THE PAPUA NEW GUINEA

UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
EXPERIMENT 01: NON-UNIFORM FLOW IN A CHANNEL
Introduction

The exploration of water flow dynamics in open channels, particularly non-uniform flow, holds
significant importance across various engineering domains such as hydraulic and
environmental engineering. Understanding the behavior of water in open channels, especially
when its velocity and depth exhibit variations, is crucial for devising effective hydraulic
structures and flood management strategies. Laboratory experiments serve as pivotal tools in
comprehending these intricate dynamics under controlled conditions.
The experiment aims to investigate non-uniform water flow in open channels. Non-uniform
flow occurs when there are alterations in water velocity and depth along the channel, leading
to complex flow patterns influenced by factors like channel geometry, roughness, and slope.
Grasping the complexities of non-uniform flow is challenging yet pivotal for hydraulic
engineering research.
Through meticulously designed experiments, specific factors influencing non-uniform flow
will be isolated and analyzed, offering insights into its underlying mechanisms and behavior.
By meticulously measuring and observing flow characteristics such as velocity and depth,
researchers aim to validate theoretical models and enhance the collective understanding of
open-channel hydraulics.
Utilizing water stream simulator equipped with precise instrumentation, students will replicate
scenarios of non-uniform flow and study their impact on flow characteristics. By scrutinizing
experimental data and comparing it against theoretical predictions, the aim is to deepen the
understanding of non-uniform flow dynamics and contribute to advancements in hydraulic
engineering practices.

Practical Applications of the Experiment

1. Design of Hydraulic Structures

Understanding non-uniform flow behavior aids in optimizing the design of hydraulic
structures like dams, weirs, and culverts to ensure their efficiency and safety.
2. Flood Management
By comprehending non-uniform flow dynamics, engineers can better predict and manage flood
impacts, leading to improved flood management strategies and infrastructure designs.
3. River and Channel Engineering
Knowledge of non-uniform flow informs the design of stable and sustainable river channels,
minimizing erosion and supporting aquatic ecosystems.
4. Water Resource Planning
Analysis of flow patterns assists in assessing water availability, planning withdrawals, and
managing water resources sustainably within river basins.
5. Environmental Conservation
Understanding flow variations helps in protecting and restoring river ecosystems, ensuring
habitat connectivity and water quality.

Objective
1. To determine the flow rate of the stream at different points as the water passes over the
Broaded Weir and creates a hydraulic jump after
2. To study the type of flow patterns created by the Broaded Wier
3. To assess the different sections of the stream as it passes through

Equipment
1. Measuring
Tape
2. Ruler (30cm)
3. Stopwatch
4. Water stream
simulator
5. Spirit level
6. Broad crested
weir (1)

Figure 1.Model of the Water stream simulator

Experimental Method
In the experiment, there are several steps to follow in order to accurately obtain the required
information to successfully complete the observation. The first step is to prepare the equipment
for function.

1. Open the main tap of the stream simulator and let the water fill to capacity.
2. Switch on the power supply to the pump to make sure the current is flowing.
3. Switch on the water pump and let the water circulate throughout the simulator.
4. Measure the width of the channel.
5. Using the spirit level on the simulator, check to see if the stream is leveled.
6. Measure the time it takes for the water to fill the container to equal 60lb or 27.2kg. do
this measurement 3 times and get the average time. Then use this time to calculate the
experimental flow rate
7. With the water at a steady flow, place a broad crested weir in the middle of the flowing
stream
8. Measure the height of the water upstream and downstream approximately 3m apart
9. Measure the depth of the flowing stream at four different points;

(a) Upstream of the broad-crested weir

(b) Downstream of the broad-crested weir
(c) Immediate upstream of the hydraulic jump
(d) Downstream of the hydraulic jump

Theory

Non-uniform flow in open channels is characterized by variations in flow velocity and depth
along the length of the channel. Unlike uniform flow, where flow properties remain constant
along the channel, non-uniform flow exhibits changes in velocity and depth due to factors such
as channel geometry, roughness, slope, and flow discharge.

1. Energy Concepts:
The energy principles govern the behavior of non-uniform flow in open channels. The total
energy per unit weight of fluid, known as specific energy (E), is the sum of the depth (y),
velocity (v), and elevation (z) heads:

𝑣2
𝐸 = 𝑦 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧
Where:
𝐸 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑚)
𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑚)
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑚⁄𝑠)

𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )

𝑧 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑚)

2. Froude Number:
The Froude number (Fr) is a dimensionless parameter used to characterize the flow regime in
open channels. It relates the inertia forces to gravitational forces and is defined as the ratio of
flow velocity to the square root of the product of gravity and flow depth:

𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝑦

Where:
𝐹𝑟 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝑉 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚⁄𝑠)
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )

𝑦 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑚)

3. Critical Depth:
Critical depth is the depth of flow at which the Froude number equals 1. At critical depth, the
flow transitions between subcritical and supercritical flow regimes. It can be calculated using
the energy equation and setting the Froude number to 1:

3 𝑞2
𝑦𝑐 = √ 𝑔

Where:
𝑞 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚)
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )
4. Hydraulic Jump:
In non-uniform flow, hydraulic jumps may occur when supercritical flow transitions to
subcritical flow. A hydraulic jump is characterized by a sudden rise in flow depth and a decrease
in velocity, accompanied by energy dissipation. The energy equation and momentum principles
govern the behavior of hydraulic jumps in open channels.
In this laboratory experiment, the theory of non-uniform flow in open channels is explored
through the application of energy principles, Froude number analysis, and the concept of
critical depth. By investigating the characteristics of non-uniform flow, researchers and
engineers can better understand and manage hydraulic systems in various applications,
including river engineering, flood control, and water resource management.

Results and Calculations

Raw data collected in the laboratory:

• Upstream depth (𝑦1 ) = 0.074𝑚
• Downstream depth (𝑦2 ) = 0.055𝑚
• Mass of counterweight (𝑚) = 27.2𝑘𝑔
• Width of stream (𝑏) = 0.075𝑚
• Average time taken for flowrate (𝑡) = 19.8𝑠

Measurements taken after placement of broad crested weir

Depth at point 1 (𝑑1 ) 0.103m
Depth at point 2 (𝑑2 ) 0.027m
Depth at point 3 (𝑑3 ) 0.025m
Depth at point 4 (𝑑4 ) 0.062m
Distance to hydraulic jump 0.21m

Calculate the Hydraulic Radius at each point

𝐴 0.007725𝑚2
Radius (𝑅) = 𝑃 ⸫ 𝑅1 = 0.281𝑚
An example has been done for 𝑅1
𝑅1 = 0.0275𝑚
Where: 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 𝑅2 = 0.0155𝑚
= 0.075𝑚 ∗ 0.103𝑚 𝑅3 = 0.015𝑚
= 0.007725𝑚2 𝑅4 = 0.0234𝑚

And 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑑
= 0.075𝑚 + 2 ∗ 0.103𝑚
= 0.281𝑚
Calculate the average velocity of flow at each of the four points

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑉) =

𝑅 2⁄3 √𝑆 • Using the given formula we now
𝑛 calculate the flow velocities for
• To calculate for each point would mean each point. The first being an
to take the average overall slope of the example.
stream, and then apply it to the given
equation.
𝑅 2⁄3 √𝑆
𝑉1 =
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 𝑛
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 (𝑆) =
𝐿 13
(0.0275)2⁄3 ∗(√
2000
= 0.009

0.0745𝑚−0.055𝑚
= 3𝑚 𝑣1 = 0.816𝑚/𝑠
= 0.0065 And, 𝑉2 = 0.512 𝑚⁄𝑠
13
𝑆 = 2000 𝑉3 = 0.5 𝑚⁄𝑠

𝑉4 = 0.674 𝑚⁄𝑠

Calculate the kinetic energy and the velocity head at each of the
four points
1 Kinetic energy at point 1 is done as an
Kinetic energy 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑉 2
example:
Where: 1
𝐾𝐸1 = 2 𝑚𝑉12
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐽)
1
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑘𝑔) = 2 ∗ 27.2𝑘𝑔 ∗ (0.816 𝑚⁄𝑠)2
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑚⁄𝑠)
𝐾𝐸1 = 9 𝐽
𝐾𝐸2 = 3.565 𝐽
𝐾𝐸3 = 3.4 𝐽
𝐾𝐸4 = 6.2 𝐽

Calculating velocity head (ℎ) = 2𝑔

𝑉2 Velocity head at point 1 is done as an
example:
Where: (0.816𝑚⁄𝑠)2
ℎ1 = 2∗9.81𝑚⁄ 2
𝑠
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚⁄𝑠)
ℎ1 = 0.0034𝑚
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) ℎ2 = 0.0134𝑚
ℎ3 = 0.013𝑚
 ℎ4 = 0.023𝑚

Calculate the Froude number at each of the four points

𝑉2 (0.816𝑚⁄ )2
𝑠
Forude number (𝐹𝑟 ) = 𝑔𝑑
1
𝐹𝑟1 = 9.81𝑚⁄ ∗0.103𝑚
𝑠

Where: 𝐹𝑟1 = 0.66

𝐹𝑟2 = 0.99
𝑉 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑚⁄𝑠) 𝐹𝑟3 =1
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ) 𝐹𝑟4 = 0.75
𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑚)

Calculate the specific energy at each of the four points

Specific energy 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑑 + 2𝑔
𝑉2 Specific energy at point 1 is done as an
example:
𝑉2
But since 2𝑔 = ℎ 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛,
𝐸𝑠1 = 𝑑1 + ℎ1
= 0.103𝑚 + 0.0034𝑚
Specific energy 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑑 + ℎ

Where: 𝐸𝑠1 = 0.1064𝑚

𝐸𝑠2 = 0.04𝑚
d = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑚) 𝐸𝑠3 = 0.038𝑚
𝐸𝑠4 = 0.085𝑚
ℎ = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑚)

Calculate the normal depth

The normal depth is measured where there is no Average depth (ND) =

𝑑1 +𝑑2
2
interference in the flow of the water where it is
normal. So in the experiment the normal depth 0.074𝑚+0.055𝑚
would be the average of the depths taken at each = 2
of the two points that were taken initially at 3m
apart. 𝑁𝐷 = 0.0645𝑚

Calculate the critical depth

3 𝑞2 • First calculate the average flowrate

Critical depth (𝑑𝑐 ) = √ 𝑔
of the stream:

𝑄 𝑄1 +𝑄2 +𝑄3 +𝑄4

Where: 𝑞= 𝑄= 4
𝑏
3
𝑄 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑚 ⁄𝑠
(6.3∗10−4 )+0.001+0.0009+0.003
= 4
𝑏 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 (𝑚)
3
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.00143 𝑚 ⁄𝑠
 • Now calculate the flow parameter
(q)
𝑄
𝑞= 𝑏

3
0.00143𝑚 ⁄𝑠
= 0.075𝑚

2
𝑞 = 0.019 𝑚 ⁄𝑠

• The critical depth can now be

calculated.

3 𝑞2
𝑑𝑐 = √
𝑔

2 2
3 (0.019𝑚 ⁄𝑠)
= √
9.81𝑚⁄ 2
𝑠

𝑑𝑐 = 0.033𝑚

Calculate the critical velocity

Critical velocity 𝑉𝑐 = √𝑔𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑐 = √9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 2 ∗ 0.033𝑚

Where:
𝑉𝑐 = 0.57 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑑𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑚)
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )

Calculate the critical slope

Critical slope (𝑆𝑐 ) =

𝑔𝑛2 𝑑𝑐 • Find the average flow radius of the
𝑅 4⁄3 system
Where: 𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 +𝑅4
𝑅𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 4
𝑅 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠(𝑚)
0.0275𝑚+0.0155𝑚+0.015𝑚+0.0234𝑚
𝑛 = 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 4
𝑑𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡 (𝑚)
𝑅𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.02𝑚
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )
• Now the critical slope can be
calculated

𝑔𝑛2 𝑑𝑐
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑅 4⁄3

9.81𝑚⁄ 2 ∗(0.009)2 ∗0.033𝑚

𝑠
= (0.02)4⁄3

𝑆𝑐 = 0.0048

SPECIFIC ENERGY CHART

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
DEPTH (M)

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
SPECIFIC ENERGY (M)
 Figure 2.Zones 1, 2, and 3 are indicated in the diagram. And also indicated are the sections for M_1,M_2,and M_3.

Discussion
In the experiment, there were four points that were studied because in a non-uniform flow there
are varying values of the water depths, flow rates, flow velocities and other perimeters of the
stream that were calculated in the experiment results. The type of water flow at the different
points will be determined by their respective Froude numbers that were calculated.

Point Forude number (𝐹𝑟 ) Comparison Flow type

#
1 0.66 0.66 < 1.00 Subcritical

2 0.99 0.99 < 1.00 Subcritical

3 1.00 1.00 = 1.00 Critical

4 0.75 0.75 < 1.00 Subcritical

Summary
The laboratory investigation into non-uniform flow in open streams yielded valuable insights
into water behavior in open channels, crucial for civil engineering.
Studying various flow patterns, including subcritical, critical, and supercritical, provided an
understanding of their impact on the stability and function of hydraulic systems. Analyzing the
Froude number allowed for identifying critical flow conditions and potential instability.
Determining critical depth, through theoretical scrutiny and practical verification, delineated
the depth at which flow transitions between subcritical and supercritical regimes. Energy
principles application facilitated the analysis of flow behavior and energy dissipation
mechanisms. Understanding hydraulic jumps' occurrence and features in non-uniform flow
highlighted their role in dissipating energy and stabilizing flow conditions, crucial for hydraulic
structure design.
Overall, this study provided insights and hands-on experience essential for addressing real-
world civil engineering challenges, including river management and flood protection, while
ensuring environmental sustainability and safety.

References

• Bagheri, S. and Heidarpour, M., 2010. Flow over rectangular sharp-crested weirs. Irrigation
science, 28, pp.173-179.
• Azimi, A.H., Rajaratnam, N. and Zhu, D.Z., 2016. Water surface characteristics of submerged
rectangular sharp-crested weirs. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 142(5), p.06016001.
• Hager, W.H. and Schwalt, M., 1994. Broad-crested weir. Journal of irrigation and drainage
engineering, 120(1), pp.13-26.
• Egbe, J.G. and Agunwamba, J.C., 2020. The proposed design and derivation of mathematical
procedure for modeling of hydraulic jump in a broad crested weir in an open channel
flow. International Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 9(1), pp.9-14.