increases the viscosity of the resin, voids get locked
Thermal stresses and cracking
Main factor: mismatch between CTE of resin and fibre. CTE of fibre is -0.5 x 10-6 per K, while that of epoxy
resin is 50 x 10-6 per K
𝜎 = 𝛼𝐸∆𝑇
𝜎 = residual stress due to differential contraction
𝛼 = difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion
E = modulus of elasticity
T = change in temperature
• On cooling from curing temperature, resin wants
to contract more than the fibre
• Fibre prevents complete contraction of the resin
which generates residual stress in the resin
• High residual stress can cause cracking
• Tougher resins preferred
• Slower heating and cooling rates help
Open mould laying + out-of-autoclave (non-
autoclave) curing processes
• Vacuum bag resin infusion (uses dry fabrics infused with liquid
resin)
• Filament winding (dry fibres infiltrated in-situ with resin or
towpregs)
Vacuum bag resin infusion (VBRI) (open mould)
• Fabric plies are stacked on
the tool.
• Top layer is a resin
distribution fabric.
• sealed within a flexible plastic
bag connected to a liquid
resin source and to a vacuum- One sided mould
pump system.
• Air is removed by the vacuum pump; causes the bag to squeeze the fabric layers
to the shape of the mould surface.
• Liquid resin flows into the bag under the pressure differential due to vacuum.
• Resin is drawn through the tightly consolidated fabric as well as along the top
resin distribution fabric, from where it seeps downwards into the fabric.
• After the fabric is completely infused with resin, the material is cured at high
temperature within an oven.
Filament winding process
1. Wet winding, 2. Towpreg winding
Wet winding
• Continuous fibre band is placed on a rotating mandrel
• Mandrel removal can be aided by taper or having
segmented mandrel. In the extreme case, it can be
broken
• Parts are cured in forced air convection ovens (no steam)
• Microwave curing as an alternative
• Resin optimum viscosity ~ 2000 cP to help
wet the fibers, spread the band, and lower
the friction over the guides
• Pot Life of the resin should be long enough
for fibre winding to be complete
Capabilities/limitations
o Highly repeatable process that can fabricate large and thick-walled structure
o Suitable for any body of revolution, such as cylinders, shafts, spheres, and cones (ex.
Pressure vessels, rocket motor cases, and engine cowlings)
o Very small to very large sizes (10 m dia x 12 m length) possible
o Concave shapes not possible
Part characteristics:
o Preform internal surface is good
o Outer surface not good
o Sacrificial winding on surface is possible. It needs to be removed later.
Towpreg winding process
Tow-preg is more expensive than wet winding resin systems. But there are
few advantages:
• a qualified fiber and resin system can often be pre-pregged onto a tow;
• it allows the best control of resin content;
• it allows the highest winding speeds because there is no wet resin that
will be thrown-off during winding;
• the tack (bond) can be adjusted to allow less slippage when winding
shallow angles.
Curing after filament winding
• Wet wound parts are often intermediate cured prior to final cure to remove excess resin by
heating the part to a slightly elevated temperature but below the resin curing temperature.
• Frequently, the part is heated with heat lamps and the excess resin is removed as the part
rotates.
• The great majority of filament wound parts are cured in an oven (electric, gas fired or
microwave) without a vacuum bag or any other supplemental method of applying pressure.
• As the part heats-up to the cure temperature, the mandrel expands but is constrained by
the fibers in the wound part. This creates pressure that helps to compact the laminate and
reduce the amount of voids and porosity.
• Since the majority of filament wound parts are cured in ovens rather than autoclaves,
filament winding is capable of making very large structures, limited only by the size of the
winder and the curing oven available.
Open mould Processes
Hand lay-up for small Consolidation
Open mould number of parts • hand roller for non critical parts
processes • pressure plate for more critical
Automated tape lay-up parts
Large sized parts which for larger number of
are flat, simple curved, • vacuum bagging for more complex
parts parts
cylindrical, spherical Prepreg /
and moderately • autoclave for most critical parts
towpreg Automated towpreg
contoured lay-up for larger
number and relatively Curing in
more contoured parts • oven for non-critical parts, vacuum
bag resin infused parts, and filament/
Filament / towpreg towpreg wound parts
winding for cylindrical/ • autoclave for all other critical parts
spherical parts
Vacuum bag resin infusion
for complex part
consolidation
• Open mould processes can handle large parts (since heavy moulds not involved) but do not have very good
surface finish on the upper side where they are in contact with air or vacuum bag
Moulding Processes (no prepregs, no
autoclaves)
• Resin transfer moulding
• Vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding
Processes based on resin transfer moulding
• These use dry reinforcements, in the form of fabrics and also as tows
• They have lower material cost (avoids two-step curing), infinite storage life, no
need for storage in a freezer, and better formability into complex shapes
Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) vs. Vacuum Assisted RTM
RTM VARTM
• Filling is only under external pressure. If the pressure • First, air is evacuated from the mould
low, complete penetration may not be achieved. • After this, vacuum draws resin into the preform. Since
• If the external pressure is too high, fibres get displaced resin enters the mould after air removal, external
disturbing the architecture. pressure required is lower than in RTM
• Resin percolates and fills between fibres and tows
• Less dry spots and pores are seen.
Both use two-part i.e. ‘closed’ mould • Less chance of change in fibre architecture because the
Both sides have good finish pressure requirements are lower
Injection rates
Darcy’s Law for flow through porous media
Q = flow rate per unit area
K = preform permeability (depends on fibre vol% and fibre architecture)
= viscosity
P = pressure difference (less air entrapped, more P)
L = flow length
A = area of cross section of the flow channels between fibres (this limits
the fibre vol% in the composite)
For good filling
• Use resins of low viscosity (100-300 cP)
• Multiple injection ports for reduced flow length
Other resin properties
• Good pot life (should not increase viscosity with time)
• Low volatile content to minimise occurrence of voids and porosity
• Reasonable cure time and temperature
Why autoclave is not needed in some processes
• Autoclave curing is not needed in
– RTM
– VARTM
– VBRI
• This is because these processes use pressure (or vacuum) and
temperature while feeding the moulds by resin. Hence the fabrics
are closely held together and the resin penetration is good.
• In prepreg based methods as well as in filament winding methods,
there is no pressure applied during resin impregnation. Hence use
of pressure (along with temperature) during curing is beneficial to
reduce void defects.
Practice questions 22
1. What is curing done in two stages in autoclave?
2. What all is achieved by autoclaving?
3. What are the advantages of VARTM over RTM
4. Why are multiple injection ports helpful during filling of
preforms during VARTM?
5. Why isn’t autoclave necessary in all composite manufacturing
processes? Explain with examples.
Composite manufacturing processes
Autoclave processes
(pre-preg based)
(RFI)
Hand Automated Automated
layup* tape layup fibre
placement
Pressing (is due to vacuum Pressing is due to vacuum
bag for the first two and or external pressure
Pressure plate Vacuum bagging processes) + Oven curing during filtration for the
- RFI may also be followed first two processes) +
up by autoclave for Oven curing
Oven curing Autoclave complex components
Pre-preg based Not pre-preg based
Open mould processes Moulding processes
*Hand layup process may also be used with dry fabric + resin
pouring and roller pressing
Resin film infusion (open mould)
One sided mould
i.e. film form
• Suited for making relatively large structures such as stiffened skins and
rib-type structures
• Layers of dry fabric and partially cured solid resin film are stacked
• Materials are sealed within a vacuum bag and then air is removed using a
vacuum pump. The vacuum presses the preform tight
• Can be oven cured or autoclave cured.
Resin Transfer Moulding
THE PROCESS
• Fabricate a dry composite
preform.
• Place the preform in a closed
mold.
• Inject the preform with a low
viscosity liquid resin under
pressure. Up to 60% fibres can be injected with resin
• Cure the part at elevated
temperature in the closed pressure
mold under pressure.
• De-mold and clean up the
cured part.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Fan blades of F135 engine and Small complex parts
the spars and ribs for the mid-
section fuselage and
empennage of the F-35
Lightning II fighter
Fabrics: Wovens
• Interlacing creates waviness (out of the plane placement) of the fabric,
which deteriorates modulus and strength, which makes woven fabric
based composites inferior to those based on planar fibres
• Twill and satin are less wavy than plain weave, and preferred for
aerospace components
Weft
Warp
Common weave architectures: (a) plain (b) twill and (c) satin
Other fabrics
Planar stitched fabrics
• Multiple layers of straight tows oriented
at different angles, which are bound
together by through-thickness stitches
• Fibres are straight and in-plane for high
structural performance
Braided Cf fabric
Braided and knitted fabrics
• Used when high impact collision
resistance and high conformal shapes in
composite components are required
• Have low in-plane mechanical
properties, but high out-of-plane
properties.
Knitted fibres
3-D woven fabrics
(a) 3D plain (b) 3D twill, and (c) 3D satin woven preform structures
• 2-D woven fabrics based composites have low through-
thickness strength and damage resistance, since there are no
tows in thickness direction
• Through-thickness fibres can carry out-of-plane loads: make
them damage tolerant
Braided fibre matts
