Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Mathematics for Social Students (Math1011)

By: Abe Nura(MSc.)

Arsi University
Department of Mathematics
June 19, 2022
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Outline
1 Propositional Logic and Set Theory
Propositional Logic
Open propositions and Quantifiers
Argument and Validity
Set Theory
2 Functions
The real number systems
Equations and Inequalities Linear Equations
Review of Relations and Functions
Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs
Definition and basic properties of Logarithmic, Exponential, and Trigonometric
Functions and Their Graphs
Trigonometric functions and their graphs
3 Matrices and determinant
Types of Matrix and Basic Operations
Elementary Operations and its Properties
Determinant of a Matrix and its Properties
Inverse of a Matrix and its Properties
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

CHAPTER 1: PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC AND SET THEORY

Propositional Logic
Logic is an analytical theory of the art of reasoning whose goal is to systematize
and codify principles of valid reasoning.
Definition
A proposition (or statement) is a sentence which has a truth value (either True or
False but not both). i.e., It is an assertive or declarative sentence.

Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by T) or false

(denoted by F).

Remark
Interrogative sentences, exclamatory sentences, instructive sentences, sentences which
express ones opinion, attitude, hope, wish, etc have no truth value. Therefore such
sentences cannot be a proposition.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Some Examples of Propositions

Sentence Truth value Types of sentence
2 is a prime number True Proposition
A triangle has four sides False Proposition
Athlete Haile G/silassie weighed 45 kg either T or F Proposition
when he was 20 years old
Water boils at 1000 c True Proposition
May God bless you! has no truth value not proposition
What is your name? has no truth value not proposition
Be punctual! has no truth value not proposition

Exercise
Which of the following sentences are propositions? For those that are, indicate the
truth value.
1 What are you doing?
2 He is a handsome.
3 An earth is made of white cheese.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Logical connectives

Remark
Letters such as p, q, r , s etc. are usually used to denote propositions.
Connectives Proposition formed
Name Symbol Name Notation How to read
And ∧ Conjunction p∧q p and q or p also q
Or ∨ Disjunction p∨q p or q
If· · · then ⇒ Implication p⇒q p implies q or if p,then q
If and only if ⇔ Bi-implication p⇔q p if and only if q
Not ¬ Negation ¬p not p
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Truth Value Tables

1. Conjuction 2. Disjunction
Rule-1:p ∧ q is true iff both p and Rule-2:p ∨ q is false iff both p and
q are true, otherwise it is false. q are false, otherwise it is true.
p q p∧q p q p∨q
T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F
3.Implication 4.Bi-implication
Rule-3:p ⇒ q is false iff p is true Rule-4:p ⇔ q is false iff p and q have
and q is false, otherwise it is true. different truth values, otherwise it is true.
p q p⇒q p q p⇔q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T F
F F T F F T
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Cont’d· · ·
5. Negation
p ¬p
Rule-5: A proposition and its negation have opposite truth values. T F
F T

Examples
Let p: 2 is a prime number, q: 7 is a composite number and r : Cairo is the capital of
Sudan
Then, write the following propositions in words and give their truth value.
a) p ∧ q e) q ⇒ p
b) p ∨ q f) ¬p
c) p ⇒ q g) p ⇔ q
d) r ⇔ q h) ¬r ⇒ ¬q
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Compound (or complex) propositions

Definition
The proposition formed by joining two or more proposition by connective(s) is called a
compound statement.

p ∧ q, (p ∨ q) ⇒ r , (¬p ∧ q) ⇔ (s ∨ r ) are examples of compound propositions.

Remark
1 We must be careful to insert the brackets in proper places, just as we do in

arithmetic.
2 If there are n propositions, then we have 2n possible combinations of truth values.
3 When dealing with compound propositions, we shall adopt the following
convention on the use of parenthesis. Whenever “∨00 or “∧00 occur with ⇒ or ⇔,
we shall assume that “∨00 or “∧00 is applied first, and then ⇒ or ⇔ is then
applied.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Equivalent Propositions

Definition
Two compound propositions P and Q are said to be equivalent if they have the same
truth value for all possible combinations of truth values for the component
propositions occurring in both P and Q. In this case we write P ≡ Q.

Example
Decide whether the following pairs of compound propositions are equivalent or not.
i) p ⇒ q, ¬p ∨ q
ii) p ⇒ q, ¬p ⇒ ¬q
iii) p ⇒ q, ¬q ⇒ ¬p
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Cont’d...
Given the conditional p ⇒ q, we give the related conditional propositions:-
q ⇒ p: Converse of p ⇒ q
¬p ⇒ ¬q: Inverse of p ⇒ q
¬q ⇒ ¬p: Contrapositive of p ⇒ q
where
Converse: The hypothesis of a converse statement is the conclusion of the
conditional statement and the conclusion of the converse statement is the
hypothesis of the conditional statement.
Contrapositive: The hypothesis of a contrapositive statement is the negation of
conclusion of the conditional statement and the conclusion of the contrapositive
statement is the negation of hypothesis of the conditional statement.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Cont’d...

Example
Write a converse, contrapositive and inverse for the following propositions
1 If Kidist lives in Addis Ababa, then she lives in Ethiopia.
2 If it is morning, then the sun is in the east.
3 (p ∧ q) ⇒ ¬r
Solutions: 1. Converse: If Kidist lives in Ethiopia, then she lives in Addis Ababa.
Contrapositive: If Kidist does not live in Ethiopia, then she does not live in Addis
Ababa.
Inverse: If Kidist does not live in Addis Ababa, then she does not live in Ethiopia.
2.Converse: If the sun is in the east, then it is morning.
Contrapositive: If the sun is not in the east, then it is not morning.
Inverse: If it is not morning, then the sun is not the east.
3.Converse: ¬r ⇒ (p ∧ q)
Contrapositive:r ⇒ ¬(p ∧ q)
Inverse:¬(p ∧ q) ⇒ r
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Important laws of propositions under the relation of logical equivalence

Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Tautology and Contradiction

Definition
A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true regardless of the truth
values of its component propositions. If, on the other hand, a compound proposition
is always false regardless of its component propositions, we say that such a proposition
is a contradiction.

Remark
A compound proposition which is neither tautology nor contradiction is known as
Contingency.

Example
Determine whether the following propositions are tautology, contradiction or
contingency.
a) p ⇒ (q ⇒ p)
b) (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (p ∧ ¬q)
c) ¬q ∧ (p ⇒ q)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Open propositions and quantifiers

Definition
An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that contains one or more
variables and whose truth value depends on the values assigned for the variables. We
represent an open statement by a capital letter followed by the variable(s) in
parenthesis, e.g., P(x), Q(x), R(x, y ) etc.

Example
Some examples of open propositions
1 Q(x) : x is the day before Sunday.
2 P(y ) : y is a city in Africa.
3 2x + 3y = 8

Remark
The collection of all allowable values for the variable in an open sentence is called the
universal set (the universe of discourse) and denoted by U.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Equivalent Open Proposition

Two open proposition P(x) and Q(x) are said to be equivalent if and only if
P(a) = Q(a) for all individual a. Note that if the universe U is specified, then P(x)
and Q(x) are equivalent if and only if P(a) = Q(a) for all a ∈ U.
Example
Let U = {−1, −1 2
2 , 0, 1} and P(x) = x − 1 = 0, Q(x) = |x| ≥ 1.

Definition
Let U be the universal set. An open proposition P(x) is a tautology if and only if
P(a) is always true for all values of a ∈ U.

Example
Consider the following open propositions with universe U = <.
i. P(x) : x 2 ≥ 0 ii. R(x) : (x + 2)(x − 3) = 0.

Then we observe that: i. P(x) is true for all x ∈ U. ii. R(x) is true for some x ∈ U.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Quantifiers
Universal Quantifier(∀)
(∀x) read as:“for every x”, “for all x”, or “for each x”.
(∀x)P(x) read as “for all x the property P(x)” holds true.
Existential Quantifier(∃)
“(∃x)00 read as “there exists an x”, “for some x” or “for at least one x”.
(∃x)P(x) read as “there exists one x such that the property P(x)” holds true.

Remark
1 To show that (∀x)P(x) is F , it is sufficient to find at least one a ∈ U such that

P(a) is F . Such an element a ∈ U is called a counter example.

2 (∃x)P(x) is F if we cannot find any a ∈ U having the property P.

Example
Write the following statements using quantifiers:
i. For each real number x > 0, x 2 + x − 6 = 0.
ii. There is a real number x > 0 such that x 2 + x − 6 = 0.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Relationship between the existential and universal quantifiers

z To negate a statement that involves the quantifiers ∀ and ∃, change each ∀ to ∃,
change each ∃ to ∀, and negate the open statement.
Example
Let U = <, ¬(∃x)(x < x 2 ) ≡ (∀x)¬(x < x 2 ) ≡ (∀x)(x ≥ x 2 ).

Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations

1 (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) “for all x and for all y , the relation P(x, y ) holds”.
2 (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) “there is an x and there is a y for which P(x, y ) holds”.
3 (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ) “for every x there is a y such that P(x, y ) holds”.
4 (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y ) “there is an x which stands to every y in the relation P(x, y )”.
5 (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) = (∀y )(∀x)P(x, y ), (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) = (∃y )(∃x)P(x, y ).
6 In the statement (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ), the choice of y is allowed to depend on x−
the y that works for one x need not work for another x. On the other hand, in
the statement (∃y )(∀x)P(x, y ), the y must work for all x, i.e, y is independent
of x.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Argument and Validity

Definition
An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of statements
p1 , p2 , · · · , pn , called hypotheses or premises, yield another statement Q, called the
conclusion. Such a logical deduction is denoted by:

p1 , p2 , · · · , pn ` Q.

Example
Consider the following argument:
If you study hard, then you will pass the exam.
You did not pass the exam. Therefore, you did not study hard.
Let p: You study hard.
q: You will pass the exam. The argument form can be written as:

p⇒q
¬q
¬p
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition
An argument form p1 , p2 , · · · , pn ` Q is said to be valid if Q is true whenever all the
premises p1 , p2 , · · · , pn are true, otherwise it is invalid.

Example
Investigate the validity of the following argument:
a) p ⇒ q, ¬q ` ¬p
b) p ⇒ q, ¬q ⇒ r ` p
c) If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not
good.

Remark
1 What is important in validity is the form of the argument rather than the

meaning or content of the statements involved.

2 The argument form p1 , p2 , · · · , pn ` Q is valid iff the statement
(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ · · · ∧ pn ) ⇒ Q is a tautology.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Rules of Inferences
1. Modes Ponens 2. Modes Tollens 3. Principle of Syllogism

p ¬q p⇒q
p⇒q p⇒q q⇒r
q ¬p p⇒r
4. Principle of Adjunction 5.Principle of Detachment 6. Modes Tollendo Ponens
a) p p∧q ¬p
q
p∧q p, q p∨q
q
b) p∨q q
7. Modes Ponendo Tollens 8. Constructive Dilemma 9. Principle of Equivalence

¬(p ∧ q) (p ⇒ q) ∧ (r ⇒ s) p⇔q
p p∨r p
¬q q∨s q
10. Principle of Conditionalization
p
q⇒p
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Formal proof of validity of an argument

Definition
A formal proof of a conclusion Q given hypotheses p1 , p2 , · · · , pn is a sequence of
stapes, each of which applies some inference rule to hypotheses or previously proven
statements (antecedent) to yield a new true statement (the consequent).

Example
Show that the hypotheses:
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.
If we go swimming, then it is sunny.
If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.
If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.
Lead to the conclusion: We will be home by sunset.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Solutions
Let p : It is sunny this afternoon.
q : It is colder than yesterday.
r : We go swimming.
s : We take a canoe trip.
t : We will be home by sunset.
Then
1 ¬p ∧ q hypothesis.
2 ¬p simplification using (1).
3 r ⇒p hypothesis.
4 ¬r Modus Tollens using (2) and (3).
5 ¬r ⇒ s hypothesis.
6 s Modus ponens using (4) and (5).
7 s⇒t hypothesis.
8 t Modus ponens using (6) and (7).
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The Concept of a Set

A set is defined as a well-defined collection of objects that share a certain
property or certain properties.
We use capital letters to denote the names of sets and lowercase letters for
elements of a set.
If A is a set, then the objects of the collection A are called the elements or
members of the set A.
If x is an element of the set A, we write x ∈ A. If x is not an element of the set
A, we write x ∈/ A.

Description of sets
There are four different ways of describing a set. These are:
1 Verbal Method
2 Roster or Complete Listing Method
3 Partial Listing Method
4 Set-builder Method
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Relationships between Sets

1 Equal sets: A = B. That is, (∀x)(x ∈ B ⇔ x ∈ A).
2 Equivalent sets: A ↔ B or A ≡ B
3 Proper subset: A ⊂ B, A ⊂ B ⇔ [(∀x)(x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B) ∧ (A 6= B)]
4 Power set of A, dented by P(A), is the set whose elements are all subsets of A.
That is, P(A) = {B : B ⊆ A}.

Remark
For any set A, A, ∅ ⊆ A and A is not proper subset A.
If n(A) = k, then A has 2k subsets and 2k − 1 proper subsets.

Examples: If A = {a, b, c}, B = {a, b, c, d} and C = {b, c, a}, then

1 What relation can you observe between these three sets ?
2 Write all the subsets of set A.
3 Write P(A).
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Set Operations
1 Union of sets: A ∪ B = {x : (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)}.
2 Intersection of sets: A ∩ B = {x : (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}.
3 Complement of Sets: A − B or A/B = {x : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈
/ B} relative complement
c 0
A or A = {x : x ∈ U ∧ x ∈
/ A} absolute complement where U is a universal set.
4 Symmetric Difference: A∆B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A).

Remark
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets ifA ∩ B = ∅.

Example
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 5}, then
1 Find A ∩ B, A ∪ B
2 A∆B
3 A0 , B 0
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Venn Diagram
It is the pictorial representation of the sets under discussion.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

CHAPTER 2: FUNCTIONS

The Real Number System

N = {1, 2, 3, · · · } the set of natural numbers.
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } the set of whole numbers.
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } the set of integers.
Q = { ba : a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0} the set of rational numbers.
Qc = the set of neither terminating nor repeating decimals - the set of irrational
numbers.
R = Q ∪ Qc the set of real numbers.

Remark
N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Basic number operations and their properties on R

a a
For any : a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0 and also a ∈ (N, W, R), ∈ Q we have the following
b b
properties.
Characteristics N W Z Q Qc R
Closurity +, × +, × +, −, × +, −, ×, ÷ No +, −, ×, ÷
Commutativity +, × +, × +, × +, × No +, ×
Associativity +, × +, × +, × +, × No +, ×
Additive identity No a=0 a=0 a=0 No a=0
Multiplicative identity a = 1 a = 1 a=1 a=1 No a=1
b
Multiplicative inverse No No No a= No a = 1a
a
−a
Additive inverse No No -a No -a
b
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Order Properties on R
1 Trichotomy Property: ∀a, b ∈ R, only one of the following holds true
i. a < b ii. a = b iii. a > b.
2 Transitive Property: ∀a, b, c ∈ R, a < b and b < c then a < c.
3 Addition Property: ∀a, b, c ∈ R, a < b then a + c < b + c.
4 Multiplication Property: Let a, b, c ∈ R, then
a) If c > 0, a < b ⇒ ac < bc.
b) If c < 0, a < b ⇒ ac > bc.

Intervals
Let a, b, c ∈ R, such that a < b. Then the intervals which are subsets of R with end
points a and b are denoted and defined as below:
(a, b) = {x : a < x < b} - open interval from a to b.
[a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b} - closed interval from a to b.
(a, b] = {x : a < x ≤ b} - open closed interval from a to b.
[a, b) = {x : a < x ≤ b} - closed open interval from a to b.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Equations and Inequalities Linear Equations

Definition
A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form of
ax + b = 0, where a, b are constants and a 6= 0.

Example
8x+3
1 Find the solution set of 2 − 5(x + 2) = −3(x + 56 ).
2 Find the solution set of 6 + 3(1 − x) = 2(1 − 5x) + 7x
3 A man has a daughter and a son. The man is five times older than his daughter.
Moreover, his age is twice of the sum of the ages of his daughter and son. His
daughter is 3 years younger than his son. How old is the man and his children?
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Linear Inequalities
A linear inequality is an inequality that can be put in the form
ax + b < (>)(≤)(≥)0, where a and b are constants with a 6= 0.
For a, b, c ∈ R, if a < b, then
1. a + c < b + c 2. ac < bc when c > 0 3. ac > bc when c < 0.

Example
1 Solve the linear inequality 5x + 8(20 − x) ≥ 2(x − 5).
2 Find the solution set of 7x + 6 ≤ 3x + 2 in the set of whole numbers, W.

Quadratic Equations
The standard form of a quadratic equation is given as ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a 6= 0.

Example
Solve the following quadratic equations: 1. 2x 2 + 5x = 3 use factorization method
2. x 2 − 4x + 2 = 3 use completing the square method
3. x 2 − 8 = −6x use general quadratic formula
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Class Activity
Solve the following quadratic equations
1 3x 2 + 4x − 15 = 0
2 18x 2 + 9x − 35 = 0
3 14x 2 + 41x + 15 = 0
4 24x 2 − 65x + 21 = 0
5 12x 2 − x − 35 = 0
6 2x 2 − 7x − 15 = 0
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Quadratic Inequalities
The standard form of a quadratic inequality is given as ax 2 + bx + c < (>)(≥)(≤)0
where a 6= 0.
Example
Solve the following quadratic inequalities
1 2x 2 + 5x ≥ 3 use factorization method.
2 x 2 − 3x < −2 use sign chart method.

Review of Relations and Functions

Let A and B be any sets, the Cartesian product of A and B denoted by A × B is
defined as: A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d.
If A and B are sets, any subset of A × B is called a relation from A into B.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
If A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}, then
1 Find A × B.
2 Is H = {(a, 1), (a, 3), (b, 2), (b, 3)} a relation from set A into Set B?
3 Is G = {(a, 1), (3, a), (b, 2), (b, 3)} a relation from set A into set B?

Definition: Let R be a relation from A into B. Then,

the domain of R, denoted by Dom(R), is the set of first coordinates of the
elements of R, i.e., Dom(R) = {a ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ R}.
the range of R, denoted by Range(R), is the set of second coordinates of the
elements of R, i.e., Range(R) = {b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ R}.

Example
The set R = {(4, 7), (5, 8), (6, 10)} is a relation from the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} to
the set B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. The domain of R is {4, 5, 6}, the range of R is {7, 8, 10}
and the codomain of R is {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Remark
A relation R on set A is called
i. a universal relation if R = A × A.
ii. identity relation if R = {(a, a) : a ∈ A}.
iii. void or empty relation if R = ∅.
Let R be a relation from set A into set B. Then the inverse of R denoted by R −1
is a relation from set B into set A and it is defined as:
R −1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) ∈ R}.

Activity: If R is a relation defined on N by R = {(a, b) : a + 2b = 11, a, b ∈ N}, then

find
a. R
b. Dom(R) and Range(R)
c. R −1
d. Dom(R −1 ) and Range(R −1 )
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Functions
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to
exactly one element of the range.
A relation f from set A into set B is called a function from set A into set B
denoted by f : A −→ B if and only if
1) Dom(f ) = A
2) No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in B. i.e., if
(x, y ) ∈ f and (x, z) ∈ f , then y = z.

Example
Determine whether the following relations are functions or not.
1 R = {(2, a), (3, b), (2, c), (4, d)}
2 G = {(a, 5), (5, b), (1, 5), (0, −1)}
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Real Valued Functions and Their Properties

A function f : A −→ B is called a real valued function if B ⊆ <.
Let f and g be two real valued functions. Then;
(1) (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x)
(2) (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x)
(3) (fg )(x) = f (x)g (x)
f (x)
(4) ( gf )(x) = g (x) ; g (x) 6= 0

Remark
a. Dom(f + g ) = Dom(f − g ) = Dom(fg ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ).
b. Dom( gf ) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g )/{x : g (x) = 0}

Example
If f (x) = 3x 2 + 2 and g (x) = 5x − 4, then find
(f + g )(x), (f − g )(x), (fg )(x), (f /g )(x) and their domain.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Composition of Functions
Given two functions f (x) and g (x) the composition of the two functions is denoted by
f ◦ g and is defined as:
(f ◦ g )(x) = f [g (x)]
Dom(f ◦ g ) consists of those x 0 s in the domain of g for which g (x) is in the domain
of f .
Example
Let f (x) = 2x 2 + 3x + 2 and g (x) = 5x − 2 then find (f ◦ g )(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).

Definition
Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
i) The functions have the same domain;
ii) Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Types of functions
A function f : A −→ B is called one to one, if and only if for all
x1 , x2 ∈ A, f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) implies x1 = x2 . In words, no two elements of A are
mapped to one element of B.
Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then f is called an onto
function(or f maps onto B) if every element of B is image of some element in A,
i.e, Range(f ) = B.
A function f : A −→ B is said to be a 1 - 1 correspondence if f is both 1 - 1 and
onto.

Example
Which function is one to one, onto and 1 - 1 correspondence?
1 f = {(1, 2), (2, 5), (−1, 0), (0, 1)}
2 g = {(−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 3)}
3 Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 4, 5} then f = {(1, 1), (2, 5), (3, 4)}
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Inverse Functions
If a function is one to one, to find the inverse we will follow the steps below:
1. Interchange x and y in the equation y = f (x).
2. Solving the resulting equation for y , we will obtaining the inverse function.

Remark
The domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function and the range
of the inverse function is the domain of the original function.

Example
x
Find the inverse function for f (x) =
x +2
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs

A polynomial function is a function of the form
y = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , an 6= 0.
Each ai is assumed to be a real number, and n is a non-negative integer.
an is called the leading coefficient.
an x n is called the leading term.
n is called the degree of polynomial.
a0 is called the constant term.

Remark
The domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real numbers.

Example
√
p(x) = 2x 2 + 1, q(x) = 3x 4 + 2x − π are examples of polynomial functions.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Properties of polynomial functions

1 The graph of a polynomial is a smooth (does not have any sharp corners)
unbroken curve.
2 If p is a polynomial of degree n, then it has at most n zeros. Thus, a quadratic
polynomial has at most 2 zeros.
3 The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most n − 1 turning
points. Thus, the graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can have at most 4 turning
points.
4 The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as |x| gets very
large |y | gets very large.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Zeros of a polynomial
Division Algorithm
Let p(x) and d(x) be polynomials with d(x) 6= 0 and with degree of d(x) less
than or equal to the degree of p(x). Then there are polynomials q(x) and R(x)
such that

Where either R(x) = 0 or degree of R(x) ≤ degree of d(x)

x 4 −1
Example: Divide x 2 +2x
The Remainder Theorem: When a polynomial p(x) of degree at least 1 is divided
by x − r , then the remainder is p(r ).
Example: the remainder when p(x) = x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 1is divided by x − 2 is
p(2) = 9
The Factor Theorem: x − r is a factor of p(x) if and only if p(r ) = 0.
The Location Theorem: Let f be a polynomial function and let a and b be real
numbers such that a < b, then if f (a)f (b) < 0, then there is at least one zero of
f between a and b.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree n > 0 whose coefficients are complex numbers,
then p(x) has at least one zero in the complex number system.

The linear Factorization Theorem

If p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1 and an 6= 0, then
p(x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ), where the ri are complex numbers ( possibly
real and not necessarily distinct).

Example
Find zeros and multiplicity of p(x) = 2x 4 + 8x 3 + 10x 2

The Conjugate Root Theorem

Let p(x) be a polynomial with real coefficients. If the complex number
a + ib(a, b ∈ <) is the root of p(x) so does its conjugate a − ib.
Example
√
Let r (x) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 9x 2 + 26x − 20. If 1 − 3i is a zero, find the other zero of r (x).
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The Rational Root Theorem

Suppose that f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1, an 6= 0 is an nth
degree polynomial with integer coefficients. If qp is a rational root of f (x) = 0, where
p and q have no common factor other than ±1, then p is a factor of a0 and q is a
factor of an .
Example
Find all the zeros of p(x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12.

Rational Functions and their Graphs

n(x)
A rational function is a function of the form f (x) = where both n(x) and d(x)
d(x)
are polynomials and d(x) 6= 0.
Example
3x − 5
Find the domain and zeros of f (x) = .
x 2 − x − 12
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Graphs of Rational Functions

1 Identify the domain and simplify it.
2 Find the intercepts:- (for x - intercepts put y = 0 and solve for x and for y -
intercepts put x = 0 and solve for y )
3 Determine the asymptotes of the graph.
1 Vertical Asymptote: The line x = a is V.A of f (x) if i) a ∈
/ dom(f ),
ii) f (x) → ±∞ when x → a+ or a− .
2 Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal line y = b is called horizontal asymptote(HA)
of f (x) if the value of the function becomes closer and closer to b(f (x) → b) as
x → ∞ or x → −∞.
3 Oblique Asymptote: The oblique line y = ax + b, a 6= 0 is called an oblique
asymptote of f if the value of the function f (x), becomes closer and closer to
ax + b as either x → ∞ or x → −∞.

Remark
n(x)
Let f (x) = be a rational function. Then,
d(x)
if d(a) = 0 and n(a) 6= 0, then x = a is a VA of f .
if d(a) = 0 = n(a), then x = a may or may not be a VA of f .
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Cont’d

Remark
n(x)
1 A rational function f (x) = has a HA only when
d(x)
degree(n(x)) ≤ degree(d(x)). In this case,
If degree(n(x)) < degree(d(x)), then y = 0(the x-axis) is a HA of f .
n
+an−1 x n−1 +···+a1 x+a0
If degree(n(x)) = degree(d(x)) = n, i.e., f (x) = bann xx n +b n−1 x
n−1 +···+b x+b , then
1 0
y = bann is the HA of f .
n(x)
2 A rational function f (x) = has an OA only when
d(x)
degree(n(x)) = degree(d(x)) + 1. In this case, using long division, if the
quotient of n(x) ÷ d(x) is ax + b, then y = ax + b is the OA of f .

Example
x +2 x 2 + 3x + 2
Sketch the graphs of (A) f (x) = , (B) g (x) =
x −1 x2 − 1
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

x +2 x 2 + 3x + 2
graphs of (A) f (x) = , (B) g (x) =
x −1 x2 − 1
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, and trigonometric

functions and their graphs
1
For x n , x is called a base and n is an exponent. x 0 = 1, x −n = n (x 6= 0)
x
Rules for Integer Exponents
1 x n .x m = x n+m and (x n )m = x nm
x xn
2 ( )n = n (y 6= 0)
y y
3 (xy ) = x n y n
n

xn
4 = x n−m
xm

Example
Evaluate the following
1 272/3
2 36−1/2
3 (−32)−3/5
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The Exponential y = f (x) = b x

Definition
A function of the form y = f (x) = b x , where b > 0 and b 6= 1, is called an
exponential function.
1
The functions f (x) = 2x , g (x) = 3x+1 and h(x) = ( )x are examples of exponential
2
functions.
1 The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers.
2 The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers.
3 The graph of y = b x exhibits exponential growth if b > 1 or exponential decay if
0 < b < 1.
4 The y − intercept is 1 and the x− intercept is a horizontal asymptote.
5 The exponential function is 1 − 1. Algebraically if b x = b y , then x = y .

Example
Sketch the graph of the function y = 3x + 1 and identify its domain and range.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Logarithmic Functions

Definition
For b > 0 and b 6= 1, we write y = logxb to mean y is the exponent to which b must
be raised to yield x. In other words, x = b y ⇔ y = logxb .

The table below illustrates the equivalence of the exponential and logarithmic forms.
Exponential form Logarithmic form
42 = 16 log16
4 =2
1
1
5−3 = 125 log5125 = −3
70 = 1 log17 = 0

Example
1 Evaluate log81
3
2 Given f (x) = logx5 , find
a. f (25)
b. f (0)
c. f (−125)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The Logarithmic Function y = logxb

1 The domain of the logarithmic function is the set of positive real numbers.
2 The range of the logarithmic function is the set of real numbers.
3 The graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b > 1 and logarithmic decay if
0 < b < 1.
4 The x− intercept is 1 and there is no y − intercept.
5 The y − axis is a vertical asymptote.

Example
(x−2)
1 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 1 + log3 . Find the domain, range, asymptote and
intercepts.
2 Find the inverse function for
i) y = f (x) = 3x + 4
(x−2)
ii) y = g (x) = log3
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Properties of logarithm
Assume that b, u and v are positive and b 6= 1. Then
(uv )
1 logb = logub + logvb
(u)
2 logbv = logub − logvb
(u r )
3 logb = r logub
x
4 logbb = x logbb = x
x
5 b logb = x

f (x) = logx10 is called the common logarithm function. We write logx10 = log x.
f (x) = logxe is called the natural logarithm function. We write logxe = ln x.

Example
1 Express in terms of simpler logarithms. √
xy
(x 3 y ) (x 3 +y ) ( )
z3
(a) logb (b) logb (c) logb
2 Evaluate log 1000.
3 Find the inverse function of f (x) = e x + 1.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Trigonometric functions and their graphs

Definition
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics which deals with the measurement of
sides and angles of triangles.

Angle:
An angle is called positive if the direction of rotation of ray from the initial side
to the terminal side is anti-clockwise.
An angle is called negative if the direction of rotation of ray from the initial side
to the terminal side is clockwise.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Cont’d
There are two systems of measuring angles.
Sexagesimal System: Where the unit of measuring an angles is degree.
Circular System: Where the unit of measuring an angles is radian.
To see the connection b/n the degree measure and radian measure of an angle, let us
consider an angle θ and draw a circle of radius r with the vertex of θ at its center O.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
1 Convert each of the following radian measures to degrees
(i) π6 (ii) 3π
5
2 Convert to radian measures
(i) 900 (ii) 2700

With θ in standard position, we define the six trigonometric functions of as follows

Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The graph of y = sin θ

π
1 As θ increases from 0 to 2, sin θ increases
from 0 to 1.
π
2 As θ increases from 2 to π, sin θ decreases
from 1 to 0.
3π
3 As θ increases from π to 2 , sin θ decreases
from 0 to -1.
3π
4 As θ increases from 2 to 2π, sin θ increases
from -1 to 0.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The graph of y = cos θ

π
1 As θ increases from 0 to 2, cos θ decreases
from 1 to 0.
π
2 As θ increases from 2 to π, cos θ decreases
from 0 to -1.
3π
3 As θ increases from π to 2 , cos θ increases
from -1 to 0.
3π
4 As θ increases from 2 to 2π, cos θ increases
from 0 to 1.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The graph of y = tan θ

π
The domain of tan θ is {θ : θ 6= 2 + nπ}, where n is an integer
π
1 As θ increases from 0 to 2,
x decreases from 1 to 0 and y increases from 0 to 1;
y
therefore, tan θ = x increases from 0 to ∞.
2 As θ increases from π2 to π, x decreases from 0 to -1 and y decreases from 1 to
0; therefore, tan θ = yx increases from −∞ to 0.
3 As θ increases from π to 3π2 , x increases from -1 to 0 and y decreases from 0 to
y
-1; therefore, tan θ = x increases from 0 to ∞.
4 As θ increases from 3π2 to 2π, x increases from 0 to 1 and y increases from -1 to
0; therefore, tan θ = yx increases from −∞ to ∞.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Periodic Function
A function y = f (x) is called periodic if there exists a number p such that
f (x + p) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f . The smallest such number p is called
the period of the function.
♣ Sine and cosine function has 2π period. Tangent has π.

Amplitude of a periodic function

The amplitude of a periodic function f (x) is

A = 12 [maximum value of f (x) - minimum value of f (x)]

♣ The amplitude of the basic sine and cosine function is 1.

Frequency of a periodic function

The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine graph makes on an interval of length
equal to 2π is called its frequency.
♣ If a sine function has a period of π2 , its frequency is 4 and its graph will make 4
complete cycles in an interval of length 2π.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Domains of the trigonometric functions

Types of trigonometric functions Their domains
f (x) = sin x All real numbers
f (x) = cos x All real numbers
f (x) = tan x {x : x 6= π2 + nπ}
f (x) = csc x {x : x 6= nπ}
f (x) = sec x {x : x 6= π2 + nπ}
f (x) = cot x {x : x 6= nπ}

We have the following trigonometric identities

1 sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.
2 tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x.
3 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x.

Example
Sketch the graph of y = sin 2x and find its amplitude, period and frequency
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

CHAPTER 3: MATRICES and DETERMINANT

Definition
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or variables, arranged into m horizontal
lines and n vertical columns which we will enclose in brackets.
 
a11 a12 . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . a2n 
A=  .

. . . . 
am1 am2 . . amn
Note:
Since matrix A has ’m’ rows and ’n’ columns we say it is an m × n(m by n)
matrix. i.e; m × n is the size(dimension) of a matrix.
A = (aij )m×n m, n ∈ N where aij is the element in the i th row and j th column
The i th -row is denoted by Ai = [ai1 ,ai2 , ai3 , ..., ain ]
a1j
th
The j -column is denoted by Aj =  . 
amj
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
 
1 2 3 4
Let A = −2
 1 0 3 Find (a) The dimension of A (b) a23 , a32 , a33 and a25
0 7 8 5
(c) the second row and the third column

Types of Matrices: Given a matrix A = (aij )m×n

1 if aij = 0 ∀i, j ∈ N, then A is called the zero(null) matrix.
2 If m = 1(n = 1)(m = n), then A is called a row(column)(square) matrix.
3 A square matrix whose elements aij = 0 if i > j is called the upper triangular
matrix.
4 A square matrix whose elements aij = 0 if i < j is called the lower triangular
matrix.
5 Atriangular matrix is either upper or lower triangular matrix.
6 If a matrix is both upper triangular and lower triangular matrix, then its called a
diagonal matrix.i.e aij = 0 if i 6= j
7 In a diagonal matrix if a11 = a22 = ... = ann = k, k ∈ F , then A is called a
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition
Let A be an m × n matrix. A submatrix of matrix A is any matrix of size r × s with
r ≤ m and s ≤ n, which is obtained by deleting any collection of rows and/or columns
of matrix A.

Example
 
2 5 7
Express A = −9 12 4 As the sum of a lower and upper triangular matrix and
15 −13 6
upper triangular matrix with zero leading diagonals.

Basic operations
If A = (aij ) and B = (bij ) are both m × n matrices then the sum of A and B is given
by

C = A + B = (aij + bij )m×n

and If k ∈ R then the scalar multiplication of A by k is defined as kA = (kaij )m×n .

Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Remark
1 Two matrices of the same order are said to be comfortable for addition and

subtraction.
2 Two matrices of different orders can not be added or subtracted.

Example
 
    2 5 7
1 2 3 −1 5 −2
1 If A = ,B= and C = −9 12 4,
−1 0 2 2 2 −1
15 −13 6
then find A) 2A − 3B B) A + C
   
8 4 3 2
2 If A = and B = , then find matrix C such that 2A + 4B − 3C = 0.
3 7 1 5
 
1 0 2
3 If the matrix A = 2 −1 3, then find B if A + B is a diagonal matrix?
2 3 4

Definition
Let A = (aij )m × n and B = (bij )m × n, A is equal to B(A = B) if A and B have
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
   
x + y 2z + w 3 5
1 Find x, y , z and w if =
x −y z −w 1 4
     
3x −1 4 1 26 0
2 Solve 2( + )=
8 5 −2 −y 12 8

Properties of Addition and scalar multiplication

Let A = (aij )m × n, B = (bij )m × n and C = (cij )m × n and let k1 , k2 ∈ R, then
1 A + B = B + A (commutativity)

2 (A + B) + C = A + (B + C ) (Associativity)

3 A + 0 = A = 0 + A (where 0 is a null matrix of order m × n)

4 A + (−A) = 0 = (−A) + A(where −A is the negative of A i.e −A = −1A)

5 k (A + B) = k A + k B
1 1 1
6 (k + k )A = k A + k A
1 2 1 2
7 (k k )A = k
1 2 1(k2 A)
8 1A = A

Remark
The set of all m × n matrices is a vector space with addition and scalar multiplication.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Product of Matrices and Some Algebraic Properties

If A = (aij )m × p, B = (bij )p
P× n matrix then C = AB where
C = (cij )m × n where cij = pk=1 aik bkj for 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n
 
A1 .B1 A1 .B2 A1 .B3 . . . A1 .Bn
 A2 .B1 A2 .B2 A2 .B3 . . . A2 .Bn 
 
 . . . . . . . 
C = AB =   .

 . . . . . . 
 . . . . . . . 
Am .B1 Am .B2 Am .B3 . . . Am .Bn
The number of column of the first matrix must be equal to the row of the second
column.
Example
 
  −1 2
1 2 3
1 Let A = and B =  2 3. Find C if C = AB
0 1 4
5 0
 
4
2 Find the product of AB if A = [3 − 21] and B = 2 and also BA if it exists?
3
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Assume all products and sums are defined for the matrices A, B, C and k ∈ R
1 AB 6= BA
2 A(BC ) = (AB)C
3 A(B + C ) = AB + AC and (B + C )A = BA + CA
4 If A = B, then CA = CB and AC = BC
5 k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
6 AB = 0 not necessarily implies A = 0 or B = 0
7 AB = AC not necessarily implies B = C
8 AIn = In A = A
9 If A is a square matrix, then Am An = Am+n ∀m, n ∈ R and
(Am )n = Amn ∀m, n ∈ R.

Definition
Given A = (aij )m×n and B = (bij )n×m where aij = bji , then B is called the transpose
of A and denoted by B = At
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Transpose of A matrix

Example
Find the transpose of A if
 
1 A =
1 2 3
−1 0 2
 
2 A = 2 3 5

Note:
A matrix A such that A = At is called a symmetric matrix (i.e aij = aji ∀i, j)
A symmetric matrix is necessarily a square matrix.
A + At must be always symmetric matrix.

Example
   
1 2 3 1 −1 2
A = 2 4 −5, B = −1 0 3
3 −5 6 2 3 7
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition
A matrix A such that At = −A is called skew-symmetric matrix (i.e
−aij = aji ∀i, j) and A − At must be a skew-symmetric matrix.
A matrix A is called Orthogonal if AAt = At A = I (i.e At = A−1 )

Example
   
0 5 7 0 −5 −7
Let A = −5 0 3, At = 5 0 −3 then A is skew symmetric.
−7 −3 0 7 3 0

Example
 1 −1 
√ √
C =  12 2
1  is orthogonal matrix

√ √
2 2
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Remark
Elements of main diagonal of a skew-symmetric are all zero. i.e.,
aii = −aii implies aii = 0.

Properties of Transpose
Let A, B be matrices, then
1 (A + B)t = At + B t
2 (At )t = A
3 (AB)t = B t At
4 (kA)t = kAt for some k ∈ R

Remark
For any matrix (not necessarily square), then
B t B are symmetric,
BB t are symmetric.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Elementary Row Operation

Let A be an m by n matrix, the elementary row(column) operation on A are:
1 Rule of Interchanging: Ri ↔ Rj Interchanging two rows.
2 Rule of Scaling: Ri → kRi Multiplying a row by a nonzero scalar.
3 Rule of Replacement: Ri → Ri + kRj Add the i th row k times the j th row.

Remark
If A and B are m by n matrices and B is said to be row equivalent to A(A ∼ B) If B
can be obtained from A by a finite sequence of elementary operations.

Example
 
1 2 3 4
Let A = 5 6 7 8  Find the row equivalent matrix of A
3 −4 5 −6
1 R ↔ R
2 3
2 R1 → −3R1
3 R1 → R1 + 2R3
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition
A matrix is called an echelon matrix(in echelon form (REF)) if
1 Any zero rows are at the bottom of the matrix
2 Each leading non-zero entry is to the right of the leading non-zero entry in the
preceding row

Example
1 Which of the followingis in echelon
 form   
0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 0 −1 3
i) A = 0 1 2 3 ii) B = 0 3 −1 1iii) C = 0 1 2
4 −1 5 7 0 0 1 2 0 0 0
2 Reducethe following to echelon form using elementary
 row operations
 
1 2 −3 0 1 −2 2 −1 1 2 3
i) A = 2 4 −2 2 ii) B = 2 −1 3 2  iii) C = 4 5 −6
3 6 −4 3 3 1 2 3 7 8 9
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition
A matrix A is said to be in row canonical (Row Reduced Echelon Form (RREF))
if
1 A is in echelon form
2 Each leading non-zero entry(element) is one.
3 Each leading non-zero entry(element) is the only non-zero entry in its column.

Example
1 Which of the following is
 in reducible
 echelon form or
 row canonical form
1 0 5 0 2 1 2 3 4 5
i) A = 0 1 2 0 4 ii) B = 0 0 5 −4 7
0 0 0 1 7 0 0 0 0 0
2 Reducethe following is in row canonical
 form 
2 3 4 5 6 2 2 −1 6 4
i) A = 0 0 3 2 5 ii) B = 4 4 −1 10 13
0 0 0 0 4 6 6 0 20 19
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition
If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A (tr(A)) is the sum of the entries in the
main diagonal of A (The trace of A is undefined if A is not a square matrix).

If
 
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n 
 
a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n 
 
 .
A= . . . . . . 
 . . . . . . . 
 
 . . . . . . . 
an1 an2 an3 . . . ann
then tr (A) = a11 + a22 + a33 + ... + ann
Example
 
−1 2 7 0
3 5 −8 4 
Find the trace of A =  
1 2 7 −3
4 −2 1 0
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Determinant of a Matrix and its Properties

If A is a square matrix with entries from the field of real numbers then we can assign
a specific real number called determinant of A (det(A) = |A|)
 
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n 
 
a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n 
 
If A =  . . . . . . . , then

 . . . . . . . 
 
 . . . . . . . 
an1 an2 an3 . . . ann
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n
det(A)= |A| = . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
an1 an2 an3 . . . ann
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Remark
The determinant of n × n matrix is called determinant of order n

Determinant of order 1 × 1
A determinant of a matrix with order 1 is a single number associated with it. For
example: A = [−2], B = [3], C = [sin x], then |A| = | − 2| = −2, |C | = | sin x| = sin x.

Determinant of Order 2 × 2
 
a11 a12
Let A be a 2 × 2 matrix A = , then
a21 a22
a a
det(A) = A = 11 12 = a11 a22 − a12 a21
a21 a22

Example
   
1 3 3 4
Find det(A) if a) A = b) A =
2 5 −1 2
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Determinant of order 3 × 3
 
a11 a12 a13
Let A be a 3 × 3 matrix A = a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33
Aij denotes the 2 × 2 sub matrix of A obtained by removing its i th row and j th
column.
The determinant Mij = |Aij | is called the minor of elements aij of A.
The sign together with minor Cij = (−1)i+j |Aij | is called the cofactor of aij of
A. Thus Cij = (−1)i+j Mij .
Definition: The determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix (by expanding along the first row) is
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 = a11 c11 + a12 c12 + a13 c13
a31 a32 a33

Example
 
1 2 1
Let A =  3 1 2, then find determinant of A by expanding along first row,first
−1 4 5
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition
If A is a 3 × 3 matrix, det(A) can be evaluated by the diagonal expansion (subtracting
the south west diagonal from the south east diagonal)
det(A) = p1 + p2 + p3 − (p4 + p5 + p6 ),where
p1 = a11 a22 a33 , p2 = a12 a23 a31 , p3 = a13 a21 a32 , p4 = a13 a22 a31 , p5 = a11 a23 a32 , p6 =
a12 a21 a33
Or using sarrus diagram

Example
 
2 6 −1
Let A =  5 3 −7 Find determinant of A
−4 −2 1
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Remark
1 A square matrix A is called

Non-singular if |A| =
6 0.
Singular |A| = 0.
2 If AB = C , then |C | = |A||B|.

Determinant of Order n × n (general case)

 
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n 
 
a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n 
 
A=  . . . . . . .  , Aij becomes an (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix
 . . . . . . . 
 
 . . . . . . . 
an1 an2 an3 . . . ann
det(A) = (−1)i+1 ai1 |Ai1 | + (−1)i+2 ai2 |Ai2 | + ... + (−1)i+n ain |Ain |, Expansion of
determinant according to i th row.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Note: We can simplify calculating determinant of order ’n’ if we choose the row or
column with the greatest number of 0’s to expand.
Example
 
−5 2 0 3
0 0 0 −3
1 Find the determinant of A =  
4 5 −2 6 
0 3 2 −4
 
6 x
2 Find the value of x if the matrix A is singular where A =
2 5

Remark
For any square matrix A, det(A) = det(At ).
If A and B are two matrices for which the product AB is defined, then
det(AB) = det(A)det(B).
If c ∈ R and A is an n × n matrix, then |cA| = c n |A|.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Properties of Determinant
1 If any two rows or columns of a matrix changed, the determinant changes its
algebraic sign.
2 If two any row (column) is added a constant k times the corresponding elements
of another row(column) then the determinant remains unchanged.
3 If A has two identical rows (columns) and if there is zero row/column then the
determinant is zero.
4 If any two row (column) is the sum of two or more elements then the
determinant can be expressed as the sum of two or more determinants.
5 If A is a triangular matrix the determinant is the product of the entries on its
a11 a12 a13
main diagonal. 0 a22 a23 = a11 a22 a33
0 0 a33
6 Determinant of identity matrix is 1.

Example
If det(A) = −4, then find det(A2 ) and det(A4 )?
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Inverse of a Matrix and its Properties

The identity matrix In is the multiplicative identity for n × n matrices, that is for any
n × n matrix A
AIn = A = In A
Definition
If A is a square matrix of order n, then A square matrix B of the same order n is said
to be inverse of A if
AB = In = BA

Remark
1 Inverse of a matrix is only defined for a square matrix.

2 A non-singular matrix A has a unique inverse. i.e A square matrix A is invertible

if and only if |A| =
6 0.
3 If matrix A has an inverse then A is called Invertible matrix and denoted by
A−1 .
4 Every square matrix is not invertible.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
 
2 2
Let A = check whether it is invertible or not?
2 2

There are two methods for finding the inverse of a matrix.

Method 1(Elementary Row Operations)
let A be n × n matrix, consider the identity In such that AIn = In A we reduce the
matrix A on the left side to unit matrix by elementary row operation and we apply the
same operation on In on the right side then it became In = BA where matrix B is the
inverse of A and denoted by B = A−1
Example
 
2 −3
Find the inverse of the following matrix A =
1 3
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Method 2(Inverse Using Determinant)

A matrix obtained by replacing every number aij of the given matrix by its cofactor is
called cofactor
 matrix 
a11 a12 a13
Let A = a21 a22 a23 , then the cofactor matrix of A denoted by C and
a31 a32 a33
 
c11 c12 c13
C = c21 c22 c23  where cij = (−1)i+j |Aij |
c31 c32 c33

Definition
Let A be a matrix and let C be its cofactor matrix, then C t of C is called the adjoint
of A denoted by  (Adj(A)) 
c11 c21 c31
Adj(A) = C t = c12 c22 c32 
c13 c23 c33
For matrix A , A(Adj(A)) = (Adj(A))A = |A|I , then
Adj(A)
A−1 =
|A|
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
 
1 2 1
1 Find the inverse of the matrix i) A = 2 3 2
3 2 2
 
1 2 3
ii) B = 4 5 −6

7 8 9

Properties
1 If B is inverse of A, then A is also an inverse of B.
2 If A is invertible its transpose At also invertible
3 If A−1 is the inverse of A, then (A−1 )t is the inverse of At .
4 If A−1 exists, it has the inverse A; (A−1 )−1 = A
5 If A,B are invertible, then so is AB and (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1
6 Every invertible matrix is a product of elementary matrix.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
If A and B are 2 × 2 matrices and if |A| = 2 and |B| = 2, then find |3(AB t )t A−1 |?

Rank of a Matrix
Rank of a matrix is the number of linearly independent rows of a matrix
Let A1 , A2 , ..., An are linearly dependent rows of A and if A1 , A2 , ..., Ar are linearly
independent then rank of A is rank(A) = r
Definition: The rank of A is defined as  
0 0 0
1 If A is the zero matrix, r (A) = 0 If A = 0 0 0
0 0 0
2 If A is a non-zero matrix, its rank is equal to the order of the largest

non-vanishing determinant minor of A. That is if we have a square matrix A of

order m and B submatrix of A with order n, then
if |A| =
6 0 rank of A = m and rank of A < m if |A| = 0
|A| = 0 then rank of A = n for |B| =
6 0 otherwise < n
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
Find the rank of the following matrix  
      1 2 3
0 0 2 1 2 1
i) A = ii) B = iii) C = iv) D = 4 5 6
0 0 4 3 4 2
3 2 1

Note: If A is an m × n matrix, then the rank of A is at most min(m, n).

Finding Rank a Matrix Using Reduced Echelon Form
To find the rank of the matrix the number of non-zero rows on the reduced echelon
form is the rank of the matrix.
Example
 
1 0 1
Find the rank of D =  2 1 1 
−1 1 −2
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Solving System of Linear Equation

An equation of the form a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ... + an xn = b is called a linear equation.
A finite set of linear equation is called a system of linear equation



 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1




 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2

 a x + a x + ... + a x = b
31 1 32 2 3n n 3
(1)


 ...




 ...

 a x + a x + ... + a x = b
m1 1 m2 2 mn n m

This is a system of m linear equations with n unknowns

 
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n 
 
 a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n 
Equation 1 can be written as AX = B where A =   .
,
 . . . . . . 
 . . . . . . . 
am1 am2 am3 . . . amn
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Cont’d
   
x1 b1
x2   b2 
   
x3   b3 
X =   and B = 
  
.
 . 
 
.  . 
xn bm
B is called the matrix of constant
X is called the matrix of unknowns
A is called the matrix of coefficient
 
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n b1
 a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n b2 
 
 a31 a32 a33 . . . a3n b3 
Note: The matrix (A, B) =   .

 . . . . . . 

 . . . . . . . 
am1 am2 am3 . . . amn bm
is called the augmented matrix of system of linear equation. If the matrix of
constant is a zero matrix then the system of equation is called homogeneous system
of equation
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
Write
 the following as matrix equation and
 augmented form?

 2x + y + 3z = 1  3x − 2y + z + 2w = 0

1. 4x − y + 2z = 7 2. y +x −w −z =0
 
x + 5y − 6z = 6 −2y + 2x + 3z = 0
 

Methods of Solving System of Equations

A system of equation is called consistent if and only if there exists a common
solution to all of the variables otherwise inconsistent.
Type of Solutions:
1 If |A| = 0, then it has non-trivial solution, otherwise trivial i.e |A| =
6 0 where A
is the coefficient matrix.
2 If r (A) = r (A, B) = n it has a unique solution. where n is the order of
coefficient matrix
3 If r (A) = r (A, B) < n it has infinitely many solution.
4 If r (A) < r (A, B) < n it doesn’t have solution
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
1 Determine whether the system of linear equation is consistent or not (find the
solution
 if any) 

 x + y + z = 1 
 2x + y − 2z = 4
a) 2y + 4z = 2 b) x − 2y + z = −2
 
2x + 7z = 5 5x − 5y + z = −2
 

 x + 2y + 3z = 1

c) 2y + 2z = −2

−2y − 2z = 3


Method 1: Gaussian’s Method(Echelon forms of Augmented matrix)

1 Write the augmented matrix for the linear system.
2 Use elementary row operations to rewrite the matrix in row echelon form.
3 Write the system of linear equations corresponding to the matrix in row echelon
form, and use back-substitution to find the solution.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
Solve the following system of equation by gauss elimination
 

 x + 2y − z = 3  2x − 5y + z = 6

i) 2x − 2y + 3z = 2 ii) x − 3y + 4z = 3
 
−y + x + z = −1 3x − 8y + 11z = 11
 

Method 2(Crammer’s Rule for Solving System of Linear Equation)

(
a1 x + a2 y = k1
Consider a system of equation
b1 x + b2 y = k2
a a k a a k
then ∆ = 1 2 ,∆x = 1 2 and ∆y = 1 1
b1 b2 k2 b2 b1 k2
∆x ∆y
x= ,y = where ∆ is determinant of the system
∆ ∆
Note: The crammer’s rule can be applied when ∆ 6= 0 if ∆ = 0 the equation in the
system are either inconsistent or dependent.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
Solve the system of equation using Crammer’s rule

1 2
=


x −1 y −3
y

 =x +1
4
Crammer’s
 rule for solving a system of three linear equations in three unknowns.
 a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = k1

If a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = k2

a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = k3

a1 b1 c1 k1 b1 c1 a1 k1 c1
then ∆ = a2 b2 c2 ,∆x = k2 b2 c2 , ∆y = a2 k2 c2 and
a3 b3 c3 k3 b3 c3 a3 k3 c3
a1 b1 k1
∆z = a2 b2 k2
a3 b3 k3
∆x ∆y ∆z
x= ,y = and z =
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
1 Solve the following system of equation using
 Crammer’s rule
 2x − y + z = −2
  x + 2y − 4z = 1

i) x + 2y + 3z = −1 ii) 2x + y − 5z = −1
 
x − 3y + 2z = 3 x − y − z = −2
 
 
 2x + y + 7z = −28
  0.3l + 0.2h = 550

iii) x − y + 3z = −15 iv) 0.2l + 0.4h = 500
 
3x + 2y − z = 5 0.4l + 0.3h = 750
 
     
1 −1 1 1 x
2 Let A−1 = 3 1 2 , B = 2 and X = y , then the solution of
1 3 2 3 z
AX = B?
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Method 3: Inverse Method

The Inverse method is one of the important methods to solve a linear system
with n equations in n unknowns.
If A is an invertible matrix, then for each b ∈ <n , the linear system Ax = b has a
unique solution, which is given by

x = A−1 b.

Example
Use matrix inversion to solve the following linear system.
1

x1 − x2 = 1
x1 + x2 = 3

x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 1
x1 + 2x2 = −2
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

CHAPTER 4: INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

Definition
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number.
1 A real number L is called the left-hand limit of f at c, if and only if for all values
of x sufficiently close to c from the left side of c, the corresponding values of f
approach to L. i.e., limx→c − f (x) = L.
2 A real number R is called the right-hand limit of f at c, if and only if for all
values of x sufficiently close to c from the right side of c, the corresponding
values of f approach to R. i.e., limx→c + f (x) = R.

Definition
Suppose f is function and c is a fixed real number. A real number L is called the limit
of f at c if and only if the left and right-hand limits exist and are both equal to L;

lim f (x) = L iff lim f (x) = L = lim+ f (x).

x→c x→c − x→c
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Limit and Continuity

For limx→c f (x) = L to exist, the following conditions must be satisfied:
1 limx→c − f (x) = L must exist.
2 limx→c + f (x) = L must exist.
3 limx→c − f (x) = limx→c + f (x).
otherwise, limit doesn’t exist.

Example

2x + 1, for x ≤ 2
1 Let f (x) = then find limx→2 f (x)
x + 3, for x > 2
4 − x 2 , for x ≤ 1

2 Let g (x) = then find limx→1 g (x)
1 + x 2 , for x > 1

Remark
If a function f has a limit as x approaches a number c, then the limit is unique; i.e., if
limx→c − f (x) = L1 and limx→c + f (x) = L2 , then L1 = L2 .
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Basic Limit Theorems

Suppose limx→c f (x) = L and limx→c g (x) = M then for any real no. k, the following
holds true.
1 limx→c [f (x) ± g (x)] = limx→c f (x) ± limx→c g (x) = L ± M
2 limx→c kf (x) = k limx→c f (x) = kL
3 limx→c f (x).g (x) = limx→c f (x). limx→c g (x) = LM
limx→c f (x) L
4 limx→c f (x)/g (x) = limx→c g (x) = M (for g (x) 6= 0, M 6= 0)
5 limx→c [f (x)]n = [limx→c f (x)]n
6 limx→c e f (x) = e limx→c f (x)
7 ln | limx→c f (x)| = limx→c ln |f (x)| for limx→c f (x) > 0
8 limx→c (f (x))g (x) = e limx→c g (x) ln |f (x)| for f (x) = 0
p p
9 limx→c n f (x) = n limx→c f (x) for n is even and limx→c f (x) > 0
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
Evaluate the following limits:
1 Let f (x) = 2x, g (x) = 3x 2 − 2, 4 limx→π x cos x
then find limx→2 (f ± g )(x) 5 limx→1 2x 2 + 3x − 2
p
2 limx→ π2 5 sin x 6 limx→4 3 (x 2 + 2x + 3)2
x 3 −27 x 2 −9
3 limx→3 x−3 7 limx→3 e x+3

Theorem
(Squeezing (Sandwich) Theorem)
Suppose that f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x) for all x in some open interval containing c except
possibly at c itself. Suppose also that: limx→c f (x) = limx→c h(x) = L. Then
limx→c g (x) = L.

Example
1 Find limx→0 x 2 sin x1
cos x−1
2 Evaluate limx→0 x
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Infinite Limits, Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes

Let f be a function defined in a deleted neighborhood of c. We say that
1 the left-hand limit of f (x) at c is (negative)infinity, and write
limx→c − f (x) = (−∞)∞ if for every real number M, we’ve f (x)(<) > M for
every x close to c from the left side.
2 the right-hand limit of f (x) at c is (negative)infinity, and write
limx→c + f (x) = (−∞)∞ if for every real number M, we’ve f (x)(<) > M for
every x close to c from the right side if c.
3 the limit of f (x) at c is (negative)infinity and write limx→c f (x) = (−∞)∞ and
only if limx→c − f (x) = (−∞)∞ and limx→c + f (x) = (−∞)∞

Definition
Suppose f is a function and c is a fixed real number. We say that the line x = c is a
vertical asymptote of the graph of f if and only if either limx→c − f (x) = ±∞ or
limx→c − f (x) = ±∞.

Example
x +2
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Limit at Infinity
Suppose f is a function defined on an interval of the form (c, ∞)[(−∞, c)], for some
c ∈ R. We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches to infinity(negative) is the
number L, and write limx→±∞ f (x) = L if when x is assigned sufficiently large
positive(small negative) values, the corresponding values of f approach to L.

Definition
If for a function f and a real number L, limx→∞ f (x) = L or limx→∞ f (x) = L, then
the line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f .

Example
3x 2 − x + 1
Find a horizontal asymptote to the graph of
2x 2 + 5
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definition
If for a function f and for two real numbers a and b limx→±∞ [f (x) − (ax + b)] = 0,
then the line y = ax + b is called an oblique (or a skew) asymptote to the graph of f .
p(x)
In general, for a rational function f (x) = , we have
q(x)
When degree p(x) < degree q(x), limx→±∞ f (x) = 0 and the x−axis is a
horizontal asymptote of f .
When degree p(x) = degree q(x), then f has a horizontal asymptote given by
the quotient of the leading coefficients of p and q.
When degree p(x) > degree q(x), then limx→±∞ f (x) = ±∞, and in particularly
if degree p(x) =degree q(x) + 1, then f has an oblique asymptote obtained as a
quotient when we divide p(x) by q(x).

Example
4x 2 + 5x − 1
Find all asymptotes of f (x) = .
x +3
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

A special Limit in Exponential Function

1 1
lim (1 + )x = e = lim (1 + )x
x→∞ x x→−∞ x

Remark
1 limx→±∞ (1 + x1 )x+a = e for any real number a.
2 limx→±∞ (1 + xa )x = e a for any real number a.

Example
Evaluate
1 limx→∞ (1 + x1 )x+3
2 limx→∞ (1 − x5 )x
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Continuity of a Function
A function f is continuous at a point c, iff the following three conditions are satisfied:
1 f (c) is defined,
2 limx→c f (x) exist,
3 limx→c f (x) = f (c).

Example
Check whether the following functions are continuous or not.

2x + 1, for x ≤ 2
1 f (x) = at x = 2
x + 3, for x > 2
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Theorem
Suppose f and g are functions with common domain such that both f and g are
continuous at c. Then
1 f ± g is continuous at c.
2 if k is a scalar, kf is continuous at c.
3 fg is continuous at c.
4 if g (c) 6= 0, gf is continuous at c.

Remark
a) Any polynomial is continuous everywhere; that is, it is continuous on
R = (−∞, ∞).
b) Any rational function is continuous wherever it is defined; that is, it is
continuous on its domain.
c) If g is continuous at c and f is continuous at g (c), then the composite
f ◦ g function given by (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) is continuous at c.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Theorem
Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let L be any number
between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b)
such that f (c) = L.

Example
Let f (x) = 2x + 5. Find a real number c with 2 < c < 5 such that f (c) = 13

Theorem
Suppose f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] and assume that f (a) and f (b)
have opposite signs. Then there is at least one c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0. For
example, Let f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12 on [-1, 1].
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Derivatives and Its Application

Derivatives
Let c be a number in the domain of a function f . If
f (x) − f (c)
lim
x→c x −c
exists, we call this limit the derivative of f at c, and denote it by f 0 (c), so that

f (x) − f (c)
f 0 (c) = lim
x→c x −c
If this limit exists we say that f has a derivative at c, or f is differentiable at c or
f 0 (c). exists.

Example
Find the derivatives of f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 6
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Basic Rules of Differentiation

Theorem
Suppose f and g are differentiable at x, and k is a constant, then
The sum and difference rule:(f (x) ± g (x))0 = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)
The constant rule:
a. (kf (x))0 = kf 0 (x)
b. f 0 (k) = 0
The power rule:
a. f 0 (x n ) = nx n−1 n is any number.
b. f 0 (x −n ) = −nx −n−1 n is any number.
The product rule:(f (x)g (x))0 = f 0 (x)g (x) + g 0 (x)f (x)
f (x) 0 f 0 (x)g (x) − g 0 (x)f (x)
The quotient rule:( ) =
g (x) [g (x)]2
The chain rule: (f ◦ g )(x)0 = f 0 (g (x))g 0 (x)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Examples: Evaluate
1 f (x) = 2x sin x
2 g (x) = 5x 4 − 2x 3 + x 2 + 7x − 1
3x 2 − 5
3 h(x) =
2x + 1
4 k(x) = cos(x 2 + 1)

Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Function

1 1
Let a > 0, a 6= 1 and let f (x) = logxa . Then f 0 (x) = logxa =
x x ln a
0 1
For natural logarithm, (ln x) =
x
x 0 ax x
(a ) = = a ln a
logea

Example
Find the derivatives of a. f (x) = 3x b. f (x) = logx5
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Higher Derivatives
If f 0 (x) is differentiable, it is denoted by (f 0 )0 (x) = f 00 (x) is called the second
derivative of f. The nth derivative of f at a is
f n−1 (x) − f n−1 (a)
f n (a) = limx→a
x −a
In Leibniz notation the second , third, fourth and nth derivatives of y with respect to
2 3 4 n
x are respectively written as ddx y2 , ddx y3 , ddx y4 and ddxyn . Read respectively as “d squared
y , dx squared”, “d cubed y , dx cubed”, so on.
Example
Find f 5 (x) of the following functions:
1 f (x) = 8x 4 + 5x 3 − x 2 + 7
1
2 f (x) =
x
3 f (x) = sinx
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Applications of the Derivative

Extrema of a Function
Let f be a function defined on an interval I . If there is a number d in I such that
f (x) ≤ f (d) for all x in I , then f (d) is called the maximum value of f on I . Similarly,
if there is a number c in I such that f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in I , then f (c) is called the
minimum value of f on I . A value of f that is either a maximum value or a minimum
value of f on I is called an extreme value of f on I .

Theorem
Let f be continuous on a closed bounded interval [a, b]. Then f has a maximum and
a minimum value on [a, b].

Example
1 Find the extreme values of f (x) = x 2 on I = [−2, 4].
1
2 Find the extreme values of f (x) = , x 6= 0 on I = [−1, 2].
x
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Theorem
Let f be defined and continuous on [a, b]. If f has an extreme value at c in (a, b) and
f is differentiable at c, then f 0 (c) = 0.

Example
Find the extreme values of f (x) = x 3 − 3x + 1 on I = [−3, 3].

Monotonic Functions
Suppose f is a function defined on an interval I .
1 f is said to be increasing on I if f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
2 f is said to be strictly increasing on I if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
3 f is said to be decreasing on I if f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
4 f is said to be strictly decreasing on I if f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
5 f is said to be monotonic on I if f is either increasing or decreasing on I .
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Theorem
Suppose f is continuous and differentiable on an interval I .
1 If f 0 (x) > 0, for every x ∈ I , then f is strictly increasing on I .
2 If f 0 (x) < 0, for every x ∈ I , then f is strictly decreasing on I .

Example
Find the intervals over which the following function f (x) = x 3 − 3x + 1 is monotonic.

The First and Second Derivative Tests for Relative Extrema

Theorem
(First Derivative Test) Let f be continuous on an interval I , and let c ∈ I .
1 If f 0 (x) changes its sign from positive to negative at c i.e, if f 0 (x) > 0 to the left
of c and f 0 (x) < 0 to the right of c, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
2 If f 0 (x) changes its sign from negative to positive at c, then f has a relative
minimum value at c.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Theorem
(Second Derivative Test) Let f be differentiable in an interval I and let c ∈ I with
f 0 (c) = 0.
1 If f 00 (c) < 0, then f (c) is a relative maximum value of f .
2 If f 00 (c) > 0, then f (c) is a relative minimum value of f .
3 If f 00 (c) = 0, then we can not draw any conclusion about f (c).

Example
Find the local extreme values of
1 f (x) = x 3 − 3x + 1
4x
2 f (x) = 2
x +4
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Practical Applications of the Extrema

To maximize profit
To minimize cost, etc.

Example
1 A landowner wishes to use 2000 meters of fencing to enclose a rectangular
region. Suppose one side of the land lies along a river and does not need fencing.
What should be the sides of the region in order to maximize the area?
2 Ethiopian Airlines offers a round trip discount on group flight from Addis Ababa
to Lalibela. If x people sign up for the flight, the cost of each ticket is to be 1000
– 2x Birr. Find the number of people the airline gets maximum revenue from the
sales of tickets for the flight.
3 A manufacturer wishes to produce rectangular containers with square bottom
and top each of which is to have a capacity of 1000 cubic inches. If the cost of
production of each container is proportional to its surface area, what should be
the dimensions so as to minimize the cost of production?
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Curve Sketching
Guidelines in sketching the graph of a function y = f (x).
1 Determine the domain of the function f .
2 Find the intercepts of the function f . x−intercepts are points of the form (x, 0)
and y −intercepts are points of the form (0, y ).
3 Determine the asymptotes, if any, of the function f .
A line x = c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f iff limx→c + f (x) = ±∞ or
limx→c − f (x) = ±∞.
A line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f iff limx→∞ f (x) = L or
limx→−∞ = L.
A line y = ax + b is an oblique (or skew) asymptote of the graph of f iff
limx→±∞ [f (x) − (ax + b)] = L.
4 Determine the intervals of monotonicity of the function f .
f is increasing for all x at which f 0 (x) > 0
f is decreasing for all x at which f 0 (x) < 0
5 Find extreme values of f , if any. Find the critical points of f and apply the first or
second derivative tests to determine whether they are relative extreme points or
not.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
x −2
1 Sketch the graph of f (x) =
x +2
1
2 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x + for x 6= 0
x

Related Rates
From the concept of derivatives, we know that the time rate of change of any
quantity u is given by du
dt .
Then, from the relation y = f (x), the time rate of change of a variable y is
evaluated as dy dy dx
dt = dx dt
dx
where dt is the rate of change of variable x at a given instant of time t,
dy
dt is the rate of change of the variable y at the instant time t.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

The distance of a particle starts from some point in a time t is given by s(t)
which is called position.
The average speed of the particle between two times t1 and t2 (with t1 < t2 ), is
given by
change in distance s(t2 ) − s(t1 )
Average speed = = .
change in time t2 − t1
If s(t) denotes the position function of the particle its velocity is given by
ds
v (t) = s 0 (t) = − rate of change of position.
dt
Similarly, the acceleration of the particle can be obtained by
dv
a(t) = v 0 (t) = − rate of change of velocity .
dt

Example
1 Water is flowing into a vertical cylindrical tank of radius 2 feet at the rate of
8ft 3 /min. How fast is the water level rising after t minutes?
2 Two automobiles start from a point A at the same time. One travels west at
60km/hr and the other travels north at 35km/hr . How fast is the distance
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Integrals and their applications

Indefinite Integrals
A function F (x) is called an anti-derivative of a continuous function f (x) if and only
if F 0 (x) = f (x) for every x in the domain of f .
Theorem
If F (x) is an anti-derivative of f (x), then F (x) + c, where c is an arbitrary constant,
is also an anti-derivative of f (x).

Remark
The process of finding anti-derivative is called Integration,thus
d R R
[F (x)] = f (x) implies f (x)dx = F (x) + c on f (x)dx = F (x) + c
dx
R
-integral sign or indefinite integral, and f (x) - integrand.
c - constant of integration and x - variable of integration.
dx - tells us with respect to what variable we integrate
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
3x 2 dx = x 3 + c
R
a)
e x dx = e x + c
R
b)
R
c) R sin xdx = − cos x + c
d) sec2 xdx = tan x + c
e) x1 dx = ln |x| + c
R
R
f) csc x cot xdx = − csc x + c

Properties of the Indefinite Integral

Suppose F and G are antiderivatives of f and g , respectively, and k is a constant.
Then
R R
1 kf (x)dx = k f (x)dx = kF (x) + c.
R R R
2 (f (x) + g (x))dx = f (x)dx + g (x)dx = F (x) + G (x) + c.
R R R
3 (f (x) − g (x))dx = f (x)dx − g (x)dx = F (x) − G (x) + c.

Example
Evaluate the following integrals
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Some Techniques of Integration

1: Integration by Substitution:
This technique is basically developed by reversing the Chain Rule. It is very helpful in
finding the integrals of functions that appear as the composite of two functions.

Theorem
0
If
R g (x) is continuous
0
Rfor allx ∈ [a, b] and f is continuous at g (x), then
f (g (x))g (x)dx = f (u)du.

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals

a) 2x(x 2 − 5)6 dx
R
R x
b) √1+x dx
R 2 2 2
c) sin x cos xdx
d) e −2x dx
R

Remark
sin axdx = − 1a cos ax + c, and cos bxdx = b1 sin bx + c.
R R
In general
1 − cos 2x 1 + cos2x
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

2: Integration by Part
The method of integration by parts is basically developed from the Product Rule for
differentiation. If f and g are differentiable functions, we have
(f (x)g (x))0 = f 0 (x)g (x) + g 0 (x)f (x) Integrating on both sides with respect to x, we
get Z Z
f (x)g (x) = f 0 (x)g (x)dx + g 0 (x)f (x)dx

Theorem
RIf f and 0 g are differentiable functions,
R then
0 (x)dx. This can be written in simple form as
f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g (x) − g (x)f
udv = uv − vdu where u = f (x), du = f 0 (x)dx and v = g (x), dv = g 0 (x)dx.
R R

Examples: Evaluate the following integrals

a) xe x dx
R
R
b) R x ln xdx
c) e x cos xdx
R
d) ln xdx
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

3: Integration by the Method of Partial Fractions

p(x)
The method of Partial Fractions is used for rational functions f (x) = where
q(x)
degree of p(x) is less than degree of q(x). (If not we can apply long division to write
f (x) as a sum of a polynomial and a rational function with the desired property.)
The first step in this method is to factorize the denominator q(x) into linear factors, if
possible. (The case where we have irreducible quadratic factors of q(x) will not be
treated here.) Now with each linear factor (ax + b)m (of multiplicity m) we associate
A1 A2
constants A1 , A2 , · · · , Am and write + + · · · with the Ai ’s to be
(ax + b) (ax + b)2
determined. Then, the rational function f (x) is then expressed as a sum of simple
rational functions and can be easily integrated.

Example
Find the integral of
R 1
1
2
dx
x −4
R 3x 2 + x − 1
2 dx
x 3 − x 2 − 2x
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Definite Integrals

Definition
For a function f continuous on [a, b] we divides the intervals in to n sub intervals of
equal width ∆x and from each intervals [xi−1 , xi ] choose a point xi∗ the mid point of
the interval. Then the definite integral of f (x) from a to b is
Rb
a f (x)dx = limn→∞ i=1 f (xi )∆x
Pn ∗

a-lower
P limit of integration and b-upper limit of integration.
A ≈ ni=1 f (xi∗ )∆x is called the Riemann sum.

Properties of definite integrals

If f and g are integrable over [a, b] and k is a constant, then
Rb Rb
a) a kf (x)dx = k a f (x)dx
Rb Rb Rb
b) a [f (x) ± g (x)]dx = a f (x)dx ± a g (x)dx
Rb
c) If f (x) ≥ 0, for a ≤ x ≤ b, then a f (x)dx ≥ 0
Rb
d) if f (x) ≤ 0, for a ≤ x ≤ b, then a f (x)dx ≤ 0.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Cont’d
Rb Ra Ra
e) a f (x)dx = − b f (x)dx and a f (x)dx = 0
f) If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all x ∈ [a, b], then
Rb
m(b − a) ≤ a f (x)dx ≤ M(b − a)
Rb Rc Rb
g) If c is any number in (a, b), then a f (x)dx = a f (x)dx + c f (x)dx

Theorem
(Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)
Let f (t) be continuous on [a, b] and for each x ∈ [a, b] let
Z x
F (x) = f (t)dt
a

Then
1 F (x) is a differentiable function with F 0 (x) = f (x),
Rb
2 If F is any anti-derivative of f on [a, b], then a f (t)dt = F (b) − F (a).
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Example
Evaluate eachRof the following definite integrals
4 √
a) 1 3 xdx
Rπ
b) 0 sin xdx
R1
c) −2 |x + 1|dx
R3 √
d) 2 x x 2 − 4dx

Remark
1 For functions that are given by more than one formula we evaluate the definite

integral using the additive property.

2 From the method of Integration by Substitution we have
Z Z
0
f (g (x))g (x)dx = f (u)du where u = g (x)

If we are to evaluate this integral between a and b, we have the following: when
x = a, u = g (a) and when x = b, u = g (b). Thus it follows
Z b Z g (b)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Application of the Definite Integral: Area

The definite integral has several applications such as finding areas of regions, arc
length of curves, surface areas and volumes of solids of revolution.
In this section we shall see how to find areas of plane regions with curved
boundaries using the definite integrals.
Let f and g be continuous on [a, b], and assume that f (x) ≥ g (x) for
a ≤ x ≤ b. Then the area of the region R below the graph of f , above the graph
of g , and between the lines x = a and x = b is given by
Z b
A(R) = [f (x) − g (x)]dx
a

Example
√
1 Find the area of the region bounded by f (x) = 2 x, g (x) = −x and line x = 9.
2 Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas y = x 2 and y = 2x − x 2 .
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

Class Activity
Determine the area of the region enclosed by
√
1 y = x 2 and y = x
2 y = x 2 and y = x + 2
3 y = 2x 2 + 10 and y = 4x + 16,x = −2 and x = 5
4 y = x 3 and y = x
1
5 x = y 2 − 3 and y = x − 1
2
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Functions Matrices and determinant Introduction to C

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