Chapter 2 and 3

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA and Logic SIMPLIFICATION

(Digital Logic Design, Eeng 2004)

Electrical and Computer ENGINEERING

([email protected])

2025
 Algebra
• What is an algebra?

o A mathematical system consisting of

➢ Set of elements

➢ Set of operators

➢ Axioms or postulates

• Why is it important?

o It defines the rules of “calculations or computation”

• Example: arithmetic on natural numbers

o Set of elements: N = {1,2,3,4,…}

o Operator: +, –, *

o Axioms: associativity, distributive, closure, identity elements, etc.

• Boolean Algebra: a sort of algebra which used to define or govern the rule of
computation in logical operations. 2
 Representation mechanisms of Boolean Algebra
• A Boolean algebra can be represented in one for the following means:

Boolean function: Mathematical expression which used to map Boolean

variables to a Boolean value.

• Truth table: Represents relationship between a Boolean function and its

binary variables. It enumerates all possible combinations of arguments

and the corresponding function values.

• Logic diagram: Composed of logic gates. A simple circuit sketch that

represents inputs and outputs of Boolean functions.

X

Y F
Z
Sample logic diagram
3
Binary Values and Variables
• Recall that the two binary values have different names:

o True/False

o On/Off

o Yes/No

o 1/0

• We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.

• Variable identifier examples:

o A, B,C X, Y, Z, … etc.

4
Logical Operations
• The three basic logical operations are:

o AND

o OR

o NOT

• AND is denoted by a dot (·).

• OR is denoted by a plus (+).

• NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a single quote mark (') after,

or (~) before the variable.

5
Truth Tables
• Tabular listing of the values of a function for all
possible combinations of values on its arguments
• Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations:

AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X Z =X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

6
Examples
Truth Table
Equation XYZ F = X + Y ×Z
000 0
F = X +Y Z
001 1
010 0
Logic Diagram
011 0
X
100 1

Y F 101 1
110 1
Z
111 1

• Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams describe the

same function!
• Truth tables are unique; expressions and logic diagrams are not.
This gives flexibility in implementing functions. 7
Truth Tables – Cont’d
• Consider F(X, Y, Z) = X Y + Y Z: construct the truth
table

X Y Z XY Y YZ F=XY+YZ
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1

8
Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra
1. x + 0 = x

2. x · 0 = 0

3. x + 1 = 1

4. x · 1 = x
5. x + x = x

6. x · x = x

7. x + x’ = 1

8. x · x’ = 0

9. (X’)’ = X
9
Fundamental Theorems
1. Idempotency
• 𝒂+𝒂=𝒂 𝒂. 𝒂 = 𝒂
2. Null elements for + and .
• a+1=1 a.0 = 0
• 3. Involution: 𝒂ന = 𝒂
4. Absorption
• a+ ab =a a(a+b) = a
5. i. a+ഥ𝒂b = a+ b ii. a(ഥ
𝒂 + b) = ab
6. i. ab + 𝒂𝒃ഥ=a ഥ =a
ii. (a+b) (a+𝒃)
ഥ = ab + ac
7. i. ab + a𝒃c ഥ
ii. (a+b) (a+𝒃+c) = (a+b) (a+c)
8. De Morgan’s Theorem
• 𝒂+𝒃= 𝒂 ഥ
ഥ. 𝒃 𝒂. 𝒃= 𝒂ഥ+ 𝒃ഥ
9. Consensus
• ab + 𝒂ഥc + bc = ab + 𝒂
ഥ𝒄 (a+b) (ഥ𝒂 + 𝒄) 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 (ഥ 𝒂 + 𝒄)

10
Basic Properties (Laws)
• Commutative
• Commutative
• 10. X + Y = Y + X
11. X·Y=Y·X
• Associative
• Associative
• 12. X+(Y+Z)=(X+Y)+Z
13. X(YZ) = (XY)Z
• Distributive
• Distributive
14. X(Y+Z) =XY+XZ
15. X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
AND distributes over OR
OR distributes over AND

11
Basic Properties
• DeMorgan’s Theorem

• Very important in simplifying equations

16. (X + Y)’ = X’ · Y’

17. (XY)’ = X’ + Y’

12
Operator Precedence
• The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean Expression is

o Parentheses

o NOT

o AND

o OR

• Examples

o x y' + z

o (x y + z)'

13
 Exclusive-OR and XNOR Functions

• Exclusive-OR (XOR)
o xy = xy'+x'y
• Exclusive-NOR (XNOR)
o (xy)' = xy + x'y'
• Some identities
o x0 = x
o x1 = x'
o xx = 0
o xx' = 1
o xy' = (xy)'
o x'y = (xy)'
• Commutative and associative
o AB = BA
o (AB) C = A (BC) = ABC
14
Exclusive-OR Implementations
• Implementations
• (x'+y')x + (x'+y')y = xy'+x'y = xy

Exclusive-OR Implementations 15
 Logic Simplification Using Boolean Algebra

• A simplified Boolean expression uses the fewest gates

possible to implement a given expression.

AB+A(B+C)+B(B+C)
B
C

16
 Logic Simplification Using Boolean Algebra…
• AB+A(B+C)+B(B+C) A
(distributive law) AB+A(B+C)+B(B+C)

AB+AB+AC+BB+BC B
C
( BB=B)
AB+AB+AC+B+BC
( AB+AB=AB) B B+AC
AB+AC+B+BC
A
( B+BC=B)
C
AB+AC+B
( AB+B=B)
B+AC

17
Logic Simplification Using Boolean Algebra…

• Try these:

1.[ AB (C + BD) + A B ]C
2. A BC + AB C + A B C + AB C + ABC
3. AB + AC + A B C

18
Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
• All Boolean expressions, regardless of their form, can
be converted into either of two standard forms:

• The sum-of-products (SOP) form

• The product-of-sums (POS) form

• Standardization makes the evaluation, simplification,

and implementation of Boolean expressions much

more systematic and easier.

19
The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form

• A SOP expression when

two or more product • In a SOP form, a single
over bar cannot extend
terms are summed by over more than one
Boolean addition. variable; however, more
than one variable in a
• Examples: term can have an
AB + ABC overbar:
ABC + CDE + B CD • Example: A B C is
A B + A BC + AC OK!
• But not: ABC
• Also:
A + A B C + BCD

20
Implementation of SOP

X=AB+BCD+AC
• AND/OR implementation ◼ NAND/NAND implementation

A A
B B

B B
C X C X
D D

A A
C C

21
General Expression → SOP
• Any logic expression can be changed into SOP form
by applying Boolean algebra techniques.

• Example:

A( B + CD ) = AB + ACD
AB + B (CD + EF ) = AB + BCD + BEF
( A + B )( B + C + D) = AB + AC + AD + BB + BC + BD
( A + B ) + C = ( A + B )C = ( A + B )C = AC + BC

22
The Standard (canonical) SOP Form
• A standard SOP expression is one in which all
the variables in the domain appear in each
product term in the expression.
• Example: AB CD + A B CD + ABC D
• Standard SOP expressions are important in:

• Constructing truth tables

• The Karnaugh map simplification method

23
 Minterms
• For a function of n variables, if a product term
contains each of the n variables exactly one time in
complemented or uncomplemented form

• A Function represented in sum of minterms is in

canonical SOP form.

• Each minterm represented by n-bit binary code as

• Uncomplemented variable by 1

• Complemented variable by 0

• The sum of all minterms of n-variables equals 1

𝒏
i.e. σ𝟐𝒊=𝟎−𝟏 𝒎𝒊 = 1 24
Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP

• Step 1: Multiply each nonstandard product term by a

term made up of the sum of a missing variable and its

complement. This results two product terms.

• As you know, you can multiply anything by 1 without

changing its value.

• Step 2: Repeat step 1 until all resulting product term

contains all variables in the domain in either

complemented or uncomplemented form.

25
Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP …

• Example: Convert the following Boolean expression

into standard SOP form:

AB C + A B + ABC D

AB C = AB C ( D + D ) = AB CD + AB CD

A B = A B (C + C ) = A B C + A B C
A B C ( D + D ) + A B C ( D + D ) = A B CD + A B CD + A B C D + A B C D

AB C + A B + ABC D = AB CD + AB CD + A B CD + A B CD + A B C D + A B C D + ABC D
• Try this

AB D + A C + BC D
26
Binary Representation of a Standard Product Term…

• A standard product term is equal to 1 for only

one combination of variable values.
Example: AB CD is equal to 1 when A=1, B=0, C=1,
and D=0 as shown below
AB CD = 1 • 0 • 1 • 0 = 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 = 1

And this term is 0 for all other combinations

of values for the variables.

27
The Product-of-Sums (POS) Form
• When two or more sum
terms are multiplied, the • In a POS form, a single
result expression is a overbar cannot extend over
product-of-sums (POS):
more than one variable;
• Examples:
( A + B )( A + B + C ) however, more than one
( A + B + C )(C + D + E )( B + C + D )
variable in a term can have
( A + B )( A + B + C )( A + C )
an overbar:
• Also: • Example: A + B +C is OK!
A ( A + B + C )( B + C + D )
• But not: A + B + C

28
Implementation of a POS

X=(A+B)(B+C+D)(A+C)

• OR/AND implementation

A
B

B
C X
D

A
C

29
The Standard (canonical) POS Form
• A standard POS expression is one in which all
the variables in the domain appear in each
sum term in the expression.

• Example: ( A + B + C + D )( A + B + C + D)( A + B + C + D)

• Standard POS expressions are important in:

• Constructing truth tables

• The Karnaugh map simplification method

30
 Maxterm
• For a function of n variables, if a sum term contains
each of the n variables exactly one time in
complemented or uncomplemented form

• A function represented in product of maxterms is in

canonical POS form.
• Each maxterm represented by n-bit binary code as
• Uncomplemented variable by 0
• Complemented variable by 1
• The product of all maxterms of n-variables equals 0
𝒏
• i.e. ς𝟐𝒊=𝟎−𝟏 𝑴𝒊 = 0
• The r/ship between maxterm and minterm is
• 𝒎𝒊 = 𝑴𝒊 or 𝑴𝒊 = 𝒎 𝒊
31
Converting a Sum Term to Standard POS

• Step1: Add to each nonstandard sum term a term

made up of the product of the missing variable and
its complement. This results in two sum terms.

• As you know, you can add 0 to anything without

changing its value.

• Step2: Apply rule 12 → A+BC=(A+B)(A+C).

• Step3: Repeat step 1 until all resulting sum terms

contain all variable in the domain in either

complemented or uncomplemented form.

32
Converting a Sum Term to Standard POS …

• Example: Convert the following Boolean expression

into standard POS form:

( A + B + C )( B + C + D )( A + B + C + D)

A + B + C = A + B + C + DD = ( A + B + C + D)( A + B + C + D )

B + C + D = B + C + D + AA = ( A + B + C + D )( A + B + C + D )

( A + B + C )( B + C + D )( A + B + C + D) =
( A + B + C + D)( A + B + C + D )( A + B + C + D )( A + B + C + D )( A + B + C + D)

• Try this:
( A + B + D )( B + A + D )( A + B + C )
33
Binary Representation of a Standard Sum Term

• A standard sum term is equal to 0 for only one

combination of variable values.

❑ Example: A+ B +C + D is equal to 0 when A=0, B=1,

C=0, and D=1 as shown below

A+ B +C + D = 0+ 1 +0+ 1 = 0+0+0+0 = 0

❑ And this term is 1 for all other combinations of

values for the variables.

34
Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS

• The Facts:

• The binary values of the product terms in a given

standard SOP expression are not present in the

equivalent standard POS expression.

• The binary values that are not represented in the

SOP expression are present in the equivalent POS

expression.
35
Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS
• What can you use the facts?

• Convert from standard SOP to standard POS.

• How?

• Step 1: Evaluate each product term in the SOP

expression. That is, determine the binary numbers that
represent the product terms.

• Step 2: Determine all of the binary numbers not

included in the evaluation in Step 1.

• Step 3: Write the equivalent sum term for each binary

number from Step 2 and express in POS form.

36
Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS

• Example: Convert the SOP expression to an equivalent POS

expression:

A B C + A BC + A BC + AB C + ABC
• The evaluation is as follows:
000 + 010 + 011 + 101 + 111
• There are 8 possible combinations. The SOP expression contains five of
these, so the POS must contain the other 3 which are: 001, 100, and 110.

( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C )

37
Boolean Expressions and Truth Tables

• All standard Boolean expression can be easily converted into

truth table format using binary values for each term in the

expression.

• Also, standard SOP or POS expression can be determined from

the truth table.

38
Converting SOP Expressions to Truth Table Format
• Recall the fact:

• A SOP expression is equal to 1 only if at least one of the

product term is equal to 1.

• Constructing a truth table:

• Step 1: List all possible combinations of binary values

of the variables in the expression.

• Step 2: Convert the SOP expression to standard form if

it is not already.

• Step 3: Place a 1 in the output column (X) for each

binary value that makes the standard SOP expression a
1 and place 0 for all the remaining binary values.
39
Converting SOP Expressions to Truth Table Format

• Example: Develop a truth Inputs Output Product

Inputs
table for the standard SOP A
A B B CC X
X Term
Term
expression 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 ABC
A B C + AB C + ABC
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 AB C
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 ABC
ABC
40
Converting POS Expressions to Truth Table Format
• Recall the fact:

• A POS expression is equal to 0 only if at least one of the sum term is

equal to 0.

• Constructing a truth table:

• Step 1: List all possible combinations of binary values of the

variables in the expression.

• Step 2: Convert the POS expression to standard form if it is not

already.

• Step 3: Place a 0 in the output column (X) for each binary value that
makes the standard POS expression a 0 and place 1 for all the
remaining binary values.

41
Converting POS Expressions to Truth Table Format
• Example: Develop
a truth table for
the standard SOP Inputs Output Product
Inputs Sum
expression A B C C X
X Term
Term
( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C ) 0 0 0 0 ( A + B + C)
( A + B + C )( A + B + C ) 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 ( A + B + C)
0 1 1 0 (A + B + C )
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 (A + B + C )
1 1 0 0 ( A + B + C)
1 1 1 1
42
Try it:
• Convert the given SOP to

• A truth table

• a standard POS

A C + A B + AB C + ABC

43
Determining Standard Expression from a Truth Table

• To determine the standard SOP expression

represented by a truth table.
• Instructions:
• Step 1: List the binary values of the input variables
for which the output is 1.
• Step 2: Convert each binary value to the
corresponding product term by replacing:
• each 1 with the corresponding variable

uncomplemented, and
• each 0 with the corresponding variable

complement.
• Example: 1010 → AB CD

44
Determining Standard Expression from a Truth Table

• To determine the standard POS expression represented by a

truth table.

• Instructions:

• Step 1: List the binary values of the input variables for which
the output is 0.

• Step 2: Convert each binary value to the corresponding sum

term by replacing:

• each 1 with the corresponding variable complement, and

• each 0 with the corresponding variable uncomplemented.

• Example: 1001 → A + B + C + D

45
Determining Standard Expression from a Truth Table
Example:

I/P O/ ◼ There are four 1s in ◼ There are four 0s in

the output and the the output and the
P
A
0
B
0
C
0
X
0
SOP
corresponding
binary value are
011, 100, 110, and
POS
corresponding
binary value are
000, 001, 010, and
101.
111.
0 0 1 0
011 → A BC
0 1 0 0 000 → A + B + C
100 → AB C
0 1 1 1 110 → ABC 001 → A + B + C
1 0 0 1 111 → ABC 010 → A + B + C

1 0 1 0 101 → A + B + C
X = A BC + AB C + ABC + ABC
1 1 0 1
X = ( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C )
1 1 1 1
46
The Karnaugh Map
• Feel a little difficult using Boolean algebra laws, rules, and

theorems to simplify logic?

• A K-map provides a systematic method for simplifying Boolean

expressions and, if properly used, will produce the simplest SOP

or POS expression possible, known as the minimum expression.

• A K-map is a 2D table showing the output level of possible input

variable combinations.

47
What is K-Map?
• The K-map is an array of cells in which each cell represents a
binary value of the input variables.

• The cells are arranged in a way so that simplification of a given

expression is simply a matter of properly grouping the cells.

• A K-map of n variables has 2n cells

• K-maps can be used for expressions with 2, 3, 4, and 5 variables.

• When moving from one cell to an adjacent cell of a K-map only

one variable changes

• It uses a gray code sequence (00. 01, 11, 10 or 000, 001,

011, 010, 110, 111, 101, 100) changes occur in only one bit
position

48
Two-Variable Map

• A two-variable map
• Four minterms
• x' = row 0; x = row 1
• y' = column 0; y =
column 1
• A truth table in square
diagram
• In map (a): xy = m3 Figure 3.1 Two-variable Map
• In map (b): x+y = x'y+xy'
+xy = m1+m2+m3

Representation of functions in the map

49
The 3 Variable K-Map
• There are 8 cells as shown:
C C
0 1 0 1
AB AB
00 00 m0 m1
ABC ABC
01 A BC 01 m2 m3
A BC
11 ABC ABC 11 m6 m7

10 10 m4 m5
AB C AB C
• The upper and lower edges are thought of as touching (K-map
appears as cylinder) the first & last rows are adjacent
50
The 4-Variable K-Map

CD
00 01 11 10
AB
00 ABCD ABCD A B CD A B CD

01 A BC D A BC D A BCD A BCD

11 ABC D ABC D ABCD ABCD

10 AB C D AB C D AB CD AB CD

51
Cell Adjacency

CD
00 01 11 10
AB
00
01
11
10

52
The 5-Variable K-Map

A
A

DE DE
00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
BC BC
00 A B C D E A B C DE A B C DE A B C D E
00 AB C D E AB C DE AB C DE AB C D E

01 A BC D E A B C DE A B CDE A B CD E
01 A BC D E AB C DE AB CDE AB CD E

11 A BC D E A BC DE A BCDE A BCD E
11 ABC D E ABC DE ABCDE ABCD E

10 A BC D E A BC DE A BC DE A BC D E
10 ABC D E ABC DE ABC DE ABC D E

53
K-Map SOP Minimization
• The K-Map is used for simplifying Boolean expressions to their minimal form.

• A minimized SOP expression contains the fewest possible terms with fewest

possible variables per term.

• Generally, a minimum SOP expression can be implemented with fewer logic

gates than a standard expression.

54
Mapping a Standard SOP Expression
• For an SOP expression in standard
form:

• A 1 is placed on the K-map for

each product term in the C
0 1
expression. AB
• Each 1 is placed in a cell
00 ABC ABC
corresponding to the value of a
product term.
01 A BC A BC
• Example: for the product term
AB’C , a 1 goes in the 101 cell on a
11 ABC ABC
3-variable map.

• A Boolean expression must be in 10 AB C AB1 C

standard form before you use a K-
map.
55
Example: Mapping the following Standard SOP Expression into a
K-map

The expression:
C
A B C + A B C + ABC + AB C 0 1
AB
000 001 110 100
00
1 1
01

11 1
Try it:

10
A B C + A BC + ABC + ABC 1
A B CD + A BC D + ABC D + ABCD + ABC D + A B C D + AB CD
56
K-Map Simplification of SOP Expressions
• After an SOP expression has been mapped, we can do the process of minimization:

Step1: drawing the k-map according to the number of variables of the Boolean function

Step2: Grouping the 1s

Step3: Determining the minimum SOP expression from the map based on the following rules:

Grouping the 1s (rules):

Rule1: Each cell on a K-map of n-variables has n logically adjacent cells

Rule2: Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same group, but all
cells in the group do not have to be adjacent to each other.

Rule3: Always combine cells in power of 2. A group must contain either 1,2,4,8,16,32 cells
(depending on number of variables in the expression)

Rule4: Combine as many cells as possible. Always include the largest possible number of 1s in a
group in accordance with rule 1.

Rule5: Each 1 on the map must be included in at least one group. The 1s already in a group can
be included in another group as long as the overlapping groups include non-common 1s.

Rule6: Make as few groups as possible to cover all 1’s

Rule7: In grouping cells, always begin with those cells for which there are the fewest number of
adjacent cells. 57
Example: Grouping the 1s

C C
AB 0 1 0 1
AB

00 1 00 1 1
01 1 01 1
11 1 1 11 1
10 10 1 1

58
Example: Grouping the 1s …

CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10

00 1 1 00 1 1

01 1 1 1 1 01 1 1 1

11 11 1 1 1

10 1 1 10 1 1 1

59
Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from
the Map
• The following rules are applied to find the minimum product terms and

the minimum SOP expression:

1. Group the cells that have 1s. Each group of cell containing 1s

creates one product term composed of all variables that occur in

only one form (either complemented or uncomplemented) within

the group. Variables that occur both complemented and

uncomplemented within the group are eliminated → called

contradictory variables.

60
Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the
Map
2. Determine the minimum product term for each group.
❑ For a 3-variable map:
i. A 1-cell group yields a 3-variable product term

ii. A 2-cell group yields a 2-variable product term

iii. A 4-cell group yields a 1-variable product term

iv. An 8-cell group yields a value of 1 for the expression.

❑ For a 4-variable map:
i. A 1-cell group yields a 4-variable product term

ii. A 2-cell group yields a 3-variable product term

iii. A 4-cell group yields a 2-variable product term

iv. An 8-cell group yields a 1-variable product term

v. A 16-cell group yields a value of 1 for the expression.

3. When all the minimum product terms are derived from the K-map, they
are summed to form the minimum SOP expression.
61
Example: Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map

CD
00 01 11 10 B + A C + AC D
AB
00 1 1 AC
01 1 1 1 1 B
11 1 1 1 1
10 1 AC D

62
Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map

C C
AB 0 1 0 1
AB

00 1 00 1 1
01 1 01 1
11 1 1 11 1
10 10 1 1

AB + BC + A B C B + A C + AC

63
Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map

CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10

00 1 1 00 1 1

01 1 1 1 1 01 1 1 1

11 11 1 1 1

10 1 1 10 1 1 1
A B + A C + AB D D + AB C + BC
64
Try: Do the K-Map (SOP) simplification

AB C + A BC + A B C + A B C + AB C
B + AC

B C D + A BC D + ABC D + A B CD + AB CD +
A B CD + A BCD + ABCD + AB CD

D + BC

65
Mapping Directly from a Truth Table

I/P O/P
A B C X C
0 1
0 0 0 1 AB
0 0 1 0
00 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 01
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 11 1 1
1 1 0 1
10 1
1 1 1 1

66
 “Don’t Care” Conditions
• Sometimes a situation arises in which some input variable

combinations are not allowed, i.e. BCD code:

❑ There are six invalid combinations: 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110,

and 1111.

• Since these not allowed states will never occur in an application

involving the BCD code → they can be treated as “don’t care” terms

with respect to their effect on the output.

• The “don’t care” terms can be used to advantage on the K-map (how?

see the next slide).

67
“Don’t Care” Conditions
INPUTS O/P CD
A B C D Y 00 01 11 10
0 0 0 0 0 AB
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 00
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
01 1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
11 x x x x
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
10 1 1 x x
1 0 0 1 1
Without “don’t care”
1 0 1 0 X
Y = AB C + A BCD
1 0 1 1 X
1 1 0 0 X
1 1 0 1 X
With “don’t care”
1 1 1 0 X
Y = A + BCD
1 1 1 1 X
68
 K-Map POS Minimization
◼ The approaches are much the same (as SOP) except that with POS expression, 0s
representing the standard sum terms are placed on the K-map instead of 1s.
◼ Grouping the 0 (rule):
1. Each cell on a K-map of n-variables has n logically adjacent cells

2. Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same group,
but all cells in the group do not have to be adjacent to each other.

3. Always combine cells in power of 2. A group must contain either 1,2,4,8,16,32

cells (depending on number of variables in the expression)

4. Combine as many cells as possible. Always include the largest possible number
of 0s in a group in accordance with rule 1.

5. Each 0 on the map must be included in at least one group. The 0s already in a
group can be included in another group as long as the overlapping groups
include non common 0s.

6. Make as few groups as possible to cover all 0’s

7. In grouping cells, always begin with those cells for which there are the fewest
number of adjacent cells.
69
Example: Mapping a Standard POS Expression

The expression:
C
( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C ) 0 1
AB
000 010 110 101
00
0
01
0
11 0
10
0
70
K-map Simplification of POS Expression

( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C )

C
0 1
AB A

00 0 0 A( B + C )

01 AB + AC
0 0
11 AC
0 1
B +C
10 1 1 AB

71
Quine-McCluskey (Q-M) Technique

• In the previous section, we discussed K-map method, which is

a convenient method for minimizing Boolean functions up to 5

variables. But, it is difficult to simplify the Boolean functions

having more than 5 variables by using this method.

• Quine-McClukey tabular method is a tabular method based on

the concept of prime implicants. We know that prime

implicant is a product or sum term, which can’t be further

reduced by combining with any other product or sum terms of

the given Boolean function.

72
Procedure of Quine-McCluskey Tabular Method
• Follow these steps for simplifying Boolean functions using Quine-McClukey tabular method.

Step1: group the given min terms based on the number of ones present in their binary
representations.

Step2: pair the min terms present in successive groups. If there is a change in only one-bit
position, then take the pair of those two min terms. Place this symbol ‘_’ in the differed bit
position and keep the remaining bits as it is.

Step3: Repeat step2 with newly formed terms till we get all prime implicants.

Step4: Formulate the prime implicant table. It consists of set of rows and columns. Prime
implicants can be placed in row wise and min terms can be placed in column wise. Place ‘1’ in
the cells corresponding to the min terms that are covered in each prime implicant.

Step5: Find the essential prime implicants by observing each column. If the min term is
covered only by one prime implicant, then it is essential prime implicant. Those essential prime
implicants will be part of the simplified Boolean function.

Step6: Reduce the prime implicant table by removing the row of each essential prime implicant
and the columns corresponding to the min terms that are covered in that essential prime
implicant. Repeat step 5 for Reduced prime implicant table. Stop this process when all min
terms of given Boolean function are over.

73
Ex ample: simplify the following Boolean function f(A,B,C,D)=∑m(2,6,8,9,10,11,14,15) using
Quine-McClukey tabular method.

Solution:

Step1: Group the given min terms

Group Name Min terms A B C D

2 0 0 1 0
G1
8 1 0 0 0

6 0 1 1 0

G2 9 1 0 0 1

10 1 0 1 0

11 1 0 1 1
G3
14 1 1 1 0

G4 15 1 1 1 1

74
Solution…
Step2: Pair the min terms present in successive groups
Group Name Min terms A B C D

2,6 0 - 1 0

2,10 - 0 1 0
G1
8,9 1 0 0 -

8,10 1 0 - 0

6,14 - 1 1 0

9,11 1 0 - 1
G2
10,11 1 0 1 -

10,14 1 - 1 0

11,15 1 - 1 1
G3
14,15 1 1 1 -

75
Solution…
Step3: Repeating step2

Group Name Min terms A B C D

2,6,10,14 - - 1 0

2,10,6,14 - - 1 0
G1
8,9,10,11 1 0 - -

8,10,9,11 1 0 - -

10,11,14,15 1 - 1 -
G2
10,14,11,15 1 - 1 -

Step3: …

Group Name Min terms A B C D

2,6,10,14 - - 1 0
G1
8,9,10,11 1 0 - -

G2 10,11,14,15 1 - 1 -

76
Solution…
Step4: Formulate the prime implicant table

Prime Implicants 2 6 8 9 10 11 14 15

CD’ 1 1 1 1

AB’ 1 1 1 1

AC 1 1 1 1

Step5: Find the essential prime implicants

Prime Implicants 8 9 11 15

AB’ 1 1 1

AC 1 1

Step6: Repeat step5 Finally, we got three prime implicants and all the three

Prime Implicants 15 Are essential. Therefore, the simplified Boolean function

AC 1
is F(A,B,C,D) = CD’ + AB’ + AC

77
 ASSIGNMENT FROM CHAPTER THREE (IN GROUP)
1. Explain briefly the design advantage of don’t care condition while designing digital systems.

2. Compare and contrast the Boolean rule, k-map and quine-McCluskey Boolean function

simplification methods.

3. Simplify the following Boolean expressions using convenient simplification technique.

A. 𝐀𝐂′ + 𝐂𝐃 + 𝐀𝐁′𝐂𝐃 + 𝐀𝐁(𝐂′ + 𝐃) + 𝐀′𝐃

B. 𝐀′ + 𝐂 ′ + 𝐃′ (𝐀 + 𝐂 + 𝐁)(𝐂′ + 𝐃)(′𝐃)

ሜ
C. (𝐁 + 𝐃)(𝐀 + 𝐁 + 𝐂)(𝐀 ሜ
+ 𝐁)(𝐀 ሜ
+ 𝐁ሜ + 𝐂)
4. Simplify the following expressions using K-Map, and implement them with Logic gate circuits.

A. (𝐀 + 𝐁)(𝐀 + 𝐁 + 𝐂ሜ + 𝐃)(𝐁ሜ + 𝐂𝐃)(𝐀 + 𝐁ሜ + 𝐂)

ሜ

B. 𝐃 + 𝐂ሜ 𝐃 ሜ + 𝐀𝐂𝐃 + 𝐀(𝐂 + 𝐃)
ሜ + 𝐂𝐃 ሜ

ሜ + 𝐀𝐂 + 𝐀𝐁ሜ
C. 𝐁(𝐃 + 𝐀) + 𝐂𝐃

5. Generate a truth table for the following min and max terms of the Boolean expressions.

A. f(A,B,C,D) = σ 𝐦(𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟒)

B. f(A,B,C,D,E) = ς 𝐌(𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟑, 𝟏𝟓, 𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟑, 𝟐𝟓, 𝟐𝟕, 𝟐𝟗, 𝟑𝟏)
78
 ASSIGNMENT FROM CHAPTER THREE (IN GROUP)…
6. Generate a truth table for the following min and max terms of the Boolean functions.

A. f(A,B,C,D) = σ 𝐦(𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟑, 𝟏𝟓)

B. f(A,B,C,D) = ς 𝐌(𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟒, 𝟏𝟔, , 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟒, 𝟐𝟔, 𝟐𝟖, 𝟑𝟎)

7. Find the minimal SOP form for: 10. Repeat question #7(b) using QM method

A. f(A,B,C,D) = σ 𝐦(𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟑) 11. Repeat question #8(b) using QM method

B. f(A,B,C,D,E) = σ 𝐦(𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟕, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟑, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟑, 𝟐𝟔, 𝟐𝟖, 𝟐𝟗)

8. Find minimal POS expression for:

A. f(A,B,C,D) = ς 𝐌(𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟏, 𝟏𝟑, 𝟏𝟓)

B. f(A,B,C,D,E) = ς 𝐌(𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟒, 𝟏𝟔, , 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟒, 𝟐𝟔, , 𝟐𝟖, 𝟑𝟎)

9. Minimize the function in SOP & POS forms using K-map and plot the logic diagram for both

the given Boolean function and the simplified expressions

A. F(A,B,C,D) = σ 𝐦(𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟕, 𝟏𝟏) + d(5,12,13,14,15)

B. F(A,B,C,D) = ς 𝐌(𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟗, 𝟏𝟎) * d(5,12,13,14,15)

79
The end of chapter 2 and 3

80