Philippine Music

Geographically, the Philippines belongs to the East, but it has absorbed considerable cultural
influences from the West due primarily to 333 years of Spanish rule and 45 years of American
domination. Its ancient Asian roots are still seen in highland and in lowland out-of-the-way
barangays where indigenous cultures have thrived, despite Western influences that have seeped
through the country’s borders via technology and the people who constantly move between local
and global spaces. In the urban areas, Hispanic, American, and other transnational influences
are highly evident in the social, economic, and political aspects of life. Shaped by cross-cultural
contacts with Western and non-Western traditions, Philippine music of today consists of several
streams: indigenous, Hispanic-influenced, and the American- or transnational-influenced.

The Hispanic Traditions and Transformations

In 1521 the travel of Ferdinand Magellan, who reached the Philippines by chance while in search
of an alternative trade route, marked an important watershed in the Westernization of the world,
which has resulted in what is known today as globalization. This eventually led to the Spanish
colonization and Christianization of the country, and it planted the seeds of European harmonic
music, which was totally unknown to Asia at that time. In over 300 years, from 1565 to 1898,
these seeds took shape and produced religious music both connected to and outside the liturgy
of the Catholic Church; secular music from Europe and even a European type of music that was
developed by Filipinos; folk songs; and music of string and brass ensembles. These forms and
types of music took hold of every segment of the society, from the rural villages to the urban
centers of the rich.

Chanting in the sanghiyangritual in Mendez, Cavite, 1991, which combines Catholic beliefs with indigenous
rituals (Photo from CCP Collections)
In the early Spanish missionary contacts, the importance placed by the religious orders on
music sprang from the belief that music was a most powerful means to win the spirit of a
people and make them understand Christian ways and beliefs. The friars were given special
musical training in Spain before coming to the Philippines. Among the friars who taught music
from late 16th to 18th centuries were the Franciscans San Pedro Bautista, who was assigned to
Lumban, Laguna in 1586; Juan de Santa Marta, who arrived in 1606; Geronimo Aguilar, who
arrived in 1582; and arriving two centuries after, Jose de la Virgen, who composed a treatise on
plain chant in the Bikol language in 1727 which is now lost. From the 18th to 19th centuries, the
Augustinians had musician-priests like Lorenzo Castello, Juan Bolivar, and Manuel de Arostegui.

The Augustinian church in Intramuros produced noted Filipino musicians like Marcelo de San
Agustin in the 17th century, who is the first indigeno (native) named in historical sources to have
composed music in the Western idiom (Irving 2010, 172-3). From mid-18th century, the
Dominican santuario San Juan del Monte produced a set of devotional hymns in villancico form,
one of which had a text in Tagalog. This manuscript is doubly significant; not only is it the first
extant evidence of local compositional production in the country, but also the mixing of Western
melody and vernacular text as seen in the manuscript is inaugural. From that period up to the
early 19th century, choir books of cowhide parchment containing collections of liturgical music
had been preserved in a number of churches around the country, a good example of which was
that from Baclayon, Bohol. By late 19th century, noted church music composers were Marcelo
Adonay, Jose Canseco, and Pedro Navarro, with the latter two also active as maestros of
military bands.

Throughout the islands, the Church and its clergy had a commanding impact on the musical life
of Christianized Filipinos. The clergy’s sociopolitical influence, backed by the colonial policy of
unity between Church and State, extended to the secular sphere. Many secular priests founded
town bands and had the power to decide on how a fiesta, both a sacred and profane event, was
to be celebrated. There was even a native priest named Fr Jose Zamora, who translated a
fundamental music theory tutor book in Tagalog in 1888. The first and only book of its kind in
Philippine history, it could be understood as an intervention made by a civic-minded clergy who
felt that the islands lacked musically literate citizens and musicians.

New forms of Latin-influenced extraliturgical and secular folk music emerged from the
cross-cultural encounters between Hispanic and local Philippine cultures. These became part of
Philippine lowland music culture, particularly outside of towns and cities. Today, these folk
traditions and practices in Catholic rituals and celebrations are still vigorously practiced.

At the start of the liturgical year, during advent, carolers roam the town streets, serenading
households in the tradition called pastores in Bicol, tambora in Cuyo, and daigon in the Visayas.
An elaborate outdoor folk drama variously called panunuluyan, pananawagan, and pananapatan
in the Tagalog areas, and kagharong in Bicol reenacts, in sung dialogue and on the streets, Mary
and Joseph’s search for a lodging in Bethlehem on Christmas Eve. The Lenten season is the
occasion for the pabasa or the chanting of the pasyon, the versified story of the life and passion
of Jesus Christ. In May, the flores de Mayo, a procession in honor of the Blessed Virgin, is held
and adults and children sing popular songs and hymns. Before the procession, while flowers are
offered at the foot of the Virgin’s altar, the salve, loa, saludo, and despedida in the 19th-century
romantic idiom are sung. Also in May, the santacruzan features songs during the procession for
the Santa Cruz. In Siquijor in southern Philippines, the sinulog is a dance ritual that recalls the
fight between Christians and Moors, with the Christians emerging victorious through the
intercession of Santiago. In the Bicol region, the kristianong turog is sung during the
aurora—dawn processions celebrating a good harvest or a thanksgiving.

An important school in the mid-18th century was the Colegio de Niños Tiples de la Santa Iglesia
Catedral where many future Filipino musicians received their training in solfeggio, vocalization,
and playing of instruments. By the last half of the 19th century, the school had adopted a
curriculum patterned after that of the Conservatory of Madrid. Some of the Catedral’s teachers
that time were well-known Spanish composers like Apolonio and Remigio Calahorra. Products
of this school included Antonio Garcia, Simplicio Solis, Salvador Piñon, Hipolito Rivera, Fulgencio
Tolentino, Jose Muezo, Antonio Escamilla, and Bernabe Solis.

Further and systematic instruction in Western secular music was given in schools for the
children of the native elite. In boys’ colleges in the 19th century, music was taught as part of a
number of subjects that included philosophy, physics, and metaphysics. At the Universidad de
Santo Tomas, Colegio de San Jose, and the Ateneo de Manila, students had the opportunity to
take up advanced studies in European arts and sciences. Similarly, young girls, especially after
the educational reforms in basic education in 1863, were taught instrumental music, particularly
the piano, especially in the girls’ colleges like Colegio de Santa Rosa, Colegio de Santa Isabel,
Colegio de la Concordia, and Colegio de Santa Catalina. In addition, other Filipinos got a
Western music education beginning in the 1890s from a number of private music academies
that were often staffed by successful local or visiting foreign musicians who also gave private
lessons in solfége, singing, piano, and violoncello. Notable among them were Spanish musician
Oscar Camps y Soler and singers Enrico Capozzi, Santino Coppa, Ciro Cavalieri, and Vincenzo
Gambardella. The products of such an education became the admirers of European music as
performed by Filipino and visiting European artists. Europeanized in taste and manners, the elite
group organized art societies, patronized concerts and operas, or played host to tertulias
(soirees) in their homes where poetry and music formed part of the evening fare.
Sheet music from the Spanish period, 1847 (Photo from John Tewell Collection)
The circulation of printed sheet music, thanks to the lithographic print production technology
like that introduced in Manila in the middle of the 19th century, could not have generated interest
without these educational institutions that ensured the formation of urbane Hispanic colonial
subjects who understood and were capable of producing the Western forms and styles of
music. Printed sheet music, either for piano solo or for melody with piano accompaniment, was
therefore principally marketed to this educated sector in Philippine society. They were the
consumers who bought sheet music and other instrumental music collections from stores on
Escolta like La Lira Almacen de Musica and La Estrella del Norte.

An important music publication of the last half of 19th century was Diego Perez’s piano medley
Recuerdos de Filipinas y Sus Cantares (Memories of the Philippines and Its Songs), 1886, which
paraphrased Philippine folk songs and dances. By the 1890s, a local print music industry had
already produced notable publications such as Julio Nakpil’s piano music in various styles and
the ever-popular kundiman “Jocelynang Baliwag” (Jocelyna of Baliwag), which is believed to
have circulated in this form in 1896 among the Filipino revolutionaries.

Numerous instrumental groups performed actively, particularly in the second half of the 19th
century. These included orchestras, bands, comparza, and rondalla. Orchestras in Manila
included the San Juan del Monte Orchestra, Oriental Orchestra, Marikina Orchestra, Rizal
Orchestra, and Molina Orchestra, and they often had the same members but different
conductors. As early as 1885, a musicians’ union, Union Artistica Musical, was already in place,
indicating the burgeoning cultural life of Manila. It had in its mandate the code of conduct that
stipulated regularized fees for their engagements. Filipino musicians skilled in western idioms
found themselves in great demand. Some musicians were contracted in the 1880s to augment
the size of the Shanghai Municipal Band. By the end of 19th century, a number were performing
in Singapore. Back home, these musicians were members of orchestras that played for solemn
masses during church feasts in both Intramuros and the churches in the arrabales (outlying
districts) like Quiapo, Santa Cruz, Binondo, San Sebastian, San Miguel, Pandacan, and San Juan
del Monte. The orchestras also assisted visiting opera and zarzuela companies, performing the
overtures and the intermezzi.

A comparza, a musical group with various string instruments (Photo courtesy of Mario Feir Filipiniana Library)
From mid-19th century to around the 1930s, a music concert would have presented a mixed
program such as the one performed at the Teatro Español de Sibacon in the mid-19th century,
which consisted of a sinfonia arranged by Frances Doce Uno; a dance intermission by the best
students of Maestro Appiani; a comic skit by Don Ramon Valladores y Saavedra; and two songs
in Spanish by a Señora Ojeda. Other program favorites were popular arias by Rossini, Thomas,
Auber, and Waldteufel. The performance of a complete symphony or the concept of modern
concert programming where large-scale works were presented did not occur until the American
period, notably when the Manila Symphony Orchestra began giving concerts in 1926 under the
Viennese-trained conductor Alexander Lippay.
In the 19th century, Western music was also played by the prestigious regimental bands. Their
performances of band music at the Luneta were received with great enthusiasm by the public
and praised even by European visitors. As mentioned, almost every town had a brass band
outside Manila, with some towns having two or more. The bands participated in town fiesta
celebrations, which lasted for three or more days. They started playing in the early morning,
marching through all the streets. A major function was to play in processions in which religious
images of saints in elaborately decorated carriages were paraded through the major streets of
the town.

A popular ensemble was the rondalla, a group of plucked or picked stringed instruments made
up of a bandurria, piccolo bandurria, laud, octavina, bandola, guitar, and bass. This ensemble
was most likely inspired by similar popular music ensembles in Spain from the mid-19th century,
though the bandurria itself may have predated this, having reached Philippine shores during the
time of the galleon trade with Mexico (1565-1815). Though not as widespread as the brass
bands, the rondalla nevertheless enjoyed a certain following. Today, there is a resurgence of
interest in the rondalla, and many elementary and high schools have their own groups.

A favorite solo instrument from the mid-19th century onwards was the piano. In Manila, pianos
by Pleyel Wolff, Steinway and Sons, M.F. Rachals, Grotian Steinway, and Winklemann adorned
the spacious living rooms of the rich. Many upright pianos found their way into the smaller
towns in Luzon and the Visayas. Visitors to the Philippines in the first half of the 19th century
wrote that the piano and the harp were the most common instruments encountered in homes.
Almost all young ladies were taught the piano or harp, which they were asked to play to entertain
visitors at home.

Manila audiences were strongly attracted to opera presentations, particularly those presented
by visiting European companies. Eventually, arias from famous operas like Aida, Tosca, La
Traviata, Rigoletto, and Lucia di Lammermoor were heard in Philippine households where they
were sung, played on the piano, or whistled by both young and old, masters and servants alike.
In 1902, the first Filipino opera, Sangdugong Panaguinip (Dreamed Alliance), was composed by
Ladislao Bonus, with libretto in Spanish by Pedro Paterno translated to Tagalog by Roman
Reyes. It was followed by two more, Magdapio and Ang Gayuma (Love Potion), with music by
Alejo Carluen.

The same audience that graced the opera also attended the zarzuela, which were plays with
music and dance. The Spanish zarzuela was introduced to the Philippines through the
performance of Jugar con Fuego (Playing with Fire) by the troupe of Dario Cespedes at the
Teatro de Novedades in Arroceros, Manila in 1879. Alejandro Cubero, who came to the
Philippines in 1880, is credited for having trained native artists such as Jose Carvajal, Venancia
Suzara, Patrocinio Tagaroma, and Praxedes Julia Fernandez in the Spanish zarzuela. Eventually,
Filipino playwrights wrote the native sarsuwela. Vernacular sarsuwela, the first documented of
which was the Tagalog Budhing Nagpahamak (Tragic Conscience), ca 1890, appeared in
Pampanga, Cebu, Bicol, Pangasinan, Ilocos, and the Tagalog provinces in the early 1900s.
In rural areas, folk dramas which had music flourished even before the advent of the zarzuela
and opera. These included the komedya, the sinakulo, and the karilyo. The komedya, a drama in
verse which depicted the conflict between Christians and Moors, had entrances, exits, duels,
and fight scenes accompanied by music that was made up of stock pieces or music that was
popular or in vogue. First performed in open spaces, these stylized dramas eventually made
their way to the stages of more formal theaters. In Manila, several theaters specialized in the
presentation of the komedya: the Teatro Comico, Teatro Lirico de Tondo, and Teatro de Binondo.

The komedya Florante at Lauraperformed by elementary schoolchildren, Parañaque City, 1992 (Photo from CCP
Collections)
The sinakulo, a passion play staged during Holy Week, was performed in town plazas or church
patios, attracting an audience that traveled by cart or on foot from outlying barrios. The
traditional sinakulo found in Tagalog, Kapampangan, and Bicol provinces had chanted dialogue
and marches performed by local bands. The carillo was introduced to Manila in the latter part of
the 19th century by Navarro de Peralta. It was a shadow play using cardboard figures whose
shadows were projected by a lamp on a white screen. Deriving its themes from European
medieval tales and legends, the carillo was also performed to occasional music.

Aside from stage plays, other native musical forms, songs, and dances utilizing European
idioms emerged. Some of these forms were the jota, habanera, mazurka, polka, kumintang,
balitaw, balse, danza menor, pandanggo, and basultu. The music of these songs and dances
were in major and minor tonalities, with simple harmonic progressions and usually in binary
form. Triple meter appeared to have been favored over duple and quadruple beat patterns.

During the Philippine Revolution of 1896, the marcha and kundiman were used to express the
strong patriotic sentiments of the revolutionaries. Of the kundiman, the so-called “Kundiman ng
Himagsikan” (Kundiman of the Revolution) or “Jocelynang Baliwag” was the most popular. The
steady but stimulating rhythm of marches invigorated the fighting temper of the revolutionaries,
while the melancholic funeral marches written for fallen heroes kindled their deep-seated
yearning for freedom. The most popular march played during the revolution was “Alerta
Katipunan” (Katipunan, Alert), which was originally a Spanish march adapted by the Katipunero
for their own use. Moving funeral marches composed by Julio Nakpil were “Pahimakas” (Last
Farewell), written for Jose Rizal, and “Sueño Eterno” (Eternal Sleep), a eulogy for Antonio Luna.
But Nakpil is most remembered for “Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan” (Noble Hymn of the
Tagalog Region) which was written upon request of Andres Bonifacio who wanted a national
anthem. However, after Bonifacio’s defeat by Emilio Aguinaldo’s cohorts, it was Julian Felipe’s
“Marcha Nacional” that eventually became the national anthem.

Art Song
An art song is a genre of Western solo vocal literature in which the voice part, the instrumental
accompaniment, and the poetic verses are interwoven to achieve a musically artistic whole. It
requires advanced vocal training and musical maturity for its performance, usually on the
concert stage. An ordered group of art songs forming a musical entity is called a song cycle.
The text is often a set of related poems by a single poet.

The country’s 333-year cultural contact with Spain led to the development of two folk song
styles predominant at the turn of the century. The first was exemplified in the pasyon,
matrimonyo, kaluluwa, and huluna, all sung in a chant-like manner; the second, in the harana,
balitaw, dalit, composo, and kundiman, sung in duple or triple meter, in major or minor tonalities
and simple harmonic accompaniment on the piano or rondalla (ensemble of stringed
instruments). The second type, especially the folk kundiman, lent itself to the development of
the song as personal and artistic self-expression since it has been used traditionally to ventilate
emotions.
Francisco Buencamino Sr (Photo from CCP Collections)
The expressive folk kundiman was exemplified by the turn-of-the-century “May Dusa Pa Yata”
(Misery Still Pervades), cited by Antonio J. Molina as a young man’s vehicle for expressing his
affections for a young maiden in the context of a pantapat or harana (serenade). The lyrics
consisted of two four-line stanzas, each line with 12 syllables ending in assonance. The music,
in triple meter and in a major tonality, consisting of two 16-bar periods corresponding to the
stanzas, was in binary form. A note that was longer in duration than others within a phrase unit
or agogic accent, or a note followed by a rest or silence, occured with each 6th and 12th syllable
of a line. This melodic trait reflected a characteristic of Philippine dodecasyllabic lines as found
in Balagtas’s Florante at Laura (Florante and Laura), wherein a caesura invariably occured after
the 6th syllable. Similarly constructed were the lyrics of the folk songs “Kundiman de 1800”
(Love Song of 1800) and “Kundiman de 1870: Paalam sa Pagkadalaga” (Love Song of 1870:
Farewell to Maidenhood). Like most folk songs, the authorship is unknown and different verses
may be set for these songs.

The kundiman as a composed vocal genre expressing intense love for a beloved as well as
patriotic fervor emerged in Leon Ignacio’s “Ang Aking Bulaklak” (My Flower), Jose Silos’s “Mutya
ng Silangan” (Muse of the East), Paulino Cadsawan’s “Kundiman ni Rizal” (Rizal’s Kundiman),
Francisco Buencamino’s “Simoy na Dalisay” (Pure Breeze), and Bonifacio Abdon’s “Kundiman,”
among others. In most of these works, the melodic and textual conventions of the folk
kundiman were retained but accompaniment on the piano was specified. Moreover, the simple
binary structure of two 16-bar periods (AB) was expanded.

Reaching artistic heights in the creative genius of Nicanor S. Abelardo and Francisco Santiago,
the kundiman became a veritable art song written in the chromatic harmonic language of
European romanticists. Melody, text, and harmony were intertwined to musically convey the
meaning of the Tagalog text in Abelardo’s “Nasaan Ka Irog?” (Where Are You, My Love?), “Mutya
ng Pasig” (Muse of Pasig), “Kundiman ng Luha” (Love Song of Tears), “Magbalik Ka Hirang”
(Come Back My Love), “Himutok” (Outcry), and “Pahimakas” (Last Farewell); and in Santiago’s
“Kundiman” (Love Song), “Pakiusap” (Plea), and “Madaling-araw” (Dawn). The American
musicologist Conway Walker referred to the art song kundiman as “graphic miniature
music-dramas, small, yet susceptible of expression at will, flexible as no other medium of
emotional expression devised by man … with the directness and exactness of an etching, and
all-inclusive in its possibilities of emotional portraiture.”

Sheet music cover of Nicanor Abelardo’s “Pahimakas,” 1925 (Photo from Nicanor G. Tiongson Collections)
After Abelardo and Santiago, Philippine art song literature continued to grow. Composers who
wrote in the vernacular and who were influenced by the art song kundiman include Felipe Padilla
de Leon with his “Ako’y Pilipino” (I Am a Filipino), “Ganyan ang Pagsinta” (That Is Love), and
“Dasal ng Pag-ibig” (Prayer of Love); Antonio J. Molina with his “Amihan” (Cool Northeast Wind)
and “Kundiman-Kundangan” (Love Song–If Not For); Antonino Buenaventura with his “Ako’y
Nangangarap” (I’m Dreaming); Lucio D. San Pedro with his “Diwata ng Pag-ibig” (Goddess of
Love), “Sa Ugoy ng Duyan” (In the Cradle’s Rocking), “Sa Mahal Kong Bayan” (In My Beloved
Country), and “Sa Simula Ako’y Isang Labong” (In the Beginning I Was a Bamboo Shoot);
Rosendo Santos with his “Kundiman ng Puso” (Love Song of the Heart); Angel M. Peña with his
“Iyo Kailan Pa Man” (Yours Forever); Lucino T. Sacramento with his “Gamugamu” (Moth); Ernani
Cuenco with his “Kundiman ’86” and “Gaano Ko Ikaw Kamahal?” (How Much Do I Love You?);
Rodolfo S. Cornejo with his “Kalualhatian” (Glory) and “Silahis ng Pag-asa” (Ray of Hope); and
Augusto Espino with his “Kundiman ng Langit” (Love Song of Heaven). It is to be noted that 54
art songs, including many of the above, were collected in An Album of Philippine Art Songs
published by the Music Promotion Foundation of the Philippines. In 1996, Antonina E. Siapuatco
published the collection The Art Songs of Lucio San Pedro.

Providing the impetus for more contributions to the repertory were the League of Filipino
Composers (LFC) and the National Music Competitions for Young Artists (NAMCYA), which
conducted competitions in art song composition and commissioned solo vocal contest pieces,
respectively. The LFC’s first-prize winner for 1979 was Toti Alvarez’s “Ito ang Iyong Bayan” (This
Is Your Country), and in 1990, Von de Guzman’s “Gutiay Pa Ako” (I Was Still Young). The
NAMCYA pieces include Lucio D. San Pedro’s “Bayan Ko, Isang Pangarap” (My Country, One
Dream), Jerry A. Dadap’s “Kung Hindi Magbukang-liwayway” (If Dawn Never Comes), Manuel P.
Maramba’s “Anak Ko, Magpakababa Ka” (My Child, Be Humble), and Francisco F. Feliciano’s
“Paalam ni Elias kay Salomeng Irog” (Elias’s Farewell to Beloved Salome). To this list could be
added “Kudyapi ng Lahi” (Boat-Lute of the Race) for soprano and string quartet, and “Tagulaylay”
(Mourning Song) for baritone and prepared piano.

Art songs with English text include Eliseo M. Pajaro’s “Etude in Blue” and “Etude in Green”;
Hilarion F. Rubio’s “Light … a Tenor’s Soliloquy”; Ramon Tapales’s “Carnations” and “Grace for
Grace”; Lucrecia R. Kasilag’s “Requiem,” “Renunciation,” and “You Shall Be Free”; and Amada
Santos-Ocampo’s “Gloom Casts a Candle.” A number of song cycles had also been written:
Ramon P. Santos’s Three Songs of Faith; Lucrecia R. Kasilag’s Love Songs, Three Love Sonnets,
and A Cycle of Philippine Songs; Eliseo M. Pajaro’s Himig Iloko No. 1 and No. 2 (Iloko Melodies);
Jerry A. Dadap’s Song Cycles Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4; Felipe P. de Leon’s Muntawit (Small Song);
Rodolfo S. Cornejo’s The Seasons and Beneath This Heart of Clay; Eduardo Parungao’s The Room
of Life, Tatlong Yugto (Three Episodes), and Iba’t Ibang Kulay ang Buhay (Life Has Many Colors);
Angel M. Peña’s Ngunit (But); Michael Dadap’s Mga Awit ng Pag-ibig at Pangarap (Songs of Love
and Dreams); Noni Espina’s Mga Awit sa Magdiwata (Songs of the Animist); and Ryan
Cayabyab’s Our Poem.

Today, the body of Philippine art song literature consists of the art song kundiman and other
songs bearing its influence; songs in English and in the vernacular following Western vocal
forms such as the aria, soliloquy, lullaby; prize-winning art songs in competitions sponsored by
the LFC; contest pieces for solo voice commissioned by the NAMCYA; and song cycles. The
musical styles range from the romantic to the modern. Noted Filipino poets, such as Deogracias
A. del Rosario, Jose Corazon de Jesus, Florentino Ballecer, Alejandro Abadilla, Nina Estrada,
Trinidad Tarrosa-Subido, Levi Celerio, Marra PL. Lanot, Domingo Landicho, and Rolando Tinio,
have written the texts.

Written by Mauricia D. Borromeo (1994)

Sources
Alzona, Encarnacion. 1965. An Album of Art Love Songs. Compiled by the Office of Music Foundation of the
Philippines. Manila: Imprenta Los Filipinas.

Bañas, Raymundo C. (1969) 1975. Pilipino Music and Theater. Quezon City: Manlapaz Publishing Co.

Eugenio, Damiana. 1987. Awit and Corrido: Philippine Metrical Romances. Quezon City: University of the Philippines
Press.

Hernandez, Felisa. “Outstanding Filipino Composers.” Unpublished manuscript.

Maceda, Jose. 1972. “Music in the Philippines.” In Handbuch der Orientalistik, 6:28-39. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Manuel, E. Arsenio. 1955-1986. Dictionary of Philippine Biography. Quezon City: Filipiniana Publications.

Molina, Antonio J. 1978. “The Sentiments of Kundiman.” In Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation, edited by
Alfredo R. Roces, Vol 8, 2026-2029. Manila: Lahing Pilipino Publishing Inc.

Randel, Don Michael. 1986. The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Reysio-Cruz, Emilia. 1950. Filipino Folk Songs. Manila: Community Publishers.

This article is from the CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art Digital Edition.

Title: Art Song

Author/s: Mauricia D. Borromeo (1994)

URL: https://epa.culturalcenter.gov.ph/5/35/768/

Publication Date: November 18, 2020

Access Date: March 09, 2022

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