Network Theorems

Norton's Theorem:
Norton's Theorem is a fundamental principle in electrical circuit analysis that simplifies linear,
bilateral circuits containing multiple voltage sources, current sources, and resistors. It is the dual
of Thévenin's Theorem and is particularly useful for analyzing circuits where current division is
involved.
Statement of Norton's Theorem
Any linear, bilateral two-terminal network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source (𝐼𝑁 ) in parallel with a resistor (𝑅𝑁 ).
• 𝐼𝑁 is the Norton current (short-circuit current across the terminals).
• 𝑅𝑁 is the Norton resistance (equivalent resistance seen from the terminals with all
independent sources turned off).
Steps to Apply Norton's Theorem
1. Identify the Load:
Determine the two terminals across which you want to find the Norton equivalent.

2. Find Norton Current (𝐼𝑁 ):

o Short-circuit the two terminals.
o Calculate the current flowing through this short circuit. This is 𝐼𝑁 .
3. Find Norton Resistance (𝑅𝑁 ):
o Turn off all independent sources:
▪ Voltage sources → Replace with a short circuit.
▪ Current sources → Replace with an open circuit.
o Calculate the equivalent resistance seen from the two terminals. This is 𝑅𝑁 .
4. Draw the Norton Equivalent Circuit:
Combine 𝐼𝑁 (in parallel) with 𝑅𝑁 and reconnect the load.
Example
Consider a circuit with a voltage source (𝑉𝑡ℎ ), a resistor (𝑅𝑡ℎ ), and a load resistor (𝑅𝐿 ):
1. Norton Current (𝐼𝑁 ):
Short the load terminals. The short-circuit current is:
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝐼𝑁 =
𝑅𝑡ℎ
2. Norton Resistance (𝑅𝑁 ):
Turn off 𝑉𝑡ℎ (short it) and calculate the equivalent resistance:
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
 3. Equivalent Circuit:
The Norton equivalent is 𝐼𝑁 in parallel with 𝑅𝑁 .
Relationship with Thévenin's Theorem
• Norton Resistance = Thévenin Resistance:
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
• Norton Current and Thévenin Voltage:
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝐼𝑁 ⋅ 𝑅𝑁
• The two equivalents are interchangeable:
o Norton: Current source + Parallel resistor.
o Thévenin: Voltage source + Series resistor.
Applications
• Simplifying complex networks for analysis.
• Designing and analyzing power systems, amplifiers, and load matching.
• Solving circuits where current division is more convenient than voltage division.
Limitations
• Only applicable to linear circuits (Ohm’s Law must hold).
• Not valid for networks with dependent sources unless proper steps are taken.
• Non-linear elements (diodes, transistors) require advanced methods.
Thevenin theorem

Thévenin's Theorem:
Thévenin's Theorem is a fundamental concept in electrical circuit analysis that simplifies
complex linear networks into an equivalent two-terminal circuit consisting of a voltage source
and a series resistor.
Statement of Thévenin's Theorem
Any linear, bilateral two-terminal network (containing resistors, voltage sources, and
current sources) can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of:
• A single voltage source (𝑉𝑡ℎ ) (Thévenin voltage).
• A single resistor (𝑅𝑡ℎ ) (Thévenin resistance) in series with it.
Steps to Apply Thévenin's Theorem
1. Identify the Load
• Determine the two terminals across which you want to find the Thévenin equivalent
(usually where the load resistor is connected).
2. Find Thévenin Voltage (𝑉𝑡ℎ )
• Remove the load resistor (open-circuit the terminals).
• Calculate the open-circuit voltage across these terminals. This is 𝑉𝑡ℎ .
3. Find Thévenin Resistance (𝑅𝑡ℎ )
• Turn off all independent sources:
o Voltage sources → Replace with a short circuit.
o Current sources → Replace with an open circuit.
• Calculate the equivalent resistance seen from the open terminals.
4. Draw the Thévenin Equivalent Circuit
• Reconnect the load resistor to the equivalent circuit (𝑉𝑡ℎ in series with 𝑅𝑡ℎ ).
Example
Consider a simple circuit with:
• A voltage source (𝑉𝑠 = 10𝑉)
• Two resistors (𝑅1 = 2𝛺, 𝑅2 = 3𝛺)
• A load resistor (𝑅𝐿 ) connected across 𝑅2 .
Step 1: Find 𝑉𝑡ℎ
• Remove 𝑅𝐿 and find the voltage across 𝑅2 (open-circuit voltage):
𝑅2 3𝛺
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑠 × = 10𝑉 × = 6𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2𝛺 + 3𝛺
Step 2: Find 𝑅𝑡ℎ
• Turn off 𝑉𝑠 (replace with a short circuit).
• The equivalent resistance seen from the load terminals is 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 :
𝑅1 × 𝑅2 2 × 3
𝑅𝑡ℎ = = = 1.2𝛺
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2 + 3
Step 3: Thévenin Equivalent Circuit
• The simplified circuit is:
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 6𝑉 in series with 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 1.2𝛺
Relationship with Norton's Theorem
• Thévenin Voltage (𝑉𝑡ℎ ) and Norton Current (𝐼𝑁 ):
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝐼𝑁 × 𝑅𝑡ℎ
• Thévenin Resistance = Norton Resistance:
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑁
• Conversion Between Thévenin and Norton:
𝑉
o Thévenin → Norton: 𝐼𝑁 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑡ℎ
o Norton → Thévenin: 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝐼𝑁 × 𝑅𝑁
Applications
• Simplifying complex circuits for analysis.
• Calculating maximum power transfer (when 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ ).
 • Analyzing voltage drop and current distribution in networks.
Limitations
• Only works for linear circuits (Ohm’s Law must apply).
• Not valid for circuits with non-linear elements (diodes, transistors).
• Dependent sources require additional steps (e.g., test voltage/current method).

Superposition Theorem:
Superposition Theorem is a fundamental principle in linear circuit analysis that simplifies the
calculation of voltages and currents in circuits with multiple independent sources.
Statement of Superposition Theorem
In any linear, bilateral network containing multiple independent sources, the total
response (voltage or current) in any branch is the algebraic sum of the responses
caused by each independent source acting alone, while all other independent sources
are turned off.
Key Conditions:
Applies only to linear circuits (Ohm’s Law must hold).
Only valid for independent sources (not dependent sources).
Works for voltage and current calculations, but not power (since power is nonlinear).
Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem
1. Select One Independent Source
• Keep one independent source active (voltage or current).
• Turn off all other independent sources:
o Voltage sources → Replace with a short circuit (0V).
o Current sources → Replace with an open circuit (0A).
2. Calculate the Response
• Find the current or voltage in the desired branch due to the single active source.
3. Repeat for All Sources
• Repeat the process for each independent source individually.
4. Sum the Contributions
• Algebraically add all individual responses to get the total response.
Example
Consider a circuit with:
• A voltage source (𝑉1 = 10𝑉)
• A current source (𝐼1 = 2𝐴)
• Two resistors (𝑅1 = 2𝛺, 𝑅2 = 3𝛺)
We want to find the current through 𝑅2 .
Step 1: Consider Only 𝑉1 (Turn off 𝐼1 )
• Replace 𝐼1 with an open circuit.
• The circuit becomes a simple series connection:
(𝑉 ) 𝑉1 10𝑉
𝐼2 1 = = = 2𝐴 (flowing downward)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2𝛺 + 3𝛺
Step 2: Consider Only 𝐼1 (Turn off 𝑉1)
• Replace 𝑉1 with a short circuit.
• The current divides between 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 (parallel resistors):
(𝐼 ) 𝑅1 2𝛺
𝐼2 1 = 𝐼1 × = 2𝐴 × = 0.8𝐴 (flowing upward)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 5𝛺
Step 3: Apply Superposition
• Total current through 𝑅2 :
(𝑉1 ) (𝐼 )
𝐼2 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼2 1 = 2𝐴 − 0.8𝐴 = 1.2𝐴 (net downward)
Important Notes
• Dependent sources must remain active (never turn them off).
• Sign convention matters! (Assign directions consistently).
• Does not apply to power calculations (since 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 is nonlinear).
Applications
• Simplifying circuits with multiple sources.
• Analyzing amplifiers, filters, and DC circuits.
• Breaking down complex networks into manageable parts.
Limitations
Only for linear circuits (nonlinear elements like diodes invalidate it).
Cannot compute power directly (must find current/voltage first).
Tedious for large circuits (better methods like nodal/mesh may be preferred).
Comparison with Other Theorems
Theorem Applicability Key Idea
Superposition Multiple sources Analyze one source at a time
Thévenin Complex networks Replace with 𝑉𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝑡ℎ
Norton Current-based analysis Replace with 𝐼𝑁 + 𝑅𝑁
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
Purpose:
Determines the condition under which maximum power is delivered from a source to a load in
an electrical circuit.
Statement of the Theorem
In a linear, bilateral DC network, maximum power is transferred to the load when
the load resistance (𝑅𝐿 ) is equal to the Thévenin equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑡ℎ ) of the
source network.
Formula for Maximum Power Transfer
If 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ , the maximum power delivered to the load is:
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑡ℎ
where:
• 𝑉𝑡ℎ = Thévenin voltage (open-circuit voltage)
• 𝑅𝑡ℎ = Thévenin resistance (equivalent resistance seen from the load terminals)
Proof & Derivation
Consider a Thévenin equivalent circuit connected to a load 𝑅𝐿 :
1. Total circuit resistance:

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
2. Current through the load:
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝐼=
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
3. Power dissipated in 𝑅𝐿 :
2
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼 𝑅𝐿 = ( ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝐿
4. Find 𝑅𝐿 for maximum power (𝑑𝑃𝐿 /𝑑𝑅𝐿 = 0):

o Differentiate 𝑃𝐿 w.r.t. 𝑅𝐿 and set to zero.

o Simplifying, we get:
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
5. Substitute 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ into 𝑃𝐿 :
 2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑡ℎ

Steps to Apply the Theorem

1. Find the Thévenin equivalent of the given network:

o Calculate 𝑉𝑡ℎ (open-circuit voltage).

o Calculate 𝑅𝑡ℎ (resistance seen from the load with sources turned off).
2. Set the load resistance equal to 𝑅𝑡ℎ :
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
3. Calculate maximum power delivered:
2
𝑉𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑡ℎ
Example
Given Circuit:
• A voltage source (𝑉𝑠 = 12𝑉)
• A series resistor (𝑅𝑡ℎ = 4𝛺)
• A variable load resistor (𝑅𝐿 )
Find 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 when 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ :
1. Thévenin equivalent:

o 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 12𝑉
o 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 4𝛺
2. Set 𝑅𝐿 = 4𝛺.
3. Maximum power:
(12𝑉)2 144
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 9𝑊
4 × 4𝛺 16
Key Points
Efficiency is only 50% (half the power is lost in 𝑅𝑡ℎ ).
∗
Applies to AC circuits (with impedance matching 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑡ℎ ).
Used in:
• Audio amplifiers
• Antenna design
• Solar panel optimization
Limitations
Not for efficiency-critical systems (since 50% power is wasted).
Only for linear circuits.
Dependent sources require modified analysis.
Comparison with Other Theorems
Theorem Purpose Key Condition
Maximum Power Transfer Maximize power in load 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
Thévenin’s Theorem Simplify complex networks 𝑉𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝑡ℎ model
Superposition Analyze circuits with multiple sources One source at a time

Star (Y) and Delta (Δ) Conversion:

Purpose:
Star-Delta transformations are used to simplify complex resistor networks, making circuit
analysis easier (e.g., in 3-phase systems, bridge circuits).
1. Star (Y) to Delta (Δ) Conversion
Given a Star (Y) network with resistances 𝑅𝐴 , 𝑅𝐵 , 𝑅𝐶 , the equivalent Delta (Δ) resistances
𝑅𝐴𝐵 , 𝑅𝐵𝐶 , 𝑅𝐶𝐴 are:
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 +
𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 +
𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 +
𝑅𝐵
Shortcut (When all Y resistances are equal, 𝑅𝑌 ):
If 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝑌 , then:
𝑅𝛥 = 3𝑅𝑌
2. Delta (Δ) to Star (Y) Conversion
Given a Delta (Δ) network with resistances 𝑅𝐴𝐵 , 𝑅𝐵𝐶 , 𝑅𝐶𝐴 , the equivalent Star (Y) resistances
𝑅𝐴 , 𝑅𝐵 , 𝑅𝐶 are:
𝑅𝐴𝐵 ⋅ 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐴 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐴𝐵 ⋅ 𝑅𝐵𝐶
𝑅𝐵 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴
 𝑅𝐵𝐶 ⋅ 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐶 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴
Shortcut (When all Δ resistances are equal, 𝑅𝛥 ):
If 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 𝑅𝛥 , then:
𝑅𝛥
𝑅𝑌 =
3
Example: Star to Delta Conversion
Given Star (Y) Network:
• 𝑅𝐴 = 3𝛺, 𝑅𝐵 = 4𝛺, 𝑅𝐶 = 6𝛺
Find Equivalent Delta (Δ) Resistances:
3×4
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 3 + 4 + = 7 + 2 = 9𝛺
6
4×6
𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 4 + 6 + = 10 + 8 = 18𝛺
3
6×3
𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 6 + 3 + = 9 + 4.5 = 13.5𝛺
4
Example: Delta to Star Conversion
Given Delta (Δ) Network:
• 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 12𝛺, 𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 6𝛺, 𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 18𝛺
Find Equivalent Star (Y) Resistances:
12 × 18 216
𝑅𝐴 = = = 6𝛺
12 + 6 + 18 36
12 × 6 72
𝑅𝐵 = = = 2𝛺
36 36
6 × 18 108
𝑅𝐶 = = = 3𝛺
36 36
Key Applications
Simplifying unbalanced bridge circuits
3-phase power system analysis
Converting complex resistor networks for Thévenin/Norton analysis
Comparison

Conversion When to Use Formula

Star (Y) → Delta (Δ) When Δ makes analysis easier 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 +
𝑅𝐶
Delta (Δ) → Star (Y) When Y simplifies the circuit 𝑅𝐴𝐵 ⋅ 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐴 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

Quick Summary
• Star (Y) → Delta

(Δ): Helps in parallel resistance reduction.

Delta (Δ) → Star (Y): Helps in series resistance reduction.
Balanced Networks: If all resistances are equal, 𝑅𝛥 = 3𝑅𝑌 .