Unit 1: Political Systems, Regimes, and

Governments

1.1: The Practice of Political Scientists

Key Terms

● Empirical Data: Information gathered through observation, experimentation, or other

forms of data collection.
● Normative Data: Data that represents typical or average performance or behavior within
a specific population.
● Quantitative Analysis: The use of mathematical and statistical methods to analyze
numerical data.
● Qualitative Analysis: The use of non-numerical data such as interviews, observations,
and surveys to analyze and interpret patterns and themes.
● Correlation: A statistical measure that indicates the degree to which two variables are
related to each other.
● Positive Correlation: A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one
variable is associated with an increase in the other variable.
● Negative Correlation: A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one
variable is associated with a decrease in the other variable.
● Causation: A relationship between two variables in which one variable directly
influences or causes a change in the other variable.
● Human Development Index (HDI): A composite statistic of life expectancy, education,
and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of
human development.
● Gini Index: A measure of income inequality within a population, ranging from 0 (perfect
equality) to 1 (perfect inequality).
● Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total value of goods and services produced within
a country's borders in a given time period.
● Freedom House: An organization that conducts research and advocacy on democracy,
political freedom, and human rights.
 ● Transparency International: An organization that monitors and publicizes corporate
and political corruption in international development.
● Failed (or Fragile) States Index: An annual ranking of countries based on their
vulnerability to conflict and instability, as well as their capacity to provide basic services
and maintain the rule of law.

Core Course Countries

● United Kingdom
○ The UK has a parliamentary system of government with a constitutional
monarchy.
○ It is a member of the European Union and has a strong tradition of democracy
and rule of law.
● Russia
○ Russia has a federal semi-presidential republic system of government.
○ It has a strong centralized government and a history of authoritarianism.
○ It is also a major player in international politics.
● Iran
○ Iran has an Islamic republic system of government.
○ It is a theocracy with a supreme leader and a president.
○ It has a complex relationship with the international community due to its nuclear
program and support for militant groups.
● Mexico
○ Mexico has a federal presidential representative democratic republic system of
government.
○ It has a history of corruption and drug violence, but has made progress in recent
years towards reform and strengthening its democracy.
● China
○ China has a single-party socialist republic system of government.
○ It has a strong centralized government and a mixed economy.
○ It is also a major player in international politics and has been criticized for its
human rights record.
● Nigeria
○ Nigeria has a federal presidential representative democratic republic system of
government.
 ○ It has a history of political instability and corruption, but has made progress in
recent years towards reform and strengthening its democracy.
○ It is also a major player in African politics.

The Practice of Political Scientists

● Political scientists: These are professionals who study political systems, behavior, and
institutions.
○ They use various methods to analyze and interpret political phenomena, and
their work is essential for understanding how governments and societies function.
● Political scientists use a variety of research methods to gather data and analyze political
phenomena.
○ Surveys: Political scientists use this to gather information about public opinion,
voting behavior, and other political attitudes and behaviors.
○ Interviews: They may conduct this with politicians, government officials, or other
experts in the field.
○ Case Studies: Political scientists use these to examine specific political events
or phenomena in detail. This method involves analyzing a single case in depth to
gain insights into broader political trends.
○ Quantitative Analysis: Political scientists use these to analyze large amounts of
data. This approach allows them to identify patterns and trends in political
behavior and institutions.
● Political scientists study a wide range of topics related to politics and government.
○ Political Theory: The study of political ideas and concepts. Political scientists in
this field examine the philosophical foundations of political systems and
institutions.
○ Comparative Politics: The study of different political systems and institutions
around the world. Political scientists in this field compare and contrast different
political systems to identify similarities and differences.
○ International Relations: The study of the relationships between different
countries and the ways in which they interact with each other. Political scientists
in this field examine issues such as diplomacy, war, and trade.
○ Public Policy: The study of how governments make decisions and implement
policies. Political scientists in this field examine the ways in which policies are
created and how they affect society.
1.2: Defining Political Institutions

Key Terms

● Political Systems: Refers to the set of institutions, laws, and procedures that are used
to govern a country or a group of people. It includes the distribution of power,
decision-making processes, and the relationship between the government and its
citizens.
● States: A political entity that has a defined territory, a permanent population, a
government, and the ability to enter into relations with other states.
● Regime: Refers to the set of rules, institutions, and practices that govern a country or a
political system. It includes the type of government, the distribution of power, and the
relationship between the government and its citizens.
● Government: Refers to the group of people who are responsible for making and
enforcing laws and policies in a country or a political system. It includes the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches.
● Nation: Refers to a group of people who share a common culture, language, history, or
identity. It can also refer to a political entity that is based on a shared sense of identity.

Institution Examples

Term

UK

Russia

China

Iran

Mexico

Nigeria
Political Democra Constitutio CCP Theocracy Constitution Constitution
System cy n and/or and/or al al
Authoritaria Authoritaria Authoritaria Democracy Democracy
n n n

Regime Democrat Authoritaria Authoritaria Authoritaria Emerging Emerging

ic n n n Democracy Democracy

Governme Unitary, Federal but Unitary Unitary Federal Federal

nt but asymmetric
turning
more
federal

Nation Scottish, Russian, Han Persians, Mestizo Hausa,

Irish Chechan Chinese, Azeris Yoruba
Tibetans

1.3: Democracy vs. Authoritarianism

Key Characteristics

● Democracy
○ Power is held by the people through free and fair elections
○ Protection of individual rights and freedoms
○ Rule of law and independent judiciary
○ Transparency and accountability in government
○ Civil society and freedom of the press
● Authoritarianism
○ Power is held by a single leader or small group
 ○ Limited or no protection of individual rights and freedoms
○ Rule by force or coercion
○ Lack of transparency and accountability in government
○ Suppression of civil society and freedom of the press

Types of Authoritarian Regimes

1. Monarchies: These are regimes in which power is held by a hereditary monarch or royal
family. Examples include Saudi Arabia and Brunei.
2. Military Juntas: These are regimes in which power is held by a group of military officers
who have seized control of the government. Examples include Myanmar and Egypt.
3. Single-Party States: These are regimes in which power is held by a single political party
that controls all aspects of government. Examples include China and North Korea.
4. Personalist Regimes: These are regimes in which power is held by a single individual
who dominates the political system. Examples include Russia under Vladimir Putin and
Turkey under Recep Tayyip Erdogan.
5. Theocracies: These are regimes in which power is held by religious leaders or
institutions. Examples include Iran and Saudi Arabia.
6. Hybrid Regimes: These are regimes that combine elements of authoritarianism and
democracy. Examples include Russia and Venezuela.

Types of Democratic Regimes

● Direct democracy: A form of democracy in which citizens directly participate in the

decision-making process. This is typically done through referendums or other forms of
direct voting.
● Representative democracy: A form of democracy in which citizens elect
representatives to make decisions on their behalf. This is the most common form of
democracy in the world.
● Presidential democracy: A form of democracy in which the president is both the head
of state and the head of government. The president is elected by the people and has
significant powers, including the power to veto legislation.
● Parliamentary democracy: A form of democracy in which the parliament is the primary
decision-making body. The prime minister is the head of government, while the monarch
or president is the head of state.
 ● Semi-presidential democracy: A form of democracy in which the president and prime
minister share power. The president is the head of state, while the prime minister is the
head of government.
● Consensus democracy: A form of democracy in which decisions are made through
consensus rather than majority vote. This is often used in countries with diverse
populations or in situations where there is a need for compromise.
● Hybrid democracy: A form of democracy that combines elements of different types of
democratic regimes. This is often seen in countries that are transitioning from
authoritarianism to democracy.

1.4: Democratization

● Democratization: The process of transitioning a government from an authoritarian

regime to a democratic one.
● It involves the establishment of democratic institutions, such as free and fair elections,
an independent judiciary, and a free press.
● It is a complex and often difficult process that can take many years to achieve.

Characteristics of Democracy

● Popular Sovereignty: The ultimate power lies with the people who elect their
representatives to govern them.
● Free and Fair Elections: Elections are conducted in a free and fair manner, where
every citizen has the right to vote and contest elections.
● Rule of Law: The government is bound by the law and is accountable to the people. No
one is above the law, including the government.
● Protection of Individual Rights: Democracy ensures the protection of individual rights
and freedoms, such as freedom of speech, religion, and association.
● Separation of Powers: The government is divided into three branches - the legislature,
the executive, and the judiciary - to ensure a system of checks and balances.
● Independent Judiciary: The judiciary is independent of the other branches of
government and ensures that the law is upheld.
● Civilian Control of the Military: The military is subordinate to civilian authority and
does not interfere in the political process.
 ● Transparency and Accountability: The government is transparent in its actions and
accountable to the people for its decisions.
● Pluralism and Diversity: Democracy respects and values diversity and pluralism,
including diversity of opinions, beliefs, and cultures.
● Active Citizen Participation: Democracy encourages active citizen participation in the
political process, including the right to protest and petition the government.

Factors that contribute to democratization

● Economic development: Countries with higher levels of economic development are

more likely to democratize. This is because economic growth creates a middle class that
demands greater political representation and accountability.
● International pressure: International organizations and other countries can exert
pressure on authoritarian regimes to democratize. This can take the form of economic
sanctions, diplomatic isolation, or military intervention.
● Civil society: A strong civil society can help to promote democratization by advocating
for political reform and holding governments accountable.

Challenges to democratization

● Elite resistance: The ruling elite may resist democratization because it threatens their
power and privileges.
● Ethnic and religious divisions: Countries with deep ethnic or religious divisions may
struggle to establish a democratic system that is inclusive and representative of all
groups.
● Weak institutions: Democratization requires the establishment of strong democratic
institutions, such as an independent judiciary and a free press. However, in many
countries, these institutions are weak or non-existent.

Democracy: Advancements and Regression

● Advancements
○ Expansion of Suffrage: The right to vote has been extended to more people
over time. Initially, only white male property owners could vote, but now, women,
minorities, and non-property owners can also vote.
 ○ Protection of Civil Liberties: Democracies have made significant progress in
protecting civil liberties such as freedom of speech, press, and religion. These
liberties are essential for the functioning of a democratic society.
○ Transparency and Accountability: Democracies have become more
transparent and accountable. Governments are expected to be open about their
actions, and citizens have the right to access information. Additionally,
governments are held accountable through elections and other mechanisms.
● Regression
○ Erosion of Civil Liberties: In some countries, civil liberties have been eroded,
and the government has become more authoritarian. This can be seen in the
restriction of freedom of speech, press, and assembly.
○ Corruption: Corruption is a significant problem in some democracies. It
undermines the legitimacy of the government and reduces public trust in
democratic institutions.
○ Rise of Populism: Populism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests
of the common people over those of the elites. While populism can be a positive
force in democracy, it can also lead to the erosion of democratic institutions and
the concentration of power in the hands of a few.

Democratic Waves

● Democratic waves: Refer to the periods in history when there is a significant increase in
the number of countries that transition to democracy.
● These waves are characterized by a sudden and widespread shift towards democratic
governance, often following a period of authoritarian rule.
● Democratic waves are often triggered by a major event, such as the collapse of a
dictatorship or the end of a war.
● They are characterized by a rapid increase in the number of countries that transition to
democracy.
● Democratic waves tend to be regional in nature, with neighboring countries often
following the lead of one another.
● They are often accompanied by a rise in civil society activism and the emergence of new
political parties.

First Democratic Wave (1828-1926)

 ● The first wave of democratization occurred in the 19th century and early 20th century.
● It was characterized by the establishment of democratic regimes in Europe and North
America.
● The first wave ended with the rise of fascism and communism in the 1920s and 1930s.

Second Democratic Wave (1943-1962)

● The second wave of democratization occurred after World War II.

● It was characterized by the establishment of democratic regimes in Western Europe and
Japan.
● The second wave ended with the rise of military dictatorships in Latin America and
elsewhere.

Third Democratic Wave (1974-2006)

● The third wave of democratization occurred in the 1970s and 1980s.

● It was characterized by the establishment of democratic regimes in Southern Europe,
Latin America, and parts of Asia and Africa.
● The third wave ended with the rise of authoritarianism in Russia and other countries.

1.5: Sources of and Changes in Power and Authority

Brief History of Each Course Country

● United Kingdom
○ The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary
democracy.
○ Its political system has evolved over centuries, with the monarch's role becoming
largely ceremonial and the Prime Minister and Parliament holding most of the
power.
● Mexico
○ Mexico is a federal presidential representative democratic republic.
○ Its current political system was established in 1917 with the adoption of the
Mexican Constitution, which created a federal system of government with three
branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.
● Nigeria
 ○ Nigeria is a federal presidential representative democratic republic.
○ Its current political system was established in 1999 with the adoption of the
Nigerian Constitution, which created a federal system of government with three
branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.
● China
○ China is a one-party socialist state, with the Communist Party of China holding a
monopoly on political power.
○ The country's political system is based on a combination of Marxist-Leninist
ideology and traditional Chinese political culture.
● Iran
○ Iran is an Islamic republic with a theocratic political system.
○ The country's political system is based on the principles of Shia Islam, with
ultimate authority vested in the Supreme Leader, who is the highest-ranking
political and religious figure in the country.
● Russia
○ Russia is a federal semi-presidential republic. Its current political system was
established in 1993 with the adoption of the Russian Constitution, which created
a federal system of government with three branches: executive, legislative, and
judicial.
○ The President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of
government.

The Different Sources of Power

● Constitution
○ A set of fundamental principles and rules that govern a country or organization.
○ It serves as a source of power in politics by establishing the framework for the
distribution of power and the protection of individual rights.
○ For example, the United States Constitution outlines the separation of powers
between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, and
guarantees certain rights such as freedom of speech and religion.
● Religion
○ A system of beliefs and practices concerning the nature of the divine and the
purpose of human existence.
 ○ It serves as a source of power in politics by influencing the values and beliefs of
individuals and communities, and by providing a basis for moral and ethical
decision-making.
○ For example, the Catholic Church has historically wielded significant political
power in countries such as Italy and Spain, and religious groups have played a
role in shaping policies on issues such as abortion and same-sex marriage.
● Military Forces
○ Organized groups of armed individuals who are trained to defend a country or
organization.
○ They serve as a source of power in politics by providing a means of coercion and
defense, and by influencing foreign policy decisions.
○ For example, the United States military is one of the most powerful in the world,
and its actions have had significant political consequences in conflicts such as
the Vietnam War and the Iraq War.
● Legislature
○ A governing body responsible for making laws and policies.
○ It serves as a source of power in politics by representing the interests of different
groups within a society, and by providing a means of checks and balances on the
power of other branches of government.
○ For example, the British Parliament is composed of the House of Commons and
the House of Lords, and is responsible for passing laws and holding the
government accountable.
● Popular Support
○ The level of public approval or endorsement for a particular political leader, party,
or policy.
○ It serves as a source of power in politics by providing legitimacy and a mandate
for action, and by influencing the outcomes of elections and other political
processes.
○ For example, the election of Barack Obama as President of the United States in
2008 was largely due to his ability to mobilize popular support among young
people and minority groups.

Changes in Source of Power

● United Kingdom
 ○ Historically, the source of power in the UK has been the monarchy.
○ However, over time, power has shifted to the elected government, particularly the
Prime Minister and their cabinet.
○ The UK operates as a parliamentary democracy, with power ultimately resting
with the people through their elected representatives.
● Russia
○ In Russia, power has historically been concentrated in the hands of the ruling
elite, whether it be the Tsar, Communist Party, or current President Vladimir
Putin.
○ Putin has centralized power in the presidency, with the parliament and judiciary
largely subservient to his rule.
○ Critics argue that Putin's regime is authoritarian and undemocratic.
● China
○ In China, power is held by the Communist Party, with the General Secretary
serving as the most powerful figure.
○ The National People's Congress serves as the country's top legislative body, but
its power is largely symbolic.
○ Critics argue that China's one-party system is undemocratic and suppresses
dissent.
● Iran
○ In Iran, power is held by the Supreme Leader, who is appointed for life and
serves as the highest authority in the country.
○ The President and parliament also hold significant power, but ultimately defer to
the Supreme Leader.
○ Critics argue that Iran's system is undemocratic and suppresses dissent.
● Mexico
○ In Mexico, power is held by the President, who serves as both the head of state
and government.
○ The country operates as a federal republic, with power also held by the
legislature and judiciary.
○ Critics argue that corruption and violence have undermined Mexico's democratic
institutions.
● Nigeria
 ○ In Nigeria, power is held by the President, who serves as both the head of state
and government.
○ The country operates as a federal republic, with power also held by the
legislature and judiciary.
○ Critics argue that corruption and ethnic tensions have undermined Nigeria's
democratic institutions.

1.6: Federal and Unitary Systems

Federal System

● A federal system is a type of government where power is divided between a central

government and smaller regional governments.
● In a federal system, the central government has limited power and the regional
governments have more autonomy.
● Examples of countries with a federal system include the United States, Canada, and
Australia.

Benefits of a Federal System

● Promotes Local Autonomy: In a federal system, power is shared between the central
government and the states. This allows for local autonomy, which means that states can
make decisions that are best suited for their citizens.
● Encourages Diversity: A federal system allows for diversity in governance. States can
experiment with different policies and laws, which can lead to innovation and progress.
● Reduces the Risk of Tyranny: A federal system reduces the risk of tyranny by limiting
the power of the central government. The states act as a check on the power of the
central government, which prevents it from becoming too powerful.
● Increases Citizen Participation: A federal system encourages citizen participation in
government. Citizens can participate in both state and federal elections, which gives
them a greater voice in the political process.
● Provides for Efficient Governance: A federal system allows for efficient governance.
The central government can focus on issues that affect the entire country, while the
states can focus on issues that are specific to their region.

Unitary System
 ● A unitary system is a type of government where power is centralized in a single
national government.
● In a unitary system, the national government has complete control over all aspects of
government and can delegate power to regional governments as it sees fit.
● Examples of countries with a unitary system include France, Japan, and the United
Kingdom.

Benefits of a Unitary System

● Efficient governance: A unitary system allows for efficient governance as all decisions
are made by a single governing body. This eliminates the need for coordination between
different levels of government, which can often lead to delays and inefficiencies.
● Uniformity: A unitary system ensures uniformity in laws and policies across the country.
This is because the national government has the power to make and enforce laws that
are applicable to all regions.
● Flexibility: A unitary system allows for greater flexibility in responding to crises and
emergencies. The national government can quickly mobilize resources and take action
without having to wait for approval from lower levels of government.
● Cost-effective: A unitary system can be more cost-effective than a federal system as
there is no duplication of services or resources. This is because the national government
is responsible for providing all essential services.
● Greater accountability: A unitary system ensures greater accountability as the national
government is responsible for all decisions and actions. This makes it easier for citizens
to hold their government accountable for its actions.

Key Differences

● In a federal system, power is shared between the central and regional governments,
while in a unitary system, power is centralized in the national government.
● In a federal system, regional governments have more autonomy and can make decisions
on certain issues, while in a unitary system, regional governments have limited power
and can only make decisions delegated to them by the national government.
● Federal systems are often used in countries with diverse populations and regions, while
unitary systems are often used in countries with a more homogenous population.
1.7: Political Legitimacy

● Political legitimacy: The acceptance of the authority of a government or governing

body by the people it governs. It is the belief that the government has the right to rule
and that its actions are justified.
● Traditional legitimacy: Based on the belief that the government has the right to rule
because it has always done so. This is often associated with monarchies and other
hereditary systems.
● Charismatic legitimacy: Based on the personal qualities of a leader, such as their
charisma, vision, or ability to inspire. This is often associated with revolutionary or
populist movements.
● Rational-legal legitimacy: Based on the belief that the government has the right to rule
because it was established through a legal process, such as a constitution or election.
This is often associated with modern democracies.

1.8: Sustaining Legitimacy

● Good governance: It is the foundation of legitimacy. A government that is transparent,

accountable, and responsive to the needs of its citizens is more likely to be accepted as
legitimate. It involves the rule of law, respect for human rights, and the provision of basic
services such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure.
● Economic development: It is another critical factor in sustaining legitimacy. A
government that can provide jobs, reduce poverty, and improve the standard of living of
its citizens is more likely to be accepted as legitimate. Economic development requires
investment in infrastructure, education, and healthcare, as well as the creation of an
enabling environment for businesses to thrive.
● Political participation: This is essential for sustaining legitimacy. A government that
allows citizens to participate in decision-making, holds free and fair elections, and
respects the rights of opposition parties is more likely to be accepted as legitimate.
Political participation also involves the protection of civil society organizations and the
media.
● Communication: This is crucial for sustaining legitimacy. A government that
communicates its policies and decisions clearly and honestly to its citizens is more likely
 to be accepted as legitimate. Communication involves engaging with citizens through
various channels, including social media, town hall meetings, and public consultations.
● Accountability: Finally, accountability is essential for sustaining legitimacy. A
government that is accountable to its citizens for its actions and decisions is more likely
to be accepted as legitimate. Accountability involves the establishment of independent
institutions such as the judiciary, the auditor general's office, and the ombudsman to hold
the government accountable.

Losing Legitimacy

● Legitimacy is the belief of the people that the government has the right to rule. When a
government loses legitimacy, it means that the people no longer believe that it has the
right to govern.
● This can happen for various reasons, including:
○ Corruption: When the government officials are involved in corrupt practices,
such as embezzlement, bribery, or nepotism, it can erode the trust of the people
in the government.
○ Incompetence: When the government fails to deliver basic services, such as
healthcare, education, or infrastructure, it can lead to frustration and anger
among the people.
○ Violations of human rights: When the government violates the basic human
rights of its citizens, such as freedom of speech, assembly, or religion, it can lead
to protests and civil unrest.
○ Election fraud: When the government manipulates the election process, such as
rigging the votes or suppressing the opposition, it can undermine the legitimacy
of the government.
● The consequences of losing legitimacy can be severe. It can lead to protests, strikes,
and even violent uprisings. It can also lead to a loss of international support and aid,
which can further weaken the government's ability to govern.

1.9: Political Stability

● Political stability: The ability of a government to maintain its power and control over a
country without facing any significant internal or external threats. It is an essential factor
for the economic and social development of a nation.
Importance of Political Stability

● Political stability is crucial for a country's economic growth and development. It creates a
favorable environment for businesses to invest and operate, which leads to job creation
and increased economic activity. It also helps to maintain social order and security,
which is essential for the well-being of citizens.

Factors Affecting Political Stability

● Economic Factors
○ High unemployment rates
○ Inflation
○ Income inequality
○ Poverty
○ Corruption
● Social Factors
○ Ethnic and religious tensions
○ Political polarization
○ Social inequality
○ Lack of access to education and healthcare
● Environmental Factors
○ Natural disasters
○ Climate change
○ Environmental degradation

Role of Government

● The government must ensure that it provides basic services to its citizens, such as
education, healthcare, and security.
● It must also create an environment that promotes economic growth and development,
which can reduce poverty and unemployment rates.
● The government must be transparent and accountable to its citizens, and it must
address corruption and other forms of malfeasance.

International Relations

● International relations can also affect political stability.

 ● Countries that have strong diplomatic ties and trade relationships with other nations are
more likely to be politically stable.
● Conversely, countries that are isolated or have strained relationships with other nations
may experience political instability.
● International conflicts and wars can spill over into neighboring countries, causing political
instability and unrest.

Unit 2: Political Institutions

2.1: Comparing Parliamentary, Presidential, and
Semi-Presidential Systems
Parliamentary System

● Executive power is vested in the parliament or a prime minister who is accountable to

the parliament.
● The parliament is the supreme law-making body and the executive is responsible to it.
● The head of state is usually a ceremonial figurehead with limited powers.
● The government can be removed by a vote of no confidence in the parliament.
● Examples: United Kingdom, India, Japan.

Presidential System

● Executive power is vested in a president who is directly elected by the people.

● The president is both the head of state and head of government.
● The president has significant powers and is not accountable to the legislature.
● The legislature is a separate and co-equal branch of government.
● The president can only be removed through impeachment.
● Examples: United States, Brazil, Mexico.

Semi-Presidential System

● Executive power is divided between a president and a prime minister who share power.
● The president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government.