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DCC -Module 4

Btech Computer Science (APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University)

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Module-IV

MULTIPLEXING AND SPREAD SPECTRUM

Multiplexing - Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM), Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), Characteristics, Synchronous
TDM, Statistical TDM. Spread spectrum techniques - Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS), Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), Code Division Multiplexing, Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

MULTIPLEXING

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs
of the devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allow the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and
telecommunications use increases, so does traffic. We can accommodate this increase by
continuing to add individual links each time a new channel is needed; or we can install higher-
bandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals.

If the bandwidth of a link is greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices connected to it,
the bandwidth is wasted. An efficient system maximizes the utilization of all resources;
bandwidth is one of the most precious resources in data communications. In a multiplexed
system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. Figure 6.1 shows the basic format of a
multiplexed system. The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer
(MUX), which combines them into a single stream (many-to-one).

At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the
stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their
corresponding lines. In the figure, the word link refers to the physical path. The word channel
refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link
can have many (n) channels.

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There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-

division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are techniques designed for
analog signals, the third, for digital signals.

FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the
bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can
be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to
accommodate the modulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which
the various signals travel. Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth—guard
bands—to prevent signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere
with the original data frequencies.

Multiplexing Process

Figure 6.4 is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process. Each source generates a
signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulate
different carrier frequencies ( f1, f2, and f3). The resulting modulated signals are then combined
into a single composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it.

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Demultiplexing Process

The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that
separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines. Figure 6.5 is a conceptual
illustration of demultiplexing process.

The Analog Carrier System

To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies have traditionally

multiplexed signals from lower-bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines. In this way,
many switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but bigger channels. For analog
lines, FDM is used. One of these hierarchical systems used by telephone companies is made
up of groups, supergroups, master groups, and jumbo groups.

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In this analog hierarchy, 12 voice channels are multiplexed onto a higher-bandwidth line to
create a group. A group has 48 kHz of bandwidth and supports 12 voice channels. At the next
level, up to five groups can be multiplexed to create a composite signal called a supergroup.
A supergroup has a bandwidth of 240 kHz and supports up to 60 voice channels. Supergroups
can be made up of either five groups or 60 independent voice channels.

At the next level, 10 supergroups are multiplexed to create a master group. A master group
must have 2.40 MHz of bandwidth, but the need for guard bands between the supergroups
increases the necessary bandwidth to 2.52 MHz. Master groups support up to 600 voice
channels. Finally, six master groups can be combined into a jumbo group. A jumbo group must
have 15.12 MHz (6 × 2.52 MHz) but is augmented to 16.984 MHz to allow for guard bands
between the master groups.

Applications of FDM

1. AM and FM radio broadcasting

Radio uses the air as the transmission medium. A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz
is assigned to AM radio. All radio stations need to share this band. Each AM station
needs 10 kHz of bandwidth. Each station uses a different carrier frequency, which
means it is shifting its signal and multiplexing. The signal that goes to the air is a
combination of signals. A receiver receives all these signals, but filters (by tuning) only
the one which is desired. Without multiplexing, only one AM station could broadcast
to the common link, the air. The situation is similar in FM broadcasting. However, FM
has a wider band of 88 to 108 MHz because each station needs a bandwidth of 200 kHz.

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2. Television broadcasting
Each TV channel has its own bandwidth of 6 MHz. The first generation of cellular
telephones also uses FDM. Each user is assigned two 30-kHz channels, one for sending
voice and the other for receiving. The voice signal, which has a bandwidth of 3 kHz
(from 300 to 3300 Hz), is modulated by using FM.

WAVELENGTH-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of

fiber-optic cable. The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission
cable, but using a fiber-optic cable for a single line wastes the available bandwidth.
Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one. WDM is conceptually the same as
FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted
through fiber-optic channels.

We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the
frequencies are very high. Figure 6.10 gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and
demultiplexer. Very narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider
band of light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.

Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very simple. We want to combine
multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the
demultiplexer. The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. A
prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the frequency. Using this
technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each containing
a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies. A
demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process. Figure 6.11 shows the concept.

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One application of WDM is the SONET network, in which multiple optical fiber lines are
multiplexed and demultiplexed. A new method, called dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a
very large number of channels by spacing channels very close to one another. It achieves even
greater efficiency.

TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share
the high bandwidth of a link. Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is
shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link. Figure 6.12 gives a conceptual
view of TDM. In the figure, portions of signals 1, 2, 3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.

All the data in a message from source 1 always go to one specific destination, be it 1, 2, 3, or
4. The delivery is fixed and unvarying, unlike switching. Digital data from different sources
are combined into one timeshared link. TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining
several low-rate channels into one high-rate one. We can divide TDM into two different
schemes: synchronous and statistical.

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SYNCHRONOUS TDM

In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not
sending data.

Time Slots and Frames

In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each
input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data. Each
input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot. However, the duration
of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If an input time
slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of connections. In other words,
a unit in the output connection has a shorter duration; it travels faster. Figure 6.13 shows an
example of synchronous TDM where n is 3.

In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected into a
frame. If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is allocated
for each unit, one for each input line. If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each
slot is T/n and the duration of each frame is T.

The data rate of the output link must be n times the data rate of a connection to guarantee the
flow of data. In Figure 6.13, the data rate of the link is 3 times the data rate of a connection;
likewise, the duration of a unit on a connection is 3 times that of the time slot.

In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is
n times shorter.

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Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots, with
one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system with n input lines, each frame has n slots,
with each slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input line.

Interleaving

TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the other
on the demultiplexing side. The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in
opposite directions. On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving.

On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has
the opportunity to receive a unit from the path. Figure 6.15 shows the interleaving process for
the connection shown in Figure 6.13.

In this figure, we assume that no switching is involved and that the data from the first
connection at the multiplexer site go to the first connection at the demultiplexer.

STATISTICAL TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. This can be inefficient
if some input lines have no data to send. In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are
dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency. Only when an input line has a slot’s
worth of data to send is it given a slot in the output frame. In statistical multiplexing, the number
of slots in each frame is less than the number of input lines. The multiplexer checks each input
line in round-robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send;
otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line.

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Figure 6.26 shows a synchronous and a statistical TDM example. In the former, some slots are
empty because the corresponding line does not have data to send. In the latter, no slot is left
empty as long as there are data to be sent by any input line.

Addressing

An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data; in statistical TDM, a slot needs
to carry data as well as the address of the destination. In synchronous TDM, there is no need
for addressing; synchronization and preassigned relationships between the inputs and outputs
serve as an address. If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are synchronized, this is
guaranteed. In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs and
outputs because there are no preassigned or reserved slots. We need to include the address of
the receiver inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered. The addressing in its simplest
form can be n bits to define N different output lines with n = log2 N. For example, for eight
different output lines, we need a 3-bit address.

Slot Size

Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the data size to
address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. For example, it would be
inefficient to send 1 bit per slot as data when the address is 3 bits. This would mean an overhead
of 300 percent. In statistical TDM, a block of data is usually many bytes while the address is
just a few bytes.

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No Synchronization Bit

There is another difference between synchronous and statistical TDM, but this time it is at the
frame level. The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized, so we do not need
synchronization bits.

Bandwidth

In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the capacities of
each channel. The designers of statistical TDM define the capacity of the link based on the
statistics of the load for each channel. If on average only x percent of the input slots are filled,
the capacity of the link reflects this. Of course, during peak times, some slots need to wait.

SPREAD SPECTRUM

Multiplexing combines signals from several sources to achieve bandwidth efficiency; the
available bandwidth of a link is divided between the sources. In spread spectrum (SS), we also
combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our goals are
somewhat different. Spread spectrum is designed to be used in wireless applications (LANs
and WANs).

In wireless applications, all stations use air (or a vacuum) as the medium for communication.
Stations must be able to share this medium without interception by an eavesdropper and
without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder (in military operations, for
example). To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy; they spread the
original spectrum needed for each station. If the required bandwidth for each station is B,
spread spectrum expands it to Bss, such that Bss >> B. The expanded bandwidth allows the
source to wrap its message in a protective envelope for a more secure transmission.

Figure 6.27 shows the idea of spread spectrum.

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Spread spectrum achieves its goals through two principles:

1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than what is needed.
This allows redundancy.
2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss must be done by a
process that is independent of the original signal. In other words, the spreading process
occurs after the signal is created by the source.

After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a spreading code and
spreads the bandwidth. The figure shows the original bandwidth B and the spread bandwidth
BSS. The spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are actually a pattern.
There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth: frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
and direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different carrier frequencies
that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier
frequency; at the next moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency. Although the
modulation is done using one carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long
run. The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BFHSS >> B.

Figure 6.28 shows the general layout for FHSS. A pseudorandom code generator, called
pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for every hopping period Th.

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The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period
and passes it to the frequency synthesizer. The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of
that frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier signal. Suppose we have decided to
have eight hopping frequencies. This is extremely low for real applications and is just for
illustration. In this case, M is 8 and k is 3. The pseudorandom code generator will create eight
different 3-bit patterns. These are mapped to eight different frequencies in the frequency table.

The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010, 011, 100. Note that the pattern is
pseudorandom; it is repeated after eight hoppings. This means that at hopping period 1, the
pattern is 101. The frequency selected is 700 kHz; the source signal modulates this carrier
frequency. The second k-bit pattern selected is 111, which selects the 900-kHz carrier; the
eighth pattern is 100, and the frequency is 600 kHz. After eight hoppings, the pattern repeats,
starting from 101 again. Figure 6.30 shows how the signal hops around from carrier to carrier.
We assume the required bandwidth of the original signal is 100 kHz.

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If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender and receiver can have
privacy. If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted signal, she can only access a small piece
of data because she does not know the spreading sequence to quickly adapt herself to the next
hop. The scheme also has an antijamming effect. A malicious sender may be able to send noise
to jam the signal for one hopping period (randomly), but not for the whole period.

Bandwidth Sharing

If the number of hopping frequencies is M, we can multiplex M channels into one by using the
same Bss bandwidth. This is possible because a station uses just one frequency in each hopping
period; M − 1 other frequencies can be used by M − 1 other stations. In other words, M different
stations can use the same Bss if an appropriate modulation technique such as multiple FSK
(MFSK) is used.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique also expands the bandwidth of the
original signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using
a spreading code. In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the
chip rate is n times that of the data bit. Figure 6.32 shows the concept of DSSS.

As an example, let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker
sequence, where n is 11. We assume that the original signal and the chips in the chip generator
use polar NRZ encoding. Figure 6.33 shows the chips and the result of multiplying the original
data by the chips to get the spread signal.

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In Figure 6.33, the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000. If the original
signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N. This means that the required bandwidth
for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The spread
signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It can also provide immunity
against interference if each station uses a different code.

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