GENERAL PHYSICS

PHYSICS: Is the study of how matter behaves - from very large objects like stars and
planets, to very small atoms and molecules. Physics is also about different kinds of
energy such as heat, light and electricity, and how energy behaves.

LENGTH, MASS AND TIME

There are three basic physical quantities of measure - length, time, and mass. This
means that all the other measures were derived from one or a combination of these
basic measures. Length has given rise to: perimeter, area and volume. Time has given
rise to period etc. Mass is the basis for weight. A combination of these gives: speed,
velocity, acceleration, force, density etc

The basic measures are given units which are an internationally agreed unit of measure.
The scientifically agreed system is called SI units (Systeme Internationale).

measurement SI unit Other units and multiples

1cm = 0.01 m

Length metre (m) 1mm = 0.001 m

1km = 1000 m

1 minute (min) = 60 s

Time seconds(s) 1 hour (hr) = 3600 s

1day = 86400 s

1g = 0.001 kg

Mass kilogram 1000 g = 1 kg

(kg)
1 tonne (t) = 1000 kg

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Common prefixes used for larger or smaller quantities include the following;

prefix symbol number Standard notation Examples

μ 1 microseconds(μs)
1000000 −6
micro 10 microgram(μg)

m 1 milliliters (ml)
1000 −3
milli 10 millimeters (mm)

c 1 centimeters (cm)
100 −2
centi 10 centiseconds (cs)

k kilometer(km)

kilo 1000 10
3
kilogram(kg)

kilojoules (kJ)

M megawatts (MW)

mega 1000000 10
6
megahertz(MHz)

LENGTH

The international unit of length is metre (m).

Instruments used for measuring length

Metre rule - A meter rule is divided into centimetres (cm), and millimetres (mm). This
instrument can be used for measuring distances with less accuracy. When we need to
measure the length with greater accuracy we use instruments like vernier callipers or
micrometer screw gauge.
2
 Ruler: A ruler can measure up
to the nearest 1mm; it is
accurate to the nearest mm.
While using a ruler or any other measuring instrument make sure that your eye is kept
vertically above the mark you are reading. This is to avoid parallax error.

Vernier callipers:

it is used in the laboratory to measure small lengths and can measure length correct to
0.1mm or 0.0lcm, which is also called the accuracy of the instrument (smallest possible
reading given by the instrument)

This instrument is used for measuring lengths of smaller objects and also the internal
(using inner jaws) and external diameters (using outer jaws) of cylinders.

The value of one division on the

main scale is 1 mm. The value of
one division on the sliding scale is
0.1mm.

This means that the instrument can

measure lengths correct to 0.1 .mm
or 0.01cm

How to take reading with a Vernier calliper

The main scale is read up to the zero

mark of the vernier scale to the nearest
millimeter. The main scale reading is
6.30 cm.

The vernier reading is taken by locating

a vernier division that is exactly aligned
th
with a main scale division. The 7 vernier scale division coincides with a main scale
3
division. The vernier scale reading is 7. Multiply the vernier scale reading by 0.01 cm the
smallest length measured by the vernier scale and add this product
(0.001cm×7=0.07cm) to the main scale reading of 6.30cm. Thus the total reading is 6.37
cm.

Micro-metre screw gauge:

used to measure thickness of an object, it measures lengths correct to 0.01 mm.

Linear scale or pitch scale is marked in 0.5mm

Head scale (circular) has 50 divisions on it.

When the gap is closed the zero mark on the circular scale stands over the linear scale
and the ‘0’ mm mark is just visible.

When the circular scale is given one full rotation the distance moved on the linear scale
is 0.5mm.

Least count = 0.5/no of divisions on circular scale. = 0.5mm/50=0.01mm.

To find the thickness of an object it is griped in the gap. When the gap is closed one can
hear the clicking sound on turning the ratchet.

Use only the ratchet to tighten. Do not use the thimble to tighten; this will permanently
damage the Instrument.

How to read the micrometer screw gauge

 Note down the last visible reading

of the linear scale as your linear
scale reading
 Note down the division on the
circular scale that coincides with
centre line
 Multiply this with 0.01mm to get the circular scale reading
 Add the two values of linear scale and circular scale to get the final reading e.g.
The reading on the linear scale is 7.5 mm. The reading of the circular scale is 14; the
total reading is 7.5 mm +14 x 0.01mm= 7.64mm

ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH MEASUREMENT

An error is a value of measured quantity which affects the correct value of the quantity
being measured. The error may over estimate or under estimate the correct value. It is
advisable as a good practice to always repeat measurements several times in
experiments and then finding the average value to reduce possible random errors.
Example; when using a pair of vernier calipers to measure the thickness of a wire repeat

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the procedure twice or thrice and use the two or three values to find the average
thickness.

EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS

1. Error due to the instrument used (instrumental error) that is the instrument may be
having an error on its calibration, therefore the scale used becomes incorrect. An error
due to improperly marked instrument is called systematic error. This error can also be
caused by the environment

2. Random error- this error which arises from observer’s estimate because the
instrument will not be having any calibrations from certain section of the scale.
Averaging would reduce/minimize this error.

3. Parallax error-it is an error that accumulates

as the observer fails to position his/her point of
focus on the instrument being used correctly.
For example, the measurement of length using
the rule note this, when taking a reading from a
rule the eye has to be positioned at right angle
to the place of the rule as shown below.

4. Zero error-this error which exists in an instrument from manufacturer.

The instrument will be giving a reading of a certain value before any object has been
placed/ button pressed to take a reading, which is not at a zero mark before the
measurement of an object. Negative zero error exists when the instrument gives a
reading before the zero mark. Positive zero error is when the instrument gives a reading
after or beyond the zero mark. The positive zero error is always subtracted from the
reading given by the instrument, while the negative zero error is added to the reading.

Illustraton: Positive Zero error

The scales of the micrometer screw

gauge shown has a positive zero error
of +0.83mm. The size of the object
measured = 4.43 mm – (+o.83 mm)

=4..43 mm – 0.83 mm

5
=3.60mm

5. Human reaction time error-this is the error that arises if the reading is taken earlier
or after an event has taken place. This error is caused by inconsistency in the reaction
time of a person, ie a person may react too soon or later than the actual event being
observed/monitored has occurred. Examples of experiments which involve human
reaction error include using the stopwatch while observing another event. This error is
treated by taking several readings and then finding the average value.

TIME

Time is measured using events which repeat themselves at fixed Intervals. Such events
are said to be periodic.

e.g.

Earth spinning about its axis

Earth revolving about the sun

Water dripping through a pinhole at the bottom of a vessel.

Units

Sl unit is the second (s)

Other units

1 year-time the earth takes to revolve round the sun

1 day time the earth takes to complete one rotation about its axis. = 24 hours

1 hour = 60 mins

1 min = 60 secs

In the lab time is measured using a stop watch

which has an accuracy of 0.01s. Below is a
face a stop watch

Examples1

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When a stop watch reads as shown on the right, the time shown in seconds is;

23sec+ 0.34sec = 23.34sec

Example2

Time shown in seconds is;

(5 x 60sec) + 45se + 0.23sec =345.23sec

7
 Determination of Period of a simple pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a small bob attached to one end of a string and
suspended from a rigid support. The distance between the point of suspension and the
centre of the bob is the length of the pendulum. When the pendulum bob is at rest the
string is vertical. If the bob is pulled through a small distance and then released, it will
move to and fro for a while before coming to rest. One complete to and fro motion is
one oscillation. The diagrams below show one complete oscillation.

The time taken to complete one

oscillation is called the period [T]. The period of a simple pendulum depends on the
length of the string and the gravitational field strength. Usually these periods are very
small. Therefore to determine period it is helpful to measure the time taken to complete
a few oscillations and this time is divided by the number of oscillations to calculate the
period.

time taken for number of oscillations (t N )

Period(T )=
Number of oscillations( N ).

DETERMINATON OF PERIOD OF PENDULUM

Procedure:

a) Set up the experimental apparatus as shown above left.

b) Measure the length of the pendulum using a ruler to 50 cm.
c) Displace the bob through a small angle  and release it to set the bob in motion.

8
 d) Using a stop-watch record twice the time it takes the bob to make 5 or 10
oscillations t5 or t10 in seconds.
e) Calculate period T of the pendulum for each attempt and find the average period
Tav.
f) Record all of your results in a suitable table. Include table headers with
appropriate units.

Attempt Time for 10 oscillations/s Period T/s

Average period (Tav)

TITLE: EFFECT OF LENGTH ON PERIOD OF PENDULUM

The effect of length on the period of a simple pendulum can be investigated by

setting a simple pendulum and then vary its length while recording the corresponding
period.

AIM: To investigate how a change in length of string affects the period of a simple
pendulum.

HYPOTHESES:

 Increase in length increase the period

 Decrease of length decreases the period
Variable control: length of pendulum is changed

mass of bob is kept constant

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 angle of displacement  of bob is also kept constant

Procedure:

g) Set up the experimental apparatus as shown above.

h) Measure the length of the pendulum using a ruler to 30 cm.
i) Displace the bob through a small angle  as shown above and release it to set it
in motion.
j) Using a stop-watch record twice the time it takes the bob to make 10 oscillation
t10 in seconds.
k) Increase the length of the pendulum at intervals of 10 cm and repeat steps b) to
d) above until reaching length equal to 100 cm.
l) Calculate period T1 and T2 of the pendulum for each length l and find the average
T.
m) Record all of your results in a suitable table. Include table headers with
appropriate units.
n) Draw a suitable conclusion from your results about the effect of changing length
l on period T.

Length /cm Time for

10 oscillations Period (T1 & T2)/s Average period T /s

100.0

90.0

80.0

10
…….

Discussion:

The results show that period of the pendulum is affected by the length of the string.
When the length of the string is increased it takes a longer time for an oscillation to
be completed but a shorter pendulum takes less time to complete an oscillation. The
time for 10 oscillations was recorded twice to minimize human reaction error by
finding the average period for each length. It must be noted that period does not
depend on the mass of the bob.

Conclusions:

An increase in length increases the period whereas a decrease in length decreases the
period.

Period also depends on acceleration due to gravity g.

Note: Experiments have shown that Period does not depend on the mass of the bob.

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Area

Area is a measure of the surface. It tells you how big or small a surface is. SI unit is
square meter (m2) i.e. the area of a square of side 1m. You can think of a desk top 1m
long and 1 m wide. The area of such a surface is 1 square meter.

We do use other units also to measure area. For instance we use square kilometer (km 2)
to express the area of a country.

1Km2 = 1000000 m2

Do you know what the area of Botswana is?

For measuring smaller areas we use square centimeter (cm2) and square millimeter
(mm2)

1cm2 is the area of a square of side 1 cm.

1mm2 is the area of a square of side 1mm

1m2=100x100 =10 000cm2

1km2 = 1000km x 1000km= 1000000m2= 106 m2

1cm2 = 10mmx10 mm = 1002mm

Volume

Volume is space occupied by an object.

SI unit is cubic metre m3.

Cubic metre is the space occupied by a block of length 1 m height I m and breadth lm.

i.e. 1m3 =1m x 1m x 1m

A cubic metre is quite a large volume. So other units may be used for smaller volumes.

Other units

Cubic centimetre (cm3) is the space occupied by a block of length 1cm height 1cm and
breadth 1cm. How many such blocks will fit into a box of length 1 m width 1 m and
height 1m?

1m3 = 100cm x 100cm x100cm =106 cm3

1cm3 = 10mm x10mm x 10mm = 103cm3

To measure the volume of a liquid we often use litres.

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itres (1l) = 1000cm3 or 1L = l000ml

Volume of liquids

In the laboratory the volume of liquids is

measured using a measuring cylinder. They are
available in different ranges and are calibrated
in cm3.

Volume of irregular objects (such as stone)

Use measuring cylinders and/ or

displacement can. Fill a measuring cylinder
with water to any specific mark you like.
Read the volume. Then tie the stone to one
end of a string and gently lower it into the
measuring jar until it is completely
submerged. Take the new reading of the
water level. The difference between the two
readings is the volume of the stone

In the above diagram the original water

level is at the 50 cm3 mark. When the solid is
submerged the level of water rises to the 73
cm3 mark. What is the volume of the solid?

If the solid object is large and cannot be introduced into the measuring cylinder, use a
displacement can to determine the volume,

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Place the can on a flat
surface and fill it completely
with water until you see a
few drops of excess water
flows out through the spout.
NB Do not shake the table.
Wait until all the excess
water has come out. Then
keep a measuring cylinder
below the spout and gently lower the object into the can until it is completely below the
water. Collect all the displaced water in the measuring cylinder. The volume of the liquid
collected is equal to the volume of the object.

MASS

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

SI unit is kilogram (kg)

Other units

Milligrams (mg)

Gram (g)

Tonne=1000Kg

Measuring instrument for mass

o Triple beam balance (correct to 0.1g)

o Electronic balance
o Bathroom scale etc

DENSITY ()

Density is a measure of mass per unit volume OF A SUBSTANCE. Density is constant

since it is a propriety of a substance.

mass(m)
density ( ρ)=
volume (V )

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 m
ρ=
V mass in kilograms, volume in m3 therefore

SI unit is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)

Other units

g/cm3

The density of water is 1 g/cm3

Note that 1 g/cm3 is not equal to 1kg/m3

In fact 1g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

15
 MOTION

DEFINATION OF TERMS

Distance- is the change of position of a body (length traveled by a body between certain
points).Distance is a scalar because it has no direction.

Displacement-is defined as the distance moved in a stated direction. Displacement is a

vector quantity since it has direction. Determine the following for a person traveling from
Kopong to Molepolole passing through
Metsimotlhabe.

Example 1.

a) Total distance traveled.

b) Displacement.

Example2. An athlete competes in 400m flat race and takes 44

seconds. Each of the section SP, PQ, QR and RS is 100 m in
length. S/F represents start and finish respectively.

Determine the following;

a) Total distance traveled on completing the race is 400m.

b) Displacement of athlete on completing the race is 0m since the athlete has returned
to the original position.

c) The athlete has a greater displacement when at position Q than at P and R.

Speed (v)-is defined as the rate of change of distance moved. Speed is a scalar quantity.

The SI unit for speed is meter per second (m/s)

16
The speed of an object is given by the equation.

distance traveled (s)

Average speed(ν )=
time taken (t )

There is a reason why average is used. Imagine a journey in a car from Gaborone to
Molepolole, a total distance of 50km. if a journey took 2hrs then the speed would be

distance(s ) 5 okm km
speed(v )= = =25
time(t ) 2h h

The speed of the car was 25km/h.

But this does not mean that the speedometer will constantly be reading 25km/, the car may
slow down for goats on the road, it may speed up on an open and clear road or it may stop
at Mmanoko. So this equation gives us the average speed for the whole journey, not the
speed at any specific point.

Velocity (v or u) -is defined as the rate of change of distance moved in a specified direction
(or, the rate of change of displacement). Velocity is a vector quantity, it has both size and
direction.

The SI unit for velocity is meter per second (m/s)

If a body travels with a constant speed in a straight line then it has constant velocity. But if
its direction changes then its velocity also changes. If a man walking his dog in the park
walks around a tree then his velocity has changed even if his speed remains constant.

The equation for velocity is very similar to that for speed and is shown below

distance moved in stated direction ( s )

Velocity (ν )=
time taken (t )

When stating velocity you should also give direction.

Acceleration ( a )-is defined as the rate of change of velocity. Acceleration is a vector.

The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second per second or metre per second squared
(m/s2 or ms-2)

But, acceleration can be found by using the equation

17
 change in velocity
Acceleration=
time taken for the change

final velocity ( v ) initial velocity (u)

Acceleration(a )=
time taken for change (t )

v−u
a=
t

Example1

An air Botswana aero plane accelerates from rest to a velocity of 100m/s just before take
off. If it is on the runway for 12s, find its acceleration

Stage 1: write all the given quantities and the related unknown quantities

initial velocity (u) = 0m/s

final velocity ( v ) = 100m/s

time (t ) = 12s

acceleration ( a ) =?

Stage 2:write appropriate equation

final velocity ( v ) initial velocity (u)

Acceleration(a )=
time taken for change (t )

v−u
a=
t

Stage 3: Substitute the quantities and evaluate

100−0 100
a= = =8 . 33333 .. .. . .
12 12

=8.33 m/s2

Stage 4: Write the answer with SI unit(s)

18
 The acceleration of the car is 8.33 m/s2 (correct to 3 sig. fig.)

Example 2

A car is traveling at a constant velocity of 80km/h, when suddenly a cow wanders into the
road. The driver steps on the brakes paddle an d reduces her speed to 20km/h. If it took 5s
to reduce her speed, find her deceleration in m/s2.

1. initial velocity (u) = 80km/h

final velocity (v) = 20km/m

[realize that there is need to change the hours into seconds and the kilometers into meters]

Therefore

u = 80x100/3600 = 22.22m/s

v = 20x1000/3600 = 5.57m/s

t = 5s

v−u
a=
t

5. 57−22. 22
a=
5

a= - 3.33m/s2

The minus sign tells us the car is slowing down or it is decelerating.Thus the deceleration is
3.33m/s2

VELOCITY TIME-GRAPH

Velocity time-graphs give us information about the velocity of an object over a specified
time. Such graphs can tell how fast a car was moving, its acceleration, and its deceleration
when it stopped and the distance traveled.

The graph shows part of a journey from Selibe Phikwe junction to Mmadinare Senior taken
by car driven by Tumisang.

19
First he uniformly accelerated to his maximum velocity. He then traveled at this maximum
velocity until he had to slow down uniformly to avoid some stray goats in the road. He again
accelerated non-uniformly to a higher maximum velocity and stayed at this speed until he
had to stop at a police road block near Suping junction.

Summary of motion sections

OA – car is accelerating uniformly to maximum velocity

AB - car is traveling at a constant velocity

BC - car decelerate uniformly to avoid the stray goats

CD - car accelerating uniformly to a higher maximum velocity

DE – car is traveling at constant velocity

EF – car decelerates uniformly to a stop at a police road block.

GRADIENT of Velocity/Speed- time graph = ACCELERATION

Gradient = change in y values / change in X values

= change in velocity/change in time

But change in velocity/time = acceleration

Therefore the gradient of the velocity/speed- time graph

gives acceleration of an object.

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 A steep gradient or slope gives a large acceleration and a shallow gradient gives a small
acceleration.

Line R represents the motion of an object moving with the greatest acceleration whilst P is
for an object with the least acceleration

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS FOR UNIFROM AND NON UNIFROM MOTION

AREA UNDER Velocity/Speed – time Graph = DISTANCE Traveled.

The area under the graph gives you the distance traveled by the moving body. It is very
convenient to split your graph into triangles, squares and rectangles as it is easier to find the
area of this shapes

The example below gives the distance traveled in the 5s.

21
 Distance =Area of triangle =

1 base×height 5 s×50 m/ s
= =125 m
2 2

*always make sure that your units are constant. If

velocity is in m/s then time should be in seconds. If
velocity is in km/h then time should be in hour.

DISTANCE –TIME GRAPH

Another type of graph that you should be aware of is the distance-time graph. This shows
the distance moved by an object with time.

22
 GRADIENT of distance-time graph = SPEED

Gradient = y/x = distance /time = (y2 –y1) /( x2 – x1 )

= (50 – 0) m / (5 -0)s

= 50m/5s

=10m/s

The unit of this gradient is the same as unit of speed. Hence

The gradient of a distance-time graph gives the speed of a body

EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

There are five fundamental quantities you can know about the motion
of a body. These are:

s – displacement (m)

u – initial velocity (m/s)

v – final velocity (m/s)

a – acceleration (m/s2)

t – time (s). Given values of 3 of the following quantities displacement

(s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a) and time (t) one can calculate the
other two using the above equations.

NB: the equations apply only to uniform accelerating motion and the quantities should
always be in SI units.

Example1

A motorcycle accelerates form rest to 5m/s in 5s.

(a) What is its final velocity?

Solution

u = 0m/s, v = 5m/s, t = 2s, a =?

v−u
a=
t
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 5 m/s−0 m/ s 5 m/s
= =
2s 2s

=2 . 5 m/s 2

The acceleration of the motorcycle is 2.5 m/s2.

Example 2

A body starts from rest and moves with a uniform acceleration of 2m/s2 in a straight line.

(a) What is the velocity after 5s?

(b) How far has it traveled in this time?

Solution

a) u = 0m/s, v =?, t = 5s, a =2m/s2

v=u+at
== 0 m/ s+(2 m/ s2 ×5 s)
¿ 10 m/s
The velocity after 5s is 10m/s.

b) u = 0m/s, v =10m/s, t = 5s, a =2m/s2

1 2
s=ut+ at
2
1
==(0×5)+( ×2×5×5 )
2
¿ 0+25=25

It travels 25m in 5s.

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY g

If an object is dropped from a great height its velocity increases. This increase in velocity is
acceleration. So what is it that makes a falling body accelerate?

Think about what happens when the accelerator pedal of a vehicle is pressed, the velocity
increase. This is because the engine is providing a force which increases the velocity. The
same is true for a falling body. There must be a force which increases the velocity. This force
is called the force of gravity.

The force due to gravity is roughly the same at all points on the earth ( g = 10N/kg). But it
does varying a small way. This is because the earth is not a true sphere, it is flattened near
the poles. The acceleration due to gravity does vary around the world. At the equator it is
slightly less than at the poles.
24
NB: force of gravity makes things accelerate and whenever an object accelerates there is a
change in velocity.

The force of gravity makes things accelerate at the same rate. Just as the engine of a car
accelerates (change in velocity), the force of gravity makes a falling body accelerate
downwards. This acceleration is constant near the Earth’s surface and it is 9.8 ms-2 usually
rounded to 10ms-2 for easy calculations. All objects near the Earth accelerate at this
constant rate when the effect of air resistance (friction) is ignored. This is an ideal situation
called FREE FALL.

The equations of motion can be adjusted to solve motion problems under free fall as
shown below. A falling object accelerates thus a = g while a rising object decelerates hence
a = -g.

Equation Falling object Rising object

v = u+at v = u+gt v = u -gt

s = 1/2(v+u)t s = 1/2(v+u)t s = 1/2(v+u)t

s = ut + 1/2at2 s = ut + 1/2gt2 s = ut - 1/2gt2

v2 = u2 + 2as v2 = u2 + 2gs v2 = u2 – 2gs

25
Example: A stone is projected vertically upwards with a velocity of 40 ms -1. Ignoring air
resistance and taking g= 10ms-2, determine;

a) the maximum height

reached.
Sol: at maximum height
object stops moving up; v=
0ms-1, but u= 40ms-1, g=
10ms-2, t=?, s =? ;

v2 = u2 – 2gs

s= (v2 - u2)/ (-2g)

= (02-402)/ (-2*10)

= -1600/-20

= 80m

Ans: the maximum height

reached = 80m

b) the time taken to reach maximum Sol: v=?, but u= 40ms-1, g= 10ms-2,
height t=8s;
sol: v= 0ms-1, but u= 40ms-1, g=
10ms-2, t=?, v = u –gt

= 40 – 10*8

v = u –gt = 40-80

t= (v-u)/-g = -40ms-1

= (0-40)/-10 The minus sign implies that the ball was

now moving in the opposite direction.
= -40/-10
Ans; velocity after 8 seconds is 40 ms-1
=4s downwards. (remember to state direction
Ans: it takes 4s to reach maximum height. of velocity)

c) velocity after 8 seconds. Note the symmetry of the motion as

shown above.

26
 Terminal Velocity

When a parachutist jumps out of airplane the force of gravity pulls him toward the earth.
His initial velocity is zero, but he soon speeds up. He starts to accelerate due to gravity.

A force is required to make a body accelerate (this an example of Newton’s first law)

The only force acting on the parachutist when he first just from plane is the gravity, or the
weight.

This force makes him accelerate up to a terminal velocity of about 60m/s (216km/h). At this
point he really needs the help of his parachute.

As he accelerates the force due to air resistance starts to increase. But if

Weight > air resistance

Then there is a resultant force and he accelerates downwards. But after some time air
resistance increases and

Weight = air resistance

There is no resultant force (again see Newton first law) and he stops accelerating. He
moves with a constant velocity

This is fastest velocity which the parachutist can move at, so we call this terminal velocity.

But remember that this velocity is about 60m/s! He still has to slow down. The way in which
he decelerates is to open his parachute.

Weight < air resistance

There is now a resultant force upwards so parachutist slows down or decelerates

Eventually the two forces are again equal to each other and he reaches a new terminal
velocity of about 10m/s. This the speed at which he will land and hopefully averting a fatal
accident.

Air resistance is a form of friction, it is an upward force which opposes the downward force
thus slowing down the rate at which the parachutist accelerates.

Remember: if there is no resultant force then a body cannot

accelerate. It must therefore move with a constant velocity,
in this case we call it the terminal velocity or steady speed.

27
Illustration: Terminal velocity.

Note: Bodies falling through a liquid also experience resistive force due to viscosity (viscous
forces) of the liquid.

Therefore all bodies falling trough a fluid experience terminal or steady velocity after
sometime.

A racing car tested on a straight level track starts from rest and accelerates at a constant
rate to reach a velocity of 50 m/s in 2 seconds.

28
 CIRCULAR MOTION

CENTRIPETAL FORCE

When you whirl a ball around in a horizontal circle at a steady speed, an inward force is
needed to make the ball to follow a circular path. The tension on the string provides this
force, without it the ball would travel in a straight line. The inward force needed to make an
object to move in a circular path is called centripetal force

Illustration A ball being whirled around

The magnitude of the centripetal force is dependent on the

following

 mass of the ball

 Speed of the object
 The radius of the circle

Centripetal force is given by the equation

mv 2
F=
r
where m is mass of the object in kilogram, v is the velocity in metre per second and r is the
radius of curvature of the circular path in metre.

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

The velocity of the ball in circular motion is always

changing because the direction of motion is always
changing, therefore the ball is accelerating. The
direction of the velocity component is always tangential
to the centre of the circle at every point. The ball
accelerates towards the centre of the circle. But the ball
never gets closer to the centre of the circle, this is
because the object is constantly moving inwards from
the position it would have had if it travelled in a straight
line.

29
The arrows show the direction of the vectors acting on the ball.

30
 MASS, WEIGHT, CENTRE OF GRAVITY and STABILITY

MASS

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram. Mass is a scalar quantity since it described by
magnitude and unit only but no direction.

INERTIA is the reluctance of a body to change its state of motion. An object at rest offers
some resistance to set in motion while a moving object also tends to oppose any change
that attends to stop it. Evidently it is more difficult to set in motion an object with more
mass object than a less massive object. The same is true to stop a massive body than a
less massive body both travelling at the same velocity. As a result inertia is said to be
directly proportional to mass i.e. the more mass the more inertia and vice versa.

WEIGHT

Weight is the amount of gravitational pull acting on an

object. The SI unit of weight is the newton (N) because it
is a force.

Weight is a result of the force of gravity hence it is a

vector. The instrument for measuring weight is a
forcemeter and a common type is the spring balance.

Weight and mass are different though in daily life

conservation people often erroneously refer to one
quantity in place of the other.

The weight of the object on the diagram shown left =

…………… [2]

Differences between mass and weight

1)mass does not depend on gravity i.e. weight is place dependent since it is affected by g
since force of gravity varies with place. (this explains why an object thrown up[with same
initial energy] rises to a greater height at the moon than on earth )

2) mass is a scalar whereas weight is a vector.

RELATIONSHIP between Mass and Weight (W = mg)

31
The weight of an object depends on gravitational pull and mass through the equation
shown below;

weight ( w)=mass(m )×gravitational field strength(g )

w=mg
Where w is weight in newtons (N), m is mass in kilograms (kg) and g is force of gravity
acting on unit mass (g = 10N/kg)

The following quantities may be useful when answering the questions below. (

g moon =
1. 6 N
kg , g Earth =
10 N
kg , g Mars =
4N
kg )

a) Find the mass of an object at the moon whose weight is 160N

[2]

b) What would be the mass of the same object measured on earth?

[1]

c) Find the weight of the same object o earth.

[2]

d) Explain giving details whether an object would weigh less at the Mars or on
Earth. [2]
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

32
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY/MASS

Centre of gravity/mass is a region in an object where the weight/mass seems to be

concentrated.

Or

Centre of gravity is a position through which the Earth’s gravitational pull acts.

Centre of gravity for an REGULAR Object of UNIFROM Mass Distribution

The centre of gravity or mass of a regular object of uniform mass distribution lies exactly
at its centre. This centre of the object(centre of gravity) can be located by two methods
t namely;

i) Balancing : The object is pivoted on a sharp edge until it balances. This shows that
the moment of the weight about the pivot is zero ie no turning effect since the
weight acts directly at the pivot.

ii) Symmetry: the intersection of two lines of symmetre is the centre of the object
and this is the position of centre of gravity (cog). Perpendicular and or angular
bisector can be used to locate the centre of a regular object.

Centre of gravity for an IRREGULAR lamina- plumbline method

The centre of gravity for an irregular lamina can be determined by the PLUMBLINE
method as illustrated below.

Procedure:

1. set up the experiment as

shown on the right.

2. hang the lamina using pin

inserted through one of the
pin hole 1. (the lamina
should be able to swing
freely)

33
3. Attach a string supporting a small mass from the other end.

4. Let lamina come to rest with the string resting vertically downwards. (the centre of
gravity lies along the vertical line represented by the string i.e. along the c.o.g off the
bob)

5. Mark by pencil point P directly under the string on the lower side of the lamina.

6. Join the centre of the pin hole to point P by a straight line.

7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 from another pin hole.

8. The centre of gravity of the lamina is the intersection of the lines drawn from the pin
holes to their corresponding marks.

STABILITY

Stability is the ability of a body to maintain its balanced position. The object should
always go back to its original position when tilted to considerable angle without
toppling.

The centre of gravity of an object in equilibrium always falls within the plane of its
support or base. When the centre gravity falls outside the base area the object topples
or falls over. The restoring moment about the edges of object providing the pivot should
always be enough to turn back the object to its balanced position.

Factors Affecting stability

It can be demonstrated that stability of an object is affected by two factors namely;

a)Position of centre of gravity: An

object with a higher centre of gravity
is always less stable than one with a
lower c.o.g but having the same base
area. An explanation can be made in
terms of the restoring moments provided by the weight of the objects taken by the
edges which acts as the pivot. (this is left to the learner to verify). Racing cars are made
much lower than ordinary vehicles to make then more stable.

34
 Bare area: The amount of base
supporting an object is vital in
improving its stability. Large
based objects are more stable
than those with small base but having the same position of c.o.g.

Summary: the stability of an object can be improved by lowering its position of c.o.g
and making its base support large.

Forms of Equilibrium

There are three equilibrium

positions for a objects as shown in
the diagram.

a) Stable equilibrium is where an

object can go back to its original
stable position when tilted slightly
and then released.

b) Un-stable equilibrium is when an object topples when tilted slightly.

c) Neutral equilibrium is where the position of centre of gravity always falls within the
same position along the plane of support of the object.

B1. The diagram below shows the same object of uniform mass distribution in
different orientations.

(i) In which orientations A or B is the object

least stable? Explain!

………………………………….…………

…………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………...…... [3]

35
 (ii) Mark the approximate position of the centre of gravity in orientation B.

[2]

B2. A coin is placed on a card on top of a beaker. If the card is pulled away quickly, the
coin does not move sideways but falls into the beaker.

Which property of the coin makes this possible?

A. density

B. volume

C. inertia

D. thickness.

B3.

(a) A small pin is fixed to the edge of a bench. A

triangular piece of card with a small hole in each corner
is hung on the pin from corner A and allowed to settle,
as shown in Fig. below left. A plumb-line is then hung
from the pin and the vertical line AP is marked on the
card.

This procedure is then repeated with the card hanging

from C and the vertical line CQ is
marked. After this, the card is as shown in Fig. below right.

(i) draw the vertical line that would be obtained if the card were hung
from B,

(ii) Clearly mark the centre of mass of the card using a dot labelled G.
[2]

36
 B4. Fig. below shows two wooden blocks standing on a hinged board with a rough
surface.

The board is slowly tilted in the direction of the arrow. The blocks do not slip. State
which block falls over first, and explain why.

……………................................................................................................................................

........................

…………...................................................................................................................................

.................... [2]

37
 Forces

Introduction
It is not clear what a force exactly is, but a push a pull and a twist are examples. Only Sir
Isaac Newton had a clear notion of exactly what a force is, hence, the SI unit of force is
Newton (N), in his honour.

Effects of forces
Although are not clear what a force is, we know what a force can do. When a force is
applied to a body it can cause the change of

a) shape
b) size (length)
c) motion

These changes are called effects of forces and we are going to look at each of them in
more detail.

a) Effects of forces on shape: - when a can is hit with a hammer it changes shape. So
does a piece of chewing gum when one bites it.

b) Effects of forces on size (length): - most objects change length when a force is
applied to them, e.g. when a sponge is squashed it decreases length. When a
rubber band (or spring) is pulled it increases in length. In general, the length of
elastic objects increases when a force pulls at them. This increase of length from
the original is called extension.

i.e. extension, e = new length, l – original length, lo

38
 e=l−l o 1

Relationship between the force and the extension that it causes

The relationship between the force and the extension it causes was first determined
empirically (i.e. experimentally) by Robert Hooke, hence, the findings are now known
as Hooke’s law. Next is the experiment similar to the one conducted by Robert
Hooke which we also did in class.

Experiment: Relationship between the force and the extension it causes

Aim: - to determine

aim i) the relationship between the force and the extension it causes
aim ii) the force constant of the spring
Apparatus

- spring (to be extended)

- metre rule (to measure the length)
- mass hanger (to hang the masses)
- five 100g slot masses (to supply the force)
- retort stand and clamp (for support)

Set up: - the apparatus were set up as shown below.

1
We will use this notation throughout this text.

39
Procedure

The original length, lo, of the spring was read from the metre rule (with the mass hanger
still hung)2 from the spring and recorded. A 100g, mass, m, was hung on the spring and
the new length, l, of the spring read from the metre rule and recorded. The extension,
e, due to the mass, m, was calculated from formula, e = l – lo, and recorded. The force,
m×10
F=
F, (in newtons) due to the mass, m, was calculated from formula, 1000 and
recorded. This procedure was repeated for masses, m = 200g, 300g, 400g and 500g.

Results and analysis

Results

All the results were recorded below.

Original length, lo = cm

Table of results3

mass New length, Extensio Force

,
2
This is a precaution to ensure that the spring is vertically straight when we take the new length.
3
The rest of the results you will fill with your teacher as you do the experiment.

40
 m l n m×10
F=
1000
(g) (cm) e = l – lo
(N)
(cm)

100

200

300

400

500

Analysis

i) Students plotted a graph of extension, e, (cm) against force, F (N).

NB: Students are to skip a whole page where they are going to stick their graphs.

ii) From the graph the students should determine the slope (Gradient), G, and
1
k=
hence the force constant of the spring, k, from formula G . The
unit of G above is cm/N hence the units of, K is N/cm

Discussions

Students are to complete the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and
the precautions they took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

The spring not originally straight The original length was read with the mass
hanger hung to straighten the spring

41
Parallax error in the reading of length

Conclusion

conclusion i) The extension of a spring was found to be directly proportional to the

force that causes it. (Hooke’s law)

conclusion ii) The force constant of the spring, k, was found to be: - k =
N/cm

Limitations of Hooke’s law

Further work on loads and extension showed that; if the load is increased gradually,
there will come a point where Hooke’s law is disobeyed i.e. the extension-load graph
will cease to be a straight line. At this point the spring will still return to its original
length when the load is removed but the extension will be slightly greater than it should
be. Beyond this point the extension is no longer proportional to the load (force). This
point is the limit of proportionality of the spring. Consequently, Hooke’s law must be
modified to read;

The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the load provided the limit of
proportionality is not exceeded.

NB. Hooke’s law is obeyed only for small loads that do NOT stretch the spring too much.
When a spring is stretched beyond its elastic limit it eventually becomes permanently
stretched i.e. it does NOT return to its original length upon the removal of the load from
it. The point beyond which the spring does NOT return to its original length upon the

42
removal of the load is called the elastic limit of the spring. The elastic limit comes later
than (though close to) the limit of proportionality.

It is important to highlight the difference4 between the elastic limit and the limit of
proportionality

 Limit of proportionality: - the point beyond which the extension is no longer

proportional to the load (the spring still returns to its original length)
 Elastic limit: - the point beyond which the spring does NOT return to its original
length (extension is still not proportional to the load).

The sketch below shows an extension load graph for that has been stretched well
beyond its elastic limit.

P is limit of proportionality

Q is elastic limit

Using proportionality in calculations

Direct proportion means that; doubling one

doubles the other, trebling one makes the
other to treble, halving one halves the other
etc.

Example 1

A 10cm long spring becomes 14cm long when an 8N load is hung on it. Determine

(i) the extension caused by the 8N force

(ii) the force constant of the spring, k
(iii) the extension that a 6N force will cause on the spring
(iv) the force that will cause an extension of 7cm on the same spring
Solutions

(i) the extension caused by the 8N force

e = l – lo } l = 14cm ; lo = 10cm

=14 – 10
4
Some texts use the two terms interchangeably to define the same point.

43
 = 4cm

(ii) the force constant of the spring, k

F
k=
e } F = 8N ; e = 4cm

8
=
4

= 2N/cm

(iii) the extension that a 6N force will cause on the spring

Here we can use two methods. I. That utilises, k. and II. That does not utilise k

Method

I II

F
e=
k } F = 5N ; k = 2N/cm

e ¿ 8N = 6N ¿ 4cm
6
=
2

6×4
=
8
= 3cm

= 3cm

NB. The answer is the same in both methods as should be the case.5

(iv) the force that will cause an extension of 7cm on the same spring

5
Students are advised to show how the units cancel out in the calculations in these questions.

44
 Method

I II

F=k¿ e } e = 7cm ; k=
2N/cm

F ¿ 4cm = 8N ¿ 7cm
=7¿ 2

= 14N 8×7
=
4

= 14N

NB. The value of k does NOT change, hence the name force constant. Students who
want to use method I can use the analogy where; F is the money, e is the number of
loaves one can buy with that money and k is the price of one loaf. The price is constant
for that shop just as k is constant for the spring in question.

Exercise

(1)
a) A spring of original length, lo, becomes 18cm long when a 30g pan is hung on it.
When a 20g mass is added to the pan, the spring’s length becomes 22cm.
Determine6;

i. the extension due to the 20g mass

ii. the mass constant, km, of the spring (i.e. the mass needed to cause a
unit (1cm) extension
iii. the extension due to the 30 pan
iv. the original length of the spring

6
Assume the spring has not reached the limit of proportionality in all questions

45
 b) Hence or otherwise, determine
i. the total force, F, that will be needed to cause an extension of 5cm

ii. the new length, l, of the spring in this case

Using Proportionality in multiple spring systems

The multiple springs can either be connected in (A) series or in (B) parallel

A . series: -
Consider N identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible weight)
connected in series. When a load, F, is hung from the bottom most spring; each spring
will feel the load independently. Thus each will extend by

F
e=
k

so the extension of the series system as a whole, es, will be given by

F NF
es = Ne = N k = k ,

Thus the force constant of the series system, ks, will be given by formula

F
k s=
es

F
k s=
NF
k

46
 F 1
k s= ÷
NF k

F k
k s= ×
NF 1

k
k s=
N

In general, the force constant, ks, of N identical springs (each of force constant, k, and
having negligible weight) connected in series is given by formula
k
k s=
N Where; N is the number of springs and k, is the force constant of one
spring

For two identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible weight)
connected in series the force constant of the series system, ks, is given by formula
k
k s=
2 Where; k, is the force constant of one spring

B . parallel: -
Consider N identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible weight)
connected in parallel. When a load, F, is hung from the bottom most spring; the springs
will share the load. Thus each will feel an Nth of the load and thus extend by

F÷ N
e=
k

The extension of the parallel system, ep, will be equal to that of each spring and be given
by

F÷N
e p=
k

Thus the force constant of the parallel system, kp, will be given by

F
k p=
ep

47
 F
k p=
F÷N
k

F 1
k p =( )÷
F÷N k

F 1
k p =( F÷ )÷
N k

N k
k p =( F× )×
F 1

Nk
k p=
1

k p =Nk

In general, the force constant, ks, of N identical springs (each of force constant, k, and
having negligible weight) connected in parallel is given by formula

k p =Nk Where; N is the number of springs and k, is the force constant of one
spring

For two identical springs (each of force constant, k, and having negligible weight)
connected in parallel, the force constant of the parallel system, kp, is given by formula

k p =2 k Where; k, is the force constant of one spring

Example

A 10cm long spring becomes 12cm when a 30N load is hung on it.

a. Determine
(i) the extension of the spring e
(ii) The force constant of the spring, k
Solutions

(i) the extension of the spring; e = l – lo = 12cm -10cm = 2cm

48
 F 30
k= =
(ii) The force constant of the spring, e 2 = 15N/cm

b. The spring is connected in series with two others identical to it.

Determine
(i) the force constant of the series spring system, ks,
(ii) the extension, es, of the series spring system when a 20N load is
added to it
(iii) the load F needed to make the spring system to extend by 12cm
Solutions

(i) the force constant of the series spring system;

k 15
k s= =
3 3 = 5N/cm

(ii) the extension, es, of system when a 20N load is added to it;
F 20
es=
k s = 5 = 4cm

(iii) the load F needed to make the spring system to extend by 12cm
F=ke s = F=5×12 = 60N

Exercise

c. The springs in b. above are now connected in

parallel as shown, Determine
(i) the force constant, kp, of the parallel spring
system
(ii) the extension ep of the parallel spring system
when a 20N load is added to it

49
 (iii) the load F needed to make the parallel spring system to extend by 12cm
c) Effects of forces on motion
When a force is applied to a moving body it changes its

 speed
 and direction
But the speed in a stated direction is the velocity. Thus the change of either the speed
or the direction or both is the change of velocity. Therefore a force causes a change of
velocity.

The rate of change of velocity is acceleration so by changing velocity the force causes
acceleration.

The amount of acceleration a force causes on a body is given by Newton’s 2nd law of
motion which states

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force

that acts on the body and is in the same direction as the force. (Newton’s 2nd law of
motion)

Momentum, P, is the product of mass, m, and velocity, v.

P=m×v
ΔP
Fα
Δt
Δ( m×v )
Fα
Δt

Because the force does NOT change a body’s mass the change of momentum is due to
the change of velocity

m×Δv
Fα
Δt

Δv Δv
Fαm×( ) ( )=a
Δt but Δt so,

Fαm×a

50
we change from proportion to equation by putting a constant of proportionality, k =1.
Thus

F=m×a or just

F=ma This is Newton’s 2nd law of motion in equation form.

where; F is the net force in newtons

m is the mass of the body in kilograms (kg)

a is the acceleration in m/s2

Example 1

A 5kg trolley pushed by a student accelerates uniformly at 3 m/s2. Determine the force
applied by the student.

Solution

F=ma } m = 5kg ; a = 3 m/s2

= 5¿ 3

=15N

Example 2

A donkey applies a force of 2700N to pull an 800kg cart along a straight road. The
friction acting on the system is 300N.

Determine : [i] the net force on the cart

[ii] the acceleration of the cart

Solutions : [i] the net force, FN, on the cart

51
 F N =F A −F r } FA = 2700N ; Fr = 300N

= 2700N – 300N

= 2400N

[ii] The acceleration of the cart

FN
a=
m } FN = 2400N ; m = 60kg

2400
a=
60

a=4 m/s2

Exercise

A 60kg motorcyclist drives a 40kg motorcycle with a uniform acceleration of

2m/s2. Given the friction force acting on the motorcyclist and motorcycle as 500N,
determine

i. the net (horizontal) force acting on the motorcyclist and motorcycle

ii. the force applied by the motorcycle’s engine

Mass-weight relationship and Newton’s 2nd law of motion

In earlier topics we

(i) defined weight of a body as the force of gravity that acts on it

(ii) stated that all bodies near the earth fall with a uniform acceleration called
acceleration due to gravity, g.

Thus using Newton’s 2nd law of motion, i.e. force = mass ¿ acceleration, we get

Force of gravity, w = mass, m ¿ acceleration due to gravity ( g) , thus

w=mg where; w is weight in newtons (N)

m is mass in kilograms (kg)

52
 g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (kg) 7

Example

Determine the weight of an 80kg boxer.

w=mg } m = 80kg ; g = 10 m/s2 = 10N/kg

w=80×10

w=800 N

Exercise

Determine

a. the weights of the following masses

(i) 2kg
(ii) 300g
(iii) 5 tonnes

b. the masses of the following weights

(i) 1N
(ii) 9N
(iii) 40N

Motion in a circle

A body moving in a circular (curved) path is accelerating even when its speed remains
unchanged. This is because its velocity changes since the direction changes. As
acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, the body is accelerating. The acceleration
is due to a force called centripetal force. The centripetal force acts towards the centre
of the curvature and hence, the acceleration is directed towards the centre of the
curvature as well. However, the instantaneous8 velocity of the body is directed
tangential to the curvature.

Illustration: consider a boy swinging a stone by a string over his head in a clockwise
direction as shown below.

7
The value of g is constant at 10 m/s2 for all bodies near the earth. The units N/kg and m/s2 are equivalent.
8
We talk of instantaneous velocity because the direction of velocity changes every instance as the body
moves in the curve

53
NB. The direction of the instantaneous velocity makes an angle of 90o with direction
of the centripetal force (and that of the acceleration).

The boy applies the centripetal force that keeps the stone in orbit. This is how the
gravitational pull of the sun keeps the planets including the earth in elliptical orbits
around it.

Newton’s third law of motion

As the boy in the example above swings the string he will feel a tension on the string as
if the stone is being pulled radially outwards away from him. This is because there is
another force directed radially outwards from the centre of the curvature. This force is
called centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is equal in magnitude but directed
opposite to the centripetal force. The complete diagram of the forces that act in the
situation of the boy swinging the stone above is given on the left.

Although the centripetal and centrifugal forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction they do NOT cancel each other out and give a net force of zero (and hence
zero acceleration). This is because they act on different bodies. The Centripetal force
acts on the stone while the Centrifugal force acts on the boy.

All forces act in pairs in this way. This is Newton’s 3rd law of motion and it states that:

For every force acting at a point, there is an equal but oppositely directed force acting
at that very same point. (Newton’s 3rd law of motion)

54
 Summary of Newton’s laws of motion

At this point we will write the three Newton’s laws of motion in sequence

Newton's First law. ’(law of Inertia)

A body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion unless a force acts on it.

Newton's Second law. ’(law of momentum)

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force that acts
on the body and is in the same direction as the force. (Newton’s 2nd law of motion)

Newton's Third law. ’(law of action and reaction)

For every force acting at a point, there is an equal but oppositely directed force acting at
that very same point.

Turning effects of forces (Moments)

When a force is applied to a pivoted body it makes it to turn. The turning effect of a
force is called its moment. The moment (turning effect) of a force is large when

 the force applied is large

 the perpendicular distance of the pivot from the line of action of the force is
large
Examples

1. it is easy to unscrew a nut with a long spanner than with a short one
2. a door is more easily closed when one pushes furthest from the hinges.

Levers: A lever is a simple machine where a small effort is applied at a long distance
from the pivot to move a heavy weight attached to at a short distance from the pivot.
The moment produced by the small load will be large enough to overcome the one
caused by the load.

55
Every day examples of levers include; spanner, wheel barrow and digging fork.

Exercise: State five examples of levers other than the ones listed above

Moment of a force: by definition

The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance of
the pivot from the line of action of force.

MOMENTS

A force can produce an effect on motion of a body besides change in size and shape.
However, a force can produce effects not only on motion, size and shape of a body, but
may make a body to turn.

The turning effect of a force depends on the value of the force and how far away is the
line of application from the pivot or turning point/fulcrum. For example;

a) A see-saw turns to the side where the Earth’s pull is greater.

b) A beam balance turns to the side where the weight of the masses is greater.
However, if the mass weights are equal, the beam balance will be in a state of
equilibrium or in a state of balance.
c) A spanner turns due to the force applied at its free end.
d) It is easier to loosen or tighten a nut with a long spanner than a short one.
e) The handle of the door is placed far from the hinges so that a small effort is
applied to open or close it.

All of the above examples show application of moments in levers- simple machine.

The examples, prove that the turning effect of a force is directly proportional to the size
of the force and the distance from the pivot to its line of application. The moment of a
force is a measure of its turning effect about a particular point in a particular direction.
It is define as

‘Moment is the product of the force and perpendicular distance from the pivot to the
line of application of the force’.

56
Mathematically expressed as

|moment of force about a point=force×distance from pivot to lineof actionof the force|
Moment=F׿d

Since force is measured in newtons (N) and distance in metres (m), the moment is
therefore measure in newton metre (Nm).

The direction of a moment is given in terms of whether the force turns the system in the
clock or against the clock direction. Thus moment are described as clockwise or
anticlockwise direction.

Example:

The principle of Moments

The figure below can be used to investigate the principle of moments. It consists of bar
of negligible weight supported at its centre O.

Forces can be applied to the bar

on either side of the pivot by
hanging standard masses from
different points.

The positions of the forces are then adjusted such that the bar is in state of balance or
equilibrium. constant

The distances are accurately measured using a suitable measuring ruler.

57
The forces applied is equal to the weight of the standard masses and can be calculated
using the expression,

Weight ,W =mass ,m(in kg )×gravitational field constant,g

W =mg
Using the measurements shown above the moments are then calculated as;

Moment=Force×dis tan ce from pivot

Anti clockwise moment about O =F 1 ×d 1

=0.6 N×0.5m
¿0.3Nm
Clockwise moment about O =F 2 ×d 2

=1.0N ×0.3m
¿0.3Nm
Conclusion: The example above illustrates that anticlockwise moment about O is equal
to the clockwise moment about O. The anticlockwise turning balances the clockwise
turning.

Note: The Upward force has no moment about O because it acts at the pivot (i.e its
distance from the pivot is 0m)

The situation in the figure below is a little complicated, but once again the positions of
the forces are such that the bar balances.

Note: the distance of 5 N force from the

pivot is 0.1 m + 0.3 m = 0.4 m

58
This shows that it is true that the resultant anticlockwise moment is equal to the
resultant clockwise moment. This means when ADDED together, the clockwise
moments about O balance the anticlockwise moments about O.

Both these examples illustrate the principle of moments. This state that;

When an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments about any
point is equal to the sum of the clockwise moments about that same point.

If an object/system is in equilibrium not only the moments should balance, the forces
acting in one direction must also balance forces acting in the opposite direction.

From above case: Upward force from the support = =20 N +40 N +5 N =65 N

This means there are two conditions for equilibrium:

1. the principle of moments must apply

2. the sum of forces in the upward direction must equal the sum of forces in the
downward direction.
Example: The figure below shows a cement bag standing on a plank supported by two
trestles. Calculate the upward forces X and Y exerted by the trestles on the plank. Ignore
the effect of the weight of the plank.

The system is in equilibrium, so the principle of moments apply and can be used.
Moment could be taken from any point, but taking moment about A or B gets rid of the
unknowns, X or Y.

Solutions:

Taking moments about A:

clockwise moment =600 N×2 m

=1200 Nm

anticlockwise moment=Y ×5m

But; anticlockwise moment about A=clockwisemoment about A

59
 Y ×5 m=1200 Nm

Y 1200 Nm
=5 m

then Y =240 N
From here, there two methods of finding X. You can take moments about B and proceed
as before. Alternatively, you can use the fact that X and Y must add to equal the
downward force of 600 N. That is:
Y + X =600 N
X =600 N −Y → X =600 N −240 N =360 N

Question1:

The bar I the figure below is in equilibrium. Use it to answer the following questions.

a) What is the moment of the following

forces about O?
i) 6N
ii) F
b) Calculate F and reaction force Q.
c) Using the force values calculated above, calculate the moment of the following
forces about P.
i) F,
ii) Q,
iii) 6 N.
d) What is the total clockwise moment about P?
e) What is the total anticlockwise moment about P?
Question 2:

The figure below shows a light plank on two trestles A and B supporting a man and a
block of concrete.

Q #3.The figure below shows loads supported by ropes. Ropes X and Y are hanging from
a rigid ceiling.

60
Find the tension in the ropes X and Y. [5]

ENERGY

Energy is the ability to do work.

The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). This is similar to SI unit of work done because work
done is the amount of energy changed to other forms.

Work is therefore related to energy as follows

Work done is equal to the energy changed.

Work done = Energy changed.

Kinetic Energy (Ek or K.e.)

The kinetic energy of an object is the energy due to its movement. Any object that is
moving has kinetic energy.

The kinetic energy of an abject of mass m and moving at a velocity v can be calculated
from the expression

mass×velocity×velocity
Kinetic energy (Ek) = 2

mv 2
K . E .=
2

The above expression shows that the kinetic energy of an object is dependent on its
mass and velocity as follows.

1) Two objects of a large mass M and small mass m traveling at the same velocity do not
have the same kinetic energy.

The larger object has the greatest kinetic energy due to

its large mass.

Object B has more kinetic energy than object A.

61
2) Two objects of the same m traveling at different velocities v1 and v2 (v1>v2) do not
have the same kinetic energy.

The object with a greater velocity has the greatest kinetic energy.

Object C has more kinetic energy than object D.

Example1. A sprinter’s mass is 60kg and runs at a

constant rate of 10m/s. What is her kinetic energy?

( )
2
2
m
mv 60 kg 10
s
k.e. = 2 = 2 =3000kgm2/s2=3000J = 3kJ

Example 1

A ball of mass 0.5kg rolling along a smooth straight path has 100J of kinetic energy.
What is the velocity of the ball?

mv 2
K.e. = 2

2×K . e = mv 2

2×K . e
v 2= ⇒
m √
v = √ (2∗K . e. )/m = (2∗100 kgm /s )/0 .5 kg = ( 400 m /s )
2 2 2 2
√
v =20 m/s

The velocity of the ball is 20m/s.

Example 2

An object of mass 6kg is traveling at a velocity of 5m/s along a smooth straight path.

a) What is its kinetic energy?

( s)
2
m
mv 2 6 kg 5

K.e.= 2 = 2 =75kgm2/s2=75J

b) What would be its velocity when the kinetic energy is doubled?

The kinetic energy doubles to become 150J

62
 v =√ (2∗K . e. )/m =√(2∗150 kgm 2 /s 2 )
6 kg =√ 50 m /s = 7.1 m/s
2 2

The velocity of the object would be 7.1 metres per second.

Gravitational Potential Energy (G.P.E. or Ep)

The gravitational potential energy of an object is energy possessed by an object

that above the ground. This is the energy due to the force of gravity acting on
the object.

Illustration: Ep dependence on mass and height above the ground

The force acting on the object is the gravitational pull (its weight). Since work is
equal to the amount of energy changed or converted, it means that;

Work done to move object from top of building to the ground is equal to the
gravitational potential energy changed.

63
Work =Force×Displacement
Work =Weight×height
work =mass×gravitatonal field strength×height
Hence the expression for calculating the gravitational potential energy of a
object of mass m and at a height h is

Gravitational potential energy (G . P . E .)=mass×gravitatonal field strength×height

G . P . E .( E p )=mgh
The above expression implies that the gravitational potential energy of an object
is directly proportional to mass of an object and the height the object is above
the ground.

This means

a) A large object of mass M and a small one of mass m held at the same height
above the ground have unequal G.P.E. depending on their masses. The larger
object has more gravitational potential energy than the smaller one.

Illustration: G.P.E is directly proportional to mass (G.P.E. α m)

The 10kg object has more g.p.e. than the 5kg object because
Mgh>mgh(10 kg×gh>5 kg×gh )

b) Two identical objects of the same m held at the different heights above the
ground have unequal g.p.e. depending on their heights. The higher object has
more gravitational potential energy than the lower one (g.p.e. increases as the
height increases)

Illustration: G.P.E is directly proportional to height (G.P.E. α h)

64
 The rugby ball at position A has more gravitational potential energy than that at
position B because it is higher.

Example1. A 5g orange fruit falls from a tree at a height of 12m. How much
gravitational potential energy does it possess at the highest position?

Gravitational potential energy (G . P . E .)=mass×gravitatonal field strength×height

N
G . P . E=0 . 005 kg×10 ×12 m.=6 Nm=6 J
kg
The gravitational potential energy of the orange is 6J.

Example2.

The gravitational potential energy of a 60kg boy on a tree branch is 12 kJ. How high is
the tree branch from the ground?

Gravitational potential energy (G . P . E .)=mass×gravitatonal field strength×height

Gravitational potential energy (G. P . E . ) 12000 Nm
height = = =20 m
N
mass×gravitatonal field strength 60 kg×10
kg

The tree branch is 20m above the ground.

Energy can exist in many forms as indicated in the table below.

Form of energy sources Examples energy conversions

Gravitational Object lifted above Water in a high Sun’s heat raised

potential energy the ground does reservouir the water
work when it falls

65
Elastic potential Material is under Catapult , stretched Sun to food to
energy strain and does bow, wound-up muscles of a person
work when released spring

Chemical potential Energy stored in Coal, wood, food, Sun to plant to

energy chemical bonds. It is petrol, and other fossil fuels
released in chemical fuels
reactions. eg
thermal power
plant.

Energy stored in Nuclear power

nuclei of atoms. It is station, nuclear
released in nuclear bombs-the binding
reactions. During energy of original
fission (breaking of material is more
large nuclei e.g. U238 than that of the
to smaller ones) and products, so heat
Nuclear energy Nucleus of an atom
Fusion (small nuclei energy is released-
e.g. deuterium and can create
tritium combine to convectional
form large nuclei) currents that can
drive turbines to
produce electricity

Moving objects have

energy and can do
Falling water, wind
work in collisions.
turning turbines in
Kinetic energy
k.e. possessed by power stations to
moving air from generate electricity Sun produces rain,
high pressure wind
regions to low
pressure regions
used by wind mills)

Electrical energy A flow of electrons Electric appliances, Sun to fuels to

can do work fan, kettle, heater, generators
electric motor

66
 Molecules have Steam turn turbines Sun to plant to fuels
more energy when in a generator
Heat or thermal
heated and can do
energy
work.

Electromagnetic Light, radiant heat, Sun, radio

waves carry packets radio waves atomic transmitter,
Wave energy and
of energy which can nuclei (radioactive) microwave oven
Solar
do work as the
waves travel.

The kinetic energy Moving water Ocean, tide

of tides (moving waves can drive generator
Tidal energy
water) can do work. turbines to produce
electricity

Molten rock
(magma)-its heat
Geothermal energy Earth’s crust has hot
can be used to
molten rock
produce steam to Earth’s crust, sun
(magma)
turn turbines for
generating
electricity

EINSTEIN’S Mass-Energy Equation

When a radioactive nucleus decays, a large amount of energy E is released. At the

same time, a small amount of mass, m is lost.

The amount of energy released is given by the Einstein’s mass-Energy equation of

form;

Energy=mass×( speedoflight )2
2
E=mc where c=speed of light =3×108
m
s
and m islost mass , kg

67
Calculate the amount of energy released when 1g matter is lost during a radioactive of
U238.

2
E=mc (
=0. 001 kg× 3×10
m 2
s
8
)
=9 . 0×10 13 J

Energy Conservation Principle

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or
destroyed.

It can only change from one form to the other. This occurs through energy conversions.

In the following diagram assume that the slope is friction compensated (no friction), and
that the heat and sound energy are negligible and the ball rolls from rest.

Illustration: Conservation of energy

At point A

The total energy of the ball is due to its gravitational

potential energy only before it starts rolling down the
slope.

Etot =E p +Ek but E k=0 and E p=mgh

⇒ E tot =mgh =total initial energy (potential)

At point B

E p=mg(h−x )

mv 2
E k=
2 and v 2=u 2 +2 as , a= g , s= x and u=0 ⇒ v 2 =0+2 gx=2 gx ,hence
m×2 gx
E k= =mgx
2

68
Etot =E p +Ek =mgh−mgx+mgx

=mgh = total initial energy (potential)

At point C (on the ground)

mv 2
E =
E p=0 ; k 2 and v 2=u 2 +2 as , a= g , s=h and u=0 ⇒ v 2 =0+2 gh=2 gh

m×2 gh
E k= =mgh E =E +E
2 ; tot p k = 0+mgh

=mgh = total initial potential energy of the ball

At every point during the flight of the ball its total energy is equal to the initial energy it
had hence energy is conserved.

Energy Conservation Principle

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can not be created or
destroyed.

It can only change from one form to the other. This occurs through energy conversions.

Energy Conversion

Energy can be converted from one form to another. There are many devices which
change energy from one form to another.

Example1.

In green plants light energy from the sun is changed (converted) to chemical potential
energy in the bonds of starch molecules during photosynthesis. The energy is converted
to heat or kinetic energy by the process of respiration in living organisms. Energy
changes can be shown in a flow chart or by linking the different energy forms by an
arrow.

The arrow shows the direction of change of energy.

69
Example 2.

Write all the energy changes in the electric filament when the switch is closed.

Considering the use of the light bulb (produce light) the main energy changes are
electrical to heat while more of the energy is lost as heat.

Example 3. What are the main energy changes when an electric heater is used to warm
the room?

Example3. The flow chart below shows energy changes for a petrol operated generator
producing electricity for a stove.

Ex4.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g
=10N/kg)

a) What is the energy gained by the bricks?

b) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?
c) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?

What are the main energy changes in the following?

1. moving car, battery, battery operated radio, electrical bulb, coal fire,
hydroelectric power plant

70
 2. thermal power plant, rain drop, sun, electric fire, nuclear power plant,
microphone, solar cell
3. solar panel, electric motor, a.c. generator

Energy sources in Botswana

In Botswana the main sources of energy are firewood, coal, petroleum products and
solar energy.

1. Firewood

Most people, especially in rural areas use wood from the forests as a fuel.

Socio-economic impact

Wood is often free of charge or relatively cheap to buy. As the population of a village
increases the forest is pushed farther and farther back. The forest is denuded, people
have to travel farther to get firewood and it becomes more expensive.

The Environmental impact

Loss of the forest leads to erosion of the soil and to climate change. The burning
produces carbon dioxide which contributes to the greenhouse effect. At the same time,
the trees that should be using up carbon dioxide are not being replaced. On a world-
wide scale millions of hectares of forest are destroyed every year without being
replaced.

2.Coal

In Botswana coal is mined at Morupule. It is burnt to produce electricity at Morupule

generating station. It is also sold in bags for use as a domestic fuel.

Socio-economic impact

Coal is sold at fairly low prices to enable people to have a fuel without cutting down
trees.

Environmental impact

Burning of coal releases sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere.This causes pollution in the
form of acid rain. Coal burning also releases carbon dioxide which acts as a 'greenhouse'
gas. Many

71
of the great industrial areas of the world burn coal as their main source of energy. Acid
rain is a major problem in those countries.

3. Petroleum products

Petrol, diesel, paraffin and propane/butane gas are all extracted from crude oil. They are
used to drive trains, buses, cars, generators and factory machines.

Socio-economic impact

Botswana imports all its petroleum products. They are convenient to use but are
expensive and use up much of the country's reserves of foreign exchange. World-wide, a
few oil-producing states have enormous effects on the world economy by being able to
control prices and production. As these fossil fuels get used up they become more
scarce and more expensive. They are non-renewable sources of energy.

Environmental impact

Burning petroleum products causes air pollution with carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide
and oxides of nitrogen. The motor car is the biggest contributor to air pollution.

4. Solar energy

The sun gives out huge amounts of heat and light in electromagnetic waves. In
Botswana, solar energy is used to heat water and to produce electricity. Solar water
panels consist of blackened pipes on a black background which absorb radiant heat from
the sun and transfer it to water in the pipes. Solar electric panels made of silicon
converts light energy from the sun into electrical energy. The electrical energy is used to
charge a battery which is used to produce heat, light, movement, sound, etc.

Socio-economic impact

Installing solar equipment can be expensive. However, over the long term, a lot of
money can be saved because the energy is free. Botswana is more fortunate than many
countries because of the high levels of sunshine we get. Solar electricity is suitable for
low-powered devices.

Environmental impact: If used on a large scale, solar energy can reduce destruction of
forests, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, reduce air pollution and reduce emission of
greenhouse gases.

72
 Exercises

Ex1.A girl of weight 300N runs along an inclined plane as she climbs some stairs as

shown.

How much power does a girl develop if she climbs the stairs in 10 seconds?

Ex2.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g
=10N/kg)

d) What is the energy gained by the bricks?

e) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?
f) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?
g) At what rate is the man working?

Ex3. A stone is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 8m/s.

(i) What is the maximum height reached?

(ii) Write the main energy changes that occur from the thrower until it
reach the hand again.

Ex4. Because of air resistance and friction, a forward force of 2500N is needed to keep a
car traveling at a steady speed of 20m/s. What power must be provided?

Ex5. Draw a simple pendulum and show where it has only

(i) Gravitational potential energy Ep

(ii) Maximum kinetic energy Ekmaximum

73
WORK DONE

Work done is when a force (F) moves its point of application through distance (d)in the
direction of the force.

Work done gives amount of energy converted/transformed/changed from form to other

from(s).

Work done can be calculated from the expression

Work done=Force×distance moved in direction of force

W =F×d or W=F×s ................................................................(1)
Since force is measured in newtons and distance or displacement in metres this means
the units for work done is newton metre (N.m)

Bcause work done gives the amount of energy changed it follows that:

newton metre=joule→1 Nm=1J

From equation (1) above it is also true that

m
W =F×d =ma×d Nm=kg 2 ×m
s
2 2
m m
Nm=J =kg 2 ⇒ kg 2 is another unit of work done
s s

POWER

Power is the rate at which work is done.

OR

Power is the rate at which one form of energy is converted to another from.

(or Power is rate of energy conversion)

The word rate indicates the time in which the work is done.

74
Power can therefore be calculated using the expressions below;

Work done
POWER= P=
W
Time taken t

Energy Changed E
POWER= P=
Time taken Or t

The SI unit of power is the watt (W). Since Work done or energy are measured in joules
and time in seconds, a watt is equal to a joule per second.

1 joule (J )
1 watt (W )=
sec ond (s)

Example1. A weight lifter lifts 600N weights through a distance of 1.5 m in 3 seconds.
What is the power of the weight lifter?

Work done
POWER=
Time taken

Work done=Force×dis tan ce=600 N ×1 .5 m

600 N×1 . 5 m Nm J
POWER= 300 300
Therefore; 3s = s = s =300 watts

The weight lifter has a power of 300 watts. This means the weight lifter converts
300joules of energy in a second.

Example2.A girl of weight 300N runs along an inclined

plane as she climbs some stairs as shown.

How much power does a girl develop if she climbs the

stairs in 10 seconds?

The girl has to apply a force equal to her weight (300N) but in the upward direction. The
distance she has to carry her weight is the vertical height (30m) not the sloping
distance.

75
 Work done
POWER=
Time taken

Work done=Force×dis tan ce=300 N ×30 m

300 N×30 m J
POWER= 900
Therefore ; 10 s = s =900 watts

The girl develops a power of 900 watts.

Example3.A builder lifts 8 bricks 2 m high in 5 seconds. The mass of one brick is 1.5 kg. (g
=10N/kg)

a) What is the energy gained by the bricks?

Ans. gravitational potential energy.

b) How much of this energy is gained by the bricks?

G . P . E .=mgh = work done
N
8×1.5kg×10 ×2m
= kg =240Nm=240J

ans. The bricks gain 240joules of gravitational potential energy.

c) How much kinetic energy do the bricks loose?

From energy conservation principle considering only the main energy changes,

Kinetic energy lost = gravitational potential energy gained

Ans. the kinetic energy lost is 240joules.

d) At what rate is the man working?

Work done 240 J 48 J
POWER=
Time taken = 5 s = s = 48 watts.

Ans. His power (rate of working) is 48 watts.

76
THERMAL PHYISCS

This branch of physics focuses on the behaviour of matter in relation to changes in

internal energy. It explains the existence of matter under the three states as solid, liquid
and gas. According to the kinetic theory of matter:

‘Matter is made of tiny particles which are in constant motion and held together by
intermolecular forces’.

DISTINGUISHING PROPERTIES OF STATES OF MATTER

Particles are very closed packed in regular patterns.

Forces of attraction and repulsion between the particles are very

strong.

Particles alternatively attract and repel each other and so vibrate

within fixed positions without net displacement.

Consequently a slid has a rigid shape and occupies a definite volume.

The intermolecular forces in liquids are less strong than in solids.

Particles are close (but slightly further apart than in solid) to one
another but vibrate vigorously that the attractive forces cannot hold
them in fixed positions. Particles move about at large speeds
colliding with each other and walls of the container and exchanging
partners. This makes a liquid to flow and take shape of any container it fills (no fixed
shape) but has fixed volume.

The intermolecular forces are so weak that the particles are free
from one another.

Particles therefore fill up any available space hence a gas has no

fixed volume or shape.

The particles are very far apart and travel randomly at great speeds
colliding with each other.

77
EXPANSION OF MATTER

When particles of matter are heated they move more vigorously and their movements
become larger. The molecules push away from each other, taking up more space and the
substance expands. The reverse occurs when they cool down, that is the molecular
motions become smaller and the substance contracts as its molecules are pulled closer by
the forces of attraction.

RELATIVE ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OF EXPANSION:

In the gas state the

particles are further apart
and the forces of
attraction are very weak,
while in solid the
particles are closer
together and the attraction forces very strong, the gas particles take up more space but the
solid particles are stopped by the intermolecular forces. Thus a gas expands the most
while a solid expands the least.

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS

Expansion of solids can be easily demonstrated by

a) Metal ball and metal ring experiment

Before the ball is heated it just fits and passes through

the ring. After the ball is heated it no longer pass
through the ring as it has expanded and now occupies
more space. The radius of the ball is now larger than
that of the ring.

Discuss the possible observations if the metal ring is

cooled in liquid air at -196oC and the ball is tried to
pass through the ring.

78
b) Metal bar and metal gauge experiment

CONSEQUENCES AND USES (APPLIATIONS) OF EXPANSION

Expansion and contraction can be very useful (applications) as well as bring negative
effects (consequences)
Some everyday applications and consequences of expansion or contraction are described
below.
BIMETALLIC STRIP is made of two equal lengths of different metal riveted together.
The two metals have varying linear expansivity.
When the bimetallic strip is heated aluminium expands
more than copper. To accommodate the extra length of
aluminium the strip beds towards copper. When the
bimetallic strip is cooled (placing in liquid nitrogen at
-196oC ), the metals contracts with aluminium getting
shorter than copper hence the strip beds towards aluminium.
Therefore, generally, a bimetallic strip always beds towards the less expanding metal
when heated and towards the more expanding one when cooled.
A bimetallic strip is used in a temperature controlling device called a thermostat.
THERMOSTAT
A thermostat is used to keep the temperature of an appliance or room constant, without
getting too hot or too cold. It uses a bimetallic strip as a temperature controlled switch.
Appliances which use a thermostat include electric iron, fire alarm, refrigerator, gas oven,
electric kettle

a) Electric iron

The temperature of an electric iron is kept

near-steady by the bimetallic strip as it opens
and closes the contacts with temperature
variations. As the base of the electric iron

79
gets hotter above the temperature set by the control knob the bimetallic strip bends
downward and breaks the contacts. When the temperature drops, the strip cools and
contracts. It then goes back to its original position hence switching the electric current
again.
Note: Brass expands more than iron so that the strip bends downwards to break open the
circuit when the temperature rises.

b) Fire alarm

The bimetallic strip must bend and switch on the circuit

to sound the electric bell. Brass should expand more
than iron so that the strip bends down. The bending
should occur at a temperature considerably higher than
the average room temperature to avoid false alarms.

C) GAPS ON BRIDGES AND ROADS

Bridges are often made of steel bars that get

longer when it is hot. There must be expansion
gaps in the road at the end of a bridge. Bridges
are usually put on rollers to allow for easy
movement during expansion and contraction.

Roads are often made of concrete slabs hat

expand and contract too. There are expansion gaps between the slabs filled with a soft
substance that can be squeezed easily in hot weather as the slabs expand. There are
similar expansion gaps in the concrete floors around Mmad Sec.

Illustration: Expansion gap between road and bridge

d)RIVETING METAL PLATES

A white–hot rivet is placed in the rivet hole and its end

hammered flat and
on cooling it
contracts and pulls
the plate tightly together.

e) SHRINK FITTING

80
This is used where the metal pieces joined involve a ball and socket. An axle is cooled in
liquid nitrogen at -196oC until the gear wheel can be slipped on to it. On regaining normal
temperature the axle expands to give a very tight joint.

EXPANSION OF GASES

Expansion of gasses can be demonstrated by the

following experimental set-up.

A round bottomed flask is filled with a solution of

potassium permanganate and then heated.

Observations:

The level of potassium per manganate solution in the

tube goes down while the level of the solution in the
beaker rises as the solution is displaced by air. Eventually bubbles are seen as air escapes
through the solution.

Explanation:

When air is heated it expands and occupies more space thereby displacing the solution in
the tube. This shows that air expands as well.

Note: When a cold cloth is placed over the flask, the air contracts and occupies less
space forcing the solution up into the tube.

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS

Just like solids and gases a liquid

also expands or contract when
heated or cooled. The diagram on
the left can be used to demonstrate
expansion of liquids.

Observations: When heat is applied

there is a momentary drop in the
level of the solution as flask /beaker expands before the liquid can conduct heat. After a
while the solution rises steadily as it expands and rises through the capillary until it
overflows. When cooled the liquid contracts and occupy less space hence it will drop
back into the flask.

81
 MEASURING TEMPERATURE

TEMPERAURE and HEAT

θ
Temperature (T/ ) is the degree/level of hotness or coldness of a substance against a
given scale. Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (oC), Kelvin (K).

The temperature of a gas is mainly related to the average kinetic the molecules. The
hotter the object the faster the molecules move and the greater should be their average
kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy of the molecules decreases when the object
colds down.

HEAT (Q): is the total energy of an object due to motion of the molecules (kinetic) and
their position (potential energy) with respect to each other. The potential energy here is
due to the inter-molecular forces between the molecules. Work has to be done against the
attractive forces hence energy change for the distance between the molecules to increase.
Object at the same temperature do not necessarily contain the same amount of heat
energy. Note that heat is a form of energy and is measured in joule (J).

THERMOMETRIC PROPERTIES
Any property of a substance that changes when the temperature varies is called
thermometric property and they include volume, pressure, electromotive force and
resistance.

A bimetallic thermostat uses the expansion and contraction of a metal to measure

temperature, so the expansion and contraction of a solid are thermometric properties.
Also the pressure of a gas at constant volume, the volume of a gas at constant pressure
and the resistance of a pure metal are all examples of thermometric properties.
The expansion of a liquid is also a property used for most of the thermometers to measure
temperature. These thermometers are called liquid — in glass thermometers.

CALLIBRATING A THERMOMETER This means marking a gradual scale

(marking divisions) on the stem of a thermometer.

FIXED POINTS: These are two reference positions marked on the scale using melting
and boiling temperatures of a known pure substance.

LOWER FIXED POINT: Is the position

of the liquid in bulb when the thermometer
is placed in pure water at 0 oC (ice).

UPPER FIXED POINT: Is the position

marked on the stem when the thermometer
is placed in pure boiling water
(temperature of 100 oC at sea level)

82
The distance between the lower and upper fixed points is then divided into equal
divisions to give a particular scale. Example : Marking 100 divisions would mean that the
thermometer is accurate to one degree Celsius (1 oC).

LABORATORY THERMOMETER

The same principle is applied in a

liquid — in glass thermometers,
the narrower the capillary tubes,
further the thread moves up. A
small expansion of the liquid
produces a greater ascent up the
tube

Sensitivity of an instrument scale represents its ability to detect small changes of the
quantity to be measured. So, “the narrower the bore, the more sensitive is the
thermometer”.
The thermometer scale represented below is more sensitive than the one represented
before.

The thermometers we use in our laboratory have got a temperature range from 10 °C to
110 °C. However a clinical thermometer which is another type of liquid—in glass
thermometer has a rage from 35 0C to 42 °C that is a few degrees either sides of the
healthy or average body temperature of about 37 °C. This thermometer is more sensitive
than a laboratory thermometer that is why its accuracy is a tenth of a degree Celsius (0.1
o
C).

A sensitive thermometer does not have a very large temperature range even when it is
very long. A larger temperature range scale is achieved using a wider capillary tube.
Also a clinical thermometer has a constriction which stops the mercury when going back
to the bulb. It allows measuring the temperature of a patient after removing the
thermometer. The mercury is returned to the bulb by shaking the thermometer.

CLINICAL THERMOMETER

83
A large bulb and a thick glass stem have disadvantages, the thermometer has to take more
energy from the hot object than small bulb and a thin glass stem thermometer dose, and
so it may cool it down. It also takes longer to reach a steady reading. Thus the bulbs on a
liquid-in glass thermometer are not made very large and the stems are made from a very
thin glass.

Summary: A thermometer is more sensitive if it has

a) A thin/narrow capillary or bore

b) A large bulb

c) Reducing the thickness of the bulb

CHANGES OF STATE

LATENT HEAT (l): Is heat energy that changes the state of a substance (without a
change in temperature).

The heat energy that is absorbed during melting or evaporation, and given out during
freezing or condensing is called latent (hidden) heat because it does not cause any
temperature change.

When a substance melts or solidifies its temperature remains constant even if it absorbs
or releases heat called latent heat of fusion
(lf).

84
The temperature of liquid does not change during boiling (until all the liquid has been
converted to vapour/gas) as the liquid is vaporized. Heat absorbed during this change of
state is called latent heat of vaporization (lv).

MELTING/FUSION: Is when a solid substance changes into liquid.

SOLIDIFICATION/FREEZING: This is a change of liquid substance into solid.

Solidification and fusion occur without a change in temperature. When a substance melts,
the heat supplied enables the molecules to break free from their fixed arrangement in
solid (weaken intermolecular forces) to attain relatively free movement in liquid state.

During solidification heat is released as the molecules come together.

A pure substance melts and freezes (solidification) at the same temperature called
melting point or freezing point.

VAPOURISATION: When a substance in liquid state changes into a gas. This may
occur during evaporation and boiling.

CONDENSATION: When a substance in a gas state changes into a liquid.

In vapourisation the liquid molecules absorb a large amount of energy as they move
further apart until they are separated into independent gas molecules. Some energy is also
required to enable the molecules to work against atmospheric pressure as they expand.
When a substance condenses latent heat of vaporization is released.

SUBLIMATION: Is a direct change of state from solid to gas or gas to solid without
forming liquid first.

EVAPORATION and BOILING

Evaporation is the escape of gaseous particle from the surface of a liquid.

During evaporation the faster more energetic molecules escape from the surface of the
liquid. For the molecules to evaporate they absorb more heat and move much further
apart as they gain more kinetic energy. The escaping molecules absorb latent heat from

85
the liquid and result in cooling effect as molecules remaining behind are of a lower
energy level. The latent heat absorbed is needed to overcome the attractive forces
between the remaining molecules.

Evaporation rate is increased by;

a) Increasing temperature of the liquid- at high temperature more molecules are

moving fast enough to escape.
b) An increase in surface area of liquid-more molecules near surface of liquid
escape.
c) A draught or moving air (wind) - which takes the molecules away.

Boiling is when a liquid forms bubbles of vapour throughout the liquid.

Boiling takes place when the saturated vapour pressure becomes equal to the external
atmospheric pressure. The vapour formed within boiling liquid burst at the surface of the
liquid. Boiling takes place at a particular temperature called the boiling point.

DIFERENCE BETWEEN BOILING and EVAPORATION

Evaporation takes place at the surface of the liquid while boiling occurs throughout the
body of the liquid.

Evaporation takes place at all temperatures while boiling occurs at a fixed temperature
called boiling point.

APPLICATIONS OF EVAPORATION

1. Cooling effect used in

a) Refrigeration
b) Animals like dogs and crocodiles cool themselves by driving more energetic
molecules from their bodies.
2. Wet clothes dry quicker when it is windy and hot.

HEAT CAPACITY

Heat capacity, C, is the quantity of heat which is required to raise the temperature of an
object by 1 °C or 1 K.
From the definition, heat capacity can be expressed as:-

C = Q/∆T

which follows that;

Q = C∆T -----------------------------------------> (1)

86
 where Q = amount of heat transferred/supplied to the object in joules
(J)
∆T = change in temperature (final temp Tf - initial temp Ti) in °C or
K
C = heat capacity in J/°C or J/K

SI Unit: joule per kelvin (J/K or J K-1) OR

Other unit: joule per degree celsius (J/°C or J °C-1).

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Specific heat capacity, c, of a material is the quantity of heat which must be supplied to
a mass of 1 kg of that material to raise its temperature by 1 °C or 1 K.

SI unit: joule per kilogram per kelvin (J kg-1 K-1)

Other unit: joule per kilogram per degree celsius ( J/kg/°C or J kg -1 °C-1 or J/(kg °C))
Specific heat capacity is in fact heat capacity per unit mass, which means that
c = C/m ----------------------------------------> (2)

substituting eqn (1) above into the equation (2) we have

c= (Q/∆T)/m

which follows that Q = mc∆T

where Q = amount of heat transferred or supplied in joules (J)

m = mass of the material in kg
c = specific heat capacity of the material in J kg-1 °C-1 or J kg-1
K-1
∆T = change in temperature
∆T = |∆T|, this means ∆T should always be positive even if Tf is less than Ti

*NB: Heat capacity shows the amount of heat needed to change the
temperature of the
whole (or any ) mass of an object by 1°C OR 1 K BUT specific heat capacity
shows the heat required to change the temperature of only 1 kg of the
mass of the object by 1°C or 1 K.

87
Problems
#1Find the specific heat capacity of the liquid given that:
energy transferred = 12 209 J
mass of liquid = 0.8 kg
original temperature = 26.8 °C
final temperature = 33.0 °C

Answ Data: Q = 12209 J, m = 0.8 kg, Ti = 26. 8 °C, Tf = 33.0 °C,

c =?

Q = mc∆T
c = Q/m∆T
= 12209/(0.8(33.0 – 26.8))
= 2461.5 J

#2. Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 10 kg of brass from
10 °C to 90 °C. Specific heat capacity of brass = 377 J kg-1 °C-1.

Answ:
Data:- m = 10 kg, Ti = 10 °C, Tf = 90 °C, c = 377 J kg-1 °C-1, Q=?

Q = mc∆T
= 10 x 377 x (90 – 10)
= 301 600 J

#3 A kettle containing 1 kg of water (c = 4200 J kg-1 °C-1) is placed on top of an

electric heater of power 1000 W. It takes 5 min for the water temperature to rise
from 20 °C to 90 °C. Find:
the energy released by the heater
the energy absorbed by the water. Account for any losses in energy

Answ:
Data:- P = 1000 W, t = 5 min = 300 s, Q=?

88
Q = E = Pt
= 1000 x 300
= 300 000 J

Data:- m = 1 kg, c = 4200 J kg-1 °C-1, Q = ?

Q = mc∆T
= 1 x 4200 x (90 – 20)
= 294 000 J
6000 J of energy are lost to the surroundings and cointainer by conduction,
convection and radiation.

#4 If 2 kg of water cools from 70 °C to 20 °C, how much thermal energy does it

lose?

Answ:
DATA:- m = 2 kg, Ti = 70 °C, Tf = 20 °C, c = 4200 J kg-1 °C-1, Q =?
Q = mc∆T
= 2 x 4200 x (70 – 20)
= 420 000 J.

#5 In an experiment, 920 000 J of energy is transferred to 2 kg of iron (c = 460 J

kg-1 °C-1). The initial temperature of iron is 25 °C. What is the final temperature of
the iron?

Answ:
Data:- Q = 920 000 J, m = 2 kg, Ti = 25 °C, c = 460 J kg-1 °C-
1

Q = mc(Tf – Ti)
Tf = (Q/mc) + Ti

89
 = 920 000/(2 x 460) + 25
= 1000 + 25
= 1 025 °C

8.11.3 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

The specific latent heat of vaporization LV of a substance is the amount of heat
needed to change mass of 1 kg of a liquid to vapour without change its
temperature. It measured in J/kg or J/g

Q = mLV where Q = energy supplied (J)

m = mass of the liquid (kg)

LV = sp. Lat. Heat of vaporization (J/kg)

8.11.4 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

It is the amount of heat needed to convert mass of 1 kg of a solid to liquid
without temperature change. It is measured in J/kg or J/g.

Q = mLf where Q = heat supplied (J)

m = mass of the solid (kg)
L f = sp. Lat. Heat of fusion (J/kg)

8.12 QUESTIONS
1. A heater supplies 42 J of energy every second (its power is then 42 W). It is
used to heat some water. The
temperature rises by 5 °C in 100 seconds. What is the heat capacity of the
water? A boy says it would take
times as long to raise the temperature to 50 °C. Is he right? Explain ypur
answer.

2. A beaker of oil and a beaker of water are heated on the same electric hot
plate. The beaker of oil has a

90
 lower thermal capacity than the beaker of water. What can you say about
how the temperatures change?

3. The heat capacity of a thermocouple is mall. Give two advantages which

result from this.

4. What is meant by the specific heat capacity of a substance?

5. Calculate the energy lost by 2.5 kg of steam at 100 °C when it condenses,

cools down to 0 °C and solidifies
at that temperature.
Specific latent heat of steam = 2 260 000 J/kg
Specific latent capacity of water = 4200 J/(kg °C)
Specific latent heat of water = 336 000 J/kg

6. A heater raises the temperature of 1.25 kg of water by 20 °C in 30 seconds.

The specific heat capacity of
water is 4200 J/(kg °C). Calculate an approximate value for the power of the
heater. Use this value for the
power to calculate M, the mass of water boiled away each second when the
temperature reaches 100 °c.
Assume that the specific latent heat of vapourisation of water is 2.26 x 10 6
J/kg. Explain whether the actual
rate at which water is boiled away is greater than or less than M

7. Explain why a drink is cooled more by ice than by the same mass of water at
0 °C.

8. It takes 80 000 J of heat to raise the temperature of 500 g of porridge from

20 °C to 50 °C. Calculate the
specific heat capacity of porridge.

9. An experiment was conducted to measure the specific latent of fusion. Ice

was placed in a funnel and

91
 heated for a fixed time. The water from the melted ice was collected in a
beaker as shown in the diagram.

The mass of the empty beaker was 50 g. A 100 W heater was used to heat the ice for 2
min. After the jeater was switched off the mass of the beaker and the melted ice was 83
g. Use the results to calculate a value for Lf, the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
Explain why your answer is different from the accepted value of 340 J g -1.

TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

There are three methods by which thermal energy can be transferred from a hotter region
to a coder region ie through a temperature gradient.

a) Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy from a region of hotter to region of lower
temperature without movement of matter

In conduction – molecules are made to move faster

i) by the transfer of fast electrons, or

ii) by mutual interaction.

b) Convection is the flow of thermal energy through a fluid from a region of higher to
region of lower temperature by the movement of the fluid (liquids and gases).

In convection– hot molecules are made to move from one place to another due to change
of density.

c) Radiation is the flow of thermal energy from one place to another by means of
electromagnetic waves

92
– molecules are made to move faster when electromagnetic waves fall on them.

Heat transfer in solids – conduction

This mode of heat transfer occurs mainly in solids.

Motion of electrons:

When a solid e.g. metal bar is heated at one end, heat travels and soon reaches the other
end. This happens because of the free electrons surrounding the atoms of the metal which
move faster and go towards the cooler parts.

Collisions between these electrons and the stationary atoms at the cooler end of the metal
result in the transfer of kinetic energy from the electrons to the atoms. As the ‘warm’
electrons move from the hotter region to the cooler region, ‘cooler’ electrons move in the
opposite direction to take their place. In this way heat is transferred from one place to
another without any apparent movement of the transmitting substance. The diagram
below illustrates this conduction mechanism.

The faster electrons (indicated by the longer

arrows) diffuse in the region occupied by the
slower electrons) indicated by shorter arrows), and
vice-versa. The energy is transferred.

Also note that the vibrating atoms are responsible

for some thermal conduction:

If they jostle each other, energy can be

passed from one part of the solid to another.

This second conduction mechanism cannot be very effective, since high rates of
conduction of heat are only by substances with conduction electrons. There are
exceptions, however, some non-metals (i.e. substances without conduction electrons) are
as good conductors as some metals.

As the conduction electrons can transfer both electric charge and internal energy, we see
why the same substances are good conductors of both electricity and heat.

Experiment to demonstrate rates of heat

conduction

93
Heat flows along the rods at different rates and the pins drop off after varying lengths of
time. In the experiment the pin on copper drops off first followed by iron and lastly on
glass. This confirms that metals have very high thermal conductivity. Other solid
materials such as glass, wood and plastics conduct heat very slowly and are bad
conductors or insulators.

An experiment below shows that water is actually a bad conductor of heat

Note the order in which processes happen.

The water at the top of the tube boils, while the

ice remains solid (does not melt) at the bottom.
Eventually slow conduction of heat through the water and the walls of the glass
test tube melts the ice.

Liquids (except molten metals such as mercury) are usually bad conductors of heat. It is
important to also note that air is a very poor conductor of heat and is an important
insulator.

When we feel cold we put on warm clothes. Clothes do not supply heat to our bodies, so
how do they make us feel warm? Warm clothes usually contain a lot of trapped air.
Pockets of air are held between the fibres of woolen materials and in holes like those in
string vests. In a similar way birds fluff up their feathers to trap more air around them to
keep them warm.

Fibre glass and expanded polystyrene are used as insulators in houses; both these
materials owe their insulating properties to large amount of trapped air they contain.

Heat transfer through fluids – convection

Heat can flow through liquids and gases (fluids) by means of convection currents.

Convection currents are a flow of liquid or gas caused by a change in density, in which
the whole medium moves and carries heat energy with it.

Note; a) convection can not happen in solids because the molecules have fixed relative
positions.

b) convection is more effective in gases than in liquids.

94
Demonstration of convection

Explanation convection current: An increase in temperature

usually causes an increase in volume The warm
particles become less dense and rises up. A given
mass of warm fluid, will therefore experience an up-
thrust (from cooler fluid that surround it) greater than
its own weight. The cold denser fluid thus provides a
force that causes the warm fluid to rise.

Example of convection

a) cloud formation – warm moist air rises before condensing into rain.

b) winds – caused by differences in air pressure which arises from uneven heating of
masses of air.

c) the art of gliding is to trace and use hot air currents (as done by sea gulls – birds)

d) the domestic hot water supply.

e) Land and sea breezes

RADIATION- heat transfer by Electromagnetic

Radiation is the flow of heat in form of electromagnetic waves requiring no tangible

medium.

It is the type of wave motion given out by accelerated electric charges, and it results in
the transfer of energy form one place to another. In particular the infra-red waves have
frequencies such that they are easily absorbed by particles of matter, and are therefore
effective at warming matter.

Warm objects give out or radiate infrared waves (heat waves – radiant heat). But if they
become hotter they emit shorter wavelengths which may include light. This is why a
radiant heater or grill starts to ‘glow red’ hot when it heats up.

Emitters and Absorbers

Some surfaces are better at emitting (sending -out) thermal radiation than others. For
example, black saucepan cools down quickly than a similar white one because it emits
energy at a faster rate.

95
White or silver surfaces are poor absorbers because they reflect most of the thermal
radiation away. This is why, in hot, sunny countries, houses are often painted white to
keep them cool inside. The inside of a black car warms up more rapidly than a white one
on a sunny day.

Illustration: Good/ bad absorbers of thermal radiation

If two coins of the same value are stuck on outside

of each plate with candle wax, some minutes after
the heater has been switched on, the wax on the
black surface melts and the coin falls off. The
white surface is still cooler and the wax does not
melt.

The experiment shows that black surfaces are better absorbers of thermal radiation than
white surfaces. Dull black are the best absorbers of thermal radiation; silvery
mirror-like surfaces are poorest absorbers. Silvery surfaces reflect almost all the
thermal radiation striking them.

Illustration: Good/ bad emitters of thermal radiation

Holding the back of your hands on either sides of

hot copper plate which has one side polished and
the other blacked, it is found that the black
surface is a better emitter of radiation than the
polished surface. Dull black surfaces are also
the best emitters of thermal radiation, silvery mirror-like surfaces are the poorest
emitters.

Therefore:“The greater the amount of thermal radiation absorbed, the greater will
be the emission”, so good absorbers are also good emitters and vice-versa.

Good emitters of thermal radiation are also good absorbers, as shown in the chart below.

Summary on emitters and absorbers

96
APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER

Car cooling system-most car engines are cooled

by convection currents in the water pipes. A pump
is often used to help water to circulate. This is
‘forced convention’.

Water is very good substance to carry the

unwanted heat away from the engine to the
radiator. Here the radiator is a heat exchanger
where the hot water gives up its energy to air. The
radiators are usually painted black to increase
their heat exchange function.

SOLAR HEATING (solar panel)-some house have a solar pane like shown below. It
uses the sun’s thermal radiation to warm up water for the house. The black layer absorbs

97
thermal radiation and warms up water flowing through the pipes. Why are the pipes
coiled?

Illustration: solar panel (water heating system)

The vacuum flask (thermos flask)

A vacuum flask can keep drinks hot (or cold) for hours. It has
these features fro reducing the rate of thermal energy floe in
or out.

a) An insulated stopper to reduce conduction and

convection.
b) A double-walled container with gap between the walls.
Air has been removed from the gap to reduce
conduction and convection.
c) Walls with shinny surfaces to reduce thermal
radiation.

Illustration: Thermos flask

Greenhouse effects

On a sunny day, a greenhouse becomes a ‘heat trap’. Short-wavelength thermal radiation

from the sun passes easily through the glass and warms up the materials inside. The
warmed materials emit thermal radiation, but at longer wavelengths that do not pass
through the glass so easily. Radiation id reflected back into the greenhouse, so the
temperature rises.

The earth’s contains a small amount of carbon

dioxide gas. This has a similar effect to the
glass in a greenhouse- it lets the sun’s thermal
energy to warm the earth, but reflects he
earth’s radiation back. Without this natural
greenhouse effect the earth would be 30 oC
colder than it is. Extra carbon dioxide from
burning fuels is adding to the effect and
causing global warming. Illustration: Green house effect

98
 Other everyday consequences of thermal transfer

1) Land and sea breezes- are set up by earth-sea temperature differences. During
the day the land heats up more quickly than water in the sea. Hot air above the
land rises causing cool and heavier air from the sea to come and replace it (sea
breeze). At night the reverse occurs. The diagram below illustrates this.

2) Day and nights in deserts – days tend to be very hot due to radiant heat from the
heated sand. Nights also tend to be very cold due to lack of cloud cover. There is
nothing to act like a greenhouse.
3) Cyclones-are regions where the atmospheric pressure is lower than average and
hence winds blow spirally inwards towards the pressure center.

The existence of cyclones is attributed to convection currents creating differences in air

pressure at certain localities. Cyclones like typhoons can be very destructive where they
pass.

99
100
 GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES
Wave: This is a backward and forward or up and down movement of particles of an
elastic medium when they vibrate.
Or
Wave: This is a disturbance of particles of mater that results in transfer of energy.
Properties of Wave
Wavelength (λ): This is the distance occupied by one complete wave.
Or
the distance between successive crests/peaks or troughs.
Or
the distance between successive (following each other) and corresponding (similar)
positions (parts) of a wave.
Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ). Since wavelength is distance,
it measured in units of length and the SI unit is the metre (m).

Amplitude (A): this is the maximum distance a particle moves from its rest position
when a wave passes.

Or

the maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position when a wave passes.

It is also measured in units of length and the SI unit is the metre (m).

Frequency (f):Is the number of complete waves (cycles) produced per second. It is
measured in hertz (Hz). Frequency can be calculated from the expression below;

Number of complete cycle(waves )

frequency(f )=
time (t )

101
 Speed (υ): This is the distance covered by a wave in a second. It is measured in metres
per second.

The speed is related to wavelength and frequency through the wave equation as shown
below.

Wave equation

υ=f ×λ where λ is wavelength , f is frequency and υ is speed.

TYPES OF WAVES

There are two types of waves namely;

a). Longitudinal wave

b). Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave: A wave in which the direction of travel of wave and the direction in
which the particles are vibrating coincide.

In a longitudinal wave the particles of the elastic medium vibrate backward and forward
to produce a series of compressions (high pressure region) and rarefactions (region of low
pressure).

Examples;

1. Waves traveling along a stretched “slinky” spring with one end fixed and the
other moving rapidly backward and forward. The movement of the moving end is
transmitted from turn to turn of the spring.
2 . Sound waves
Transverse wave: A wave in which the particles are vibrating at right angle to the
direction of travel of the wave.

The vibrations could either be up and down or side to side.

102
 Examples;

1. Waves traveling along a stretched “slinky” spring with one end fixed and the
other moving rapidly from side to side. The movement of the moving end is
transmitted from turn to turn of the spring.
2. Waves traveling across the surface of water when a stone has been dropped in a
pond. Ripples move out from the place where the stone was dropped.
3. Waves traveling along a rope with one end fixed and the other moving up and
down. The movement of the moving end is transmitted from part to part of the
through the whole rope.
4. All the electromagnetic waves such as: light, radio waves, microwaves, gamma
rays and so on.

WAVES PROPERTIES EXERCISE

1(a) Find the wavelength of a sound wave which has a frequency of 1.0 kHz, if the speed
of sound is air 330 m/s.

b) Find the frequency of radio wave which has a wavelength of 3000m. (speed of radio
waves = 3.0 *108 m/s)

c) Find the speed of a water wave produced by a 2.0 Hz vibrator in a ripple tank if
successive crests are 5.0 cm apart.

2. The diagram below shows a section through a wave travelling in water in the

direction shown.

a)i) find the ii) amplitude iii) wavelength

b) if the wave travels 32.0 cm in 2.0 s, find its) speed ii) frequency

c) Use appropriate symbols to show on the diagram above i) amplitude ii) wavelength

103
 REFLECTON OF Light

Reflection is the bouncing off of light on certain surfaces.

Reflection by a plane mirror

A plane is a flat smooth reflecting surface which by regular reflection is used to form
images. It has a reflecting and silvered surfaces in most cases shown by shading behind
the reflecting surface.

Types of reflection

Investigating Laws of reflection

The laws of reflection are true for all reflecting surfaces, for curved mirrors as well as
plane mirrors (surfaces). A plane mirror is more simple and convenient to use.

Apparatus :plane mirror, sheet of paper, protractor, ray box/ optical pins

Expt set-up

104
 REFRACTION

REFRACTION: is the bending of light when traveling form one medium to another with
different optical densities.

Terms used in optics

Incident ray: original ray of light from the source of light

Refracted ray: ray of light that has been bent as it passes between media.

Emergent ray: ray of light leaving a medium after refraction.

¿
Incident angle (angle of incidence (i )): angle measured between the incident ray and
the normal line at point of incidence.
¿
Angle of refraction (r ): angle measured between the refracted ray and the normal line
at point of incidence.
¿
Emergent angle (e ): angle measured between the emergent ray and the normal line at
point of emergence.

Normal: imaginary dotted line drawn perpendicularly at points of incident or emergence

FACTS ABOUT REFRACTION

1. A ray of light bends away from the normal when moving from an optically
denser medium to an optically less dense medium.

105
 2. A ray of light bends towards the normal when entering an optically
denser medium from an optically less dense medium.
3. A ray of light entering along the normal is not refracted- goes without any
deviation.
4. A ray of light incident inside a denser medium at critical angle is refracted
such that it is perpendicular to that surface of incidence.
5. The incident ray is always parallel to the emergent ray.

DEMONSTRATION OF
REFRACTION-
DETERMINATION OF
REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)

Materials

Illustration:
refraction through a
glass block

Glass block, pencil, 4 optical

pins, drawing board, plain paper, ruler and a protractor

Procedure:

1. Place the plain paper on the drawing board

2. Place the glass block in the middle of the plain paper and trace its
boundary(outline) using pencil
3. Insert optical pins 1 and 2 (P1 and P2) at an angle on one side of the glass block
such that they are in a straight line to the surface of the glass block.
4. Insert optical pins 3 and 4 (P3 and P4) on the other side of the glass block such that
they are in a straight line with images of P1 and P2 as seen through the glass block.
5. Remove the glass block and the optical pins and join positions of P1 and P2 with a
straight line to represent the incident ray (include an arrow to show direction of the
ray)
6. Join positions of P3 and P4 with a straight line to represent the emergent ray
(include an arrow to show direction of the ray)
7. Trace the path of the ray inside the glass block by joining the points of incident and
emergence together using a straight line- this represent the refracted ray.
8. use a protractor to draw a normal line at the point of incidence and measure the
angles of incidence and refraction
9. calculate the refractive index of the glass block using the expression below

106
 sin i speed of light ∈the air
refractive index(n )=
sin r or n = speed of light ∈ glass ¿
¿

REFRACTIVE INDEX IN TERMS OF REAL DEPTH AND APPARENT DEPTH

Refraction causes:

(i) An object (e.g. a coin) placed at the bottom

of a container holding water to appear
nearer the surface than it is.
(ii) Objects (e.g. ruler or pencil) to appear bent
when placed in a container holding water.
The light rays from the point O of the
pencil which is resting on the bottom
of the container are refracted away
from the normal N1 and N2 as shown;
the pencil appears bent when viewed from above the surface of water.

To locate the image of the object construction lines are drawn straight
backward from the points of emergence.

(iii) Bottom of a pool to appear near the surface than it actually is.
The above examples give rise to what is known as real and apparent depths of the water
as illustrated below.

Illustration: real and apparent depths

The refractive index of a material (e.g. water

or glass) can be calculated using real and
apparent depths by the expression below;

real depth
refractive index(n )=
apparent depth

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

107
The angle the ray makes with the normal in air is always greater than the angle it makes
with the normal in the medium (x > y).

When the angle of incidence inside the medium is increased gradually the angle of
refraction also increases proportionately. Eventually the angle of refraction becomes 90 o.

The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is 90 is
called the critical angle c. (refer to figure b)

When the angle of incidence inside the denser medium is greater than the critical angle
no light can escape fro the denser medium and the light ray is said to be totally
internally reflected. (refer to figure c)

Illustration: critical angle and total internal reflection

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Total internal reflection is used in fibre optics either in

A fibre optic is made of high quality glass of high refractive index coated with a thin
layer of lower refractive index. A ray of light entering the end of the thin fibre optic that
strikes at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle is totally internally reflected
along the whole length of the fibre.

Illustration: Fibre optic

a). Communication-
passing signals as
light impulses
b). Medicine- used to
view internal

108
 organs or connected to surgical instruments to enable operations of such
organs.
c). Periscope- view around obstacles
LENSES AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Lenses are made with a great of variety of shapes and or different kinds of glass but they
all belong to either the converging group or the diverging group of lenses. The
converging type of lens converges (brings together) rays of light and the diverging type
diverges (spreads out) rays of light.

As can be seen in the figure below, the converging lenses are all thicker in the centre than
at the edge whereas the diverging lenses are all thinner in the center than at the edge.

Lens shapes

Lens definitions

The principal axis of a lens is the line joining the

centres of curvature of its surfaces.

The optical centre of a lens L is the point midway

between the lens surfaces on its principal axis. Rays
passing through the optical center are not deviated.

The principal focus F of a converging lens is the

point to which all rays incident parallel to the
principal axis converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is real.

The principal focus F of a diverging lens is the point from which all rays incident
parallel to the principal axis appear to converge after refraction by the lens. This focus is
virtual.

The focal length f of a lens is the distance between its optical centre and the principal
focus.

NB A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side of the lens. When drawing ray
diagrams the principal focus F is marked on both side of the principal axis.

109
Standard rays

In ray diagrams, any two of the following rays are needed to fix the image position and
size:

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis passes through F after leaving the lens.

2. A ray through F’ leaves the lens parallel to the principal axis.

3. A ray through the centre passes straight through the lens.

NB:

 For simplicity, rays are drawn from just one point on the object. In reality rays are
from every different on the object.
 Only two rays are needed to fix where the image is.
 For simplicity, rays are shown bending at the line through the middle of the lens.
In reality, bending takes place at each surface.
Images formed by converging lens

Object O, uses Ray diagram Image i

110
a) o between F and L i) virtual

i)magnifying glass ii)erect

ii)instrument eye piece iii)magnified

iii)Spectacles iv)on same side

correction for long- of lens as O and
sightedness further away

b) O at F

Produces a parallel
beam of light as in a
spot light with lamp at At infinity
O.

c) O between F and 2F i) real

ii) inverted

i) projector iii) magnified

ii) microscope iv) on opposite

objective lens side of lens to O,
beyond 2F.

i) real

d) O at 2F ii) inverted

iii) Same size as

O.
Camera making equal
size copies iv) on opposite
side of the lens
to O, at 2F.

111
e) O beyond 2F i) real

ii) inverted

i) camera iii) diminished

ii) the eye iv) on opposite

side of lens,
between F and
2F.

This is diagram
c) reversed.

f) O at infinity i) real

ii) inverted

Objective lens of a iii) diminished

telescope.
iv) on opposite
side of lens at F.

This is diagram
b) reversed

112
 COMMON PROPPERTIES of ELECTROMAGNETIC (WAVES) SPECTRUM

There exists a family of waves resulting from magnetic and electric forces of matter
called
Electromagnetic
waves.

This family of waves

is called the Electromagnetic spectrum.

All of these waves have the common properties

a) They are all transverse waves, They travel at velocity of light in vacuum (
m
c=3×108
s)
b) They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted
c) They obey the wave equation v=f ×λ
NAME AND
TYPICAL
SOURCES DETECTORS SPECIAL PROPERTIES
WAVELENGTH

*very penetrating

Gamma rays Nuclei of Photographic *very dangerous when used without

() 10-12m radioactive film and control
atoms and Geiger-Muller
*used t kill dangerous growths e.g.
cosmic rays (GM )tube
cancer cells

*used t find flaws in metals. Special

detectors can reveal weakness in a
metal.

*used to sterilise equipment, they can

kill bacteria and very dangerous
micro-organisms

*very penetrating, so overexposure to

them can be very dangerous
Photographic
film and *used to take X-rays pictures in order
X-rays 10-10m X-ray tube
fluorescent to detect bone fractures, lung
screen

113
 diseases, stomach diseases

*used to treat skin disorders

*used to study crystal structures in

solids by X-ray crystallography

*it is absorbed by the glass and a

considerable amount of that coming
from the sun is absorbed by the
atmosphere’s upper layers which
contain a very large concentrate of
Ozone gas.
Ultraviolet Sun, very *causes many chemical reactions,
radiation (UV) hot objects, some materials fluoresce when they
Photographic
electric arcs absorb ultraviolet radiation. For
10--8m film, photocell
and sparks, example, washing powder contain
fluorescent
mercury chemicals which fluoresce when they
chemicals
vapour absorb UV, they make clothes look
lamps whiter than white in daylight and
glow when disco lights strike them.

*UV from the sun is used by the skin

to produce vitamin D, but causes sun
tan.

*UV lamps are used in medicine for

skin treatment, but excess is harmful,
and can cause skin diseases and
damage the retina.

*UV is frequently used to kill bacteria

and living cells

*can be used against fraud in identify

false signatures in bank cheques

*essential for photosynthesis and

plant growth
Visible light Sun, hot Photographic
0.6 * 10-8m objects, film, eye and *used for communication systems:

114
 lamps and photocells lasers and optical fibres (very thin
lasers glass rods, within which light or laser
can be totally internally reflected)

*used in identifying substances in

chemistry flame tests

Special As the temperature rise, an objects

photographic give out more and moreIR, the
Infra-red Sun, warm
films, wavelengths become shorter since the
radiation (IR) and hot
semiconductor molecules vibrate more vigorously. At
objects such
10-4m devices such about 700o C the radiation changes
as fires,
as LDR (light into visible light.
people,
dependent
animals *used for photography through haze
resistor or
and fog, it is not scattered as much as
photoresistor)
visible light.
photodiode
and skin *used to provide special information,
such as infected crops, contrasting
vegetation and so on by means of
photographs taken by satellites

Microwave *long and medium waves will diffract

ovens, TV around a hill so that a signal on a
Aerials
and radios, radio wave can be detected even
connected to
Radio waves transmitters when a hill blocks the direct route
tuned electric
using from the transmitting aerial.
3m circuit in radio
electric (Diffraction is when a wave passes the
and TV sets
circuits and edge of an object)
aerials
Long and medium waves are also
where
reflected by layers of charged
electrons
particles in the earth’s upper
are forced
atmosphere so that long distance
to oscillate
reception is also possible despite the
curvature of the earth’s surface.

*VHF and UHF (TV) waves have

shorter wavelengths. They are not
reflected by upper atmospheric layers

115
 and are diffracted only slightly by hills.
Good receptions are only possible for
straight paths of waves.

*microwaves are used fir cooking,

telephone, satellites communications,
radar detection of ships, aircrafts,
missiles…..

*radio waves are used in

radioastronomy

Sound
Sound is the energy produced by vibrating sources e.g. drum skin, guitar string, cone of
loud speaker etc.

The illustration below shows how cone of a loud speaker produces sound.

The changing alternating current from the amplifier makes the cone to vibrate (i.e.
pushing forward and backwards repeatedly). When the cone pushes forward it pushes
the air molecules close together (onto each other) creating a high pressure region called
compression. When the cone pulls back it creates a temporary vacuum in front of it.
Air molecules then spread into this vacuum which leads to a low pressure region called
rarefaction. The continued vibrations of the cone lead to a series of compressions and
rarefactions as denoted by the “C”s for Compressions and “R”s for Rarefactions in the
diagram below.

116
The compressions and rarefactions eventually reach the ear and make its constituent
parts to vibrate the same way. the brain senses these vibrations and interpret them as a
particular sound.

Points of note

1. The direction of vibration of the loudspeaker cone, hence the air molecules
through which sound travels, is parallel to the direction of propagation (travel) of
the sound. Thus sound is a longitudinal9 wave.

2. Sound travels by pushing together (compressing) or pulling apart

(decompressing) the particles of a medium through which it travels. So a
material medium is required for the transmission of sound waves.
3. Because sound travels by compressing and decompressing particles of a material
medium, then it suffices that sound travels fastest in solids. This is because
particles of a solid are closely packed already so compressing and decompressing
them takes a shorter time. Sound travels slowest in gases. The order of
magnitude of sound in states of matter is shown below.

Experiment: Speed of sound in air

Aim: to determine the speed of sound in air

Apparatus

9
A longitudinal wave is the one in which the direction of propagation (travel) of the wave is parallel to the
direction of vibration of the medium through which it propagates. When these directions are perpendicular
the wave is said to be transverse.

117
 Starter’s gun (to provide the sound)
 Measuring tape (to measure the distance)
 Stop clock (to measure the time)
 Wall (to act as sound barrier)

Set-up; the apparatus were set-up as shown below,

Procedure

The starter’s gun was positioned a distance, d = 200.000m from the wall, measured
using a measuring tape and recorded. The starter’s gun was fired and the stop-clock
started at the same time. The stop-clock was stopped upon hearing the echo from the
wall. The time, t, taken by sound to travel to the wall and back was read from the stop-
clock and recorded. This procedure was repeated five times and the average time, <t>,
taken by sound to travel to the wall and back calculated and recorded. The distance, S,
travelled by sound to the wall and back was calculated from formula, S = 2d, and
recorded. The speed of sound, v, was calculated from formula, v, and recorded.

Results and Analysis

Distance of the starter’s gun from the wall, d = m

Distance travelled from the wall and back, S = 2d = m

Table of results

Reading no 1 2 3 4 5 Average

time taken, t (seconds)

Discussions

118
Students are to complete the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and
the precautions they took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

Parallax error in the measurement A large distance was used so that percentage
of distance from the wall error due to parallax will be small

Human reaction time in the Several readings were taken and the average
measurement of time used

Conclusion

The speed of sound in air was found to be, v = m/s

Audible range
Not all sounds can be heard. Only sounds having frequencies within a certain range can
be heard. This range is called Audible Range (audible means hear-able).

Human Audible range (20 Hz to 20 000 Hz)

The audible range for humans is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This means that human beings can’t
hear sounds having frequencies less than 20 Hz or greater than 20 kHz.

Example 1

Determine whether sound can be heard if it has the following frequencies

(v) 4 Hz
(vi) 180 Hz
(vii) 40 kHz
Solutions

Sound can be heard, iff (if and only if) its frequency satisfies the inequality 20Hz <f <20

kHz

119
 (v) f = 4 Hz < 20 Hz so it’s too low to be heard. i.e. it wont be heard
(vi) f = 180 Hz which falls within the range 20Hz <f <20 kHz. Sound will be heard.
(vii) f = 40 kHz> 20 KHz so it’s too high to be heard. i.e. it wont be heard
Exercise

Determine whether sound can be heard if it has the following frequencies

(i) 1 Hz
(ii) 150 Hz
(iii) 2500 Hz
(iv) 70000 Hz
(v) 3 GHz
Experiment: Human Audible Range

Aim: to determine the audible range for humans

Apparatus

 Power supply unit (to be a source of electricity)

 Signal generator (to vary the frequencies)
 Loud speaker (to produce the sound)
 Connecting wire (to complete the circuit)

Set-up; the apparatus were set-up as shown below,

Procedure

The apparatus were connected as shown above. The frequency of the signal generator,
f, was set to 10 Hz and recorded. The power supply switched on and the loud speaker
listened to so as to determine if it produces any audible sound, the results were
recorded. The procedure was repeated with the frequency setting, f, of the signal
generator increased at 1 Hz intervals until the loud speaker produced some audible
sound. The frequency setting of the signal generator was then varied by the smallest

120
division within each power of ten until the loud speaker no longer produced audible
sound.

Results and Analysis

Tables of results

Frequency, f ×1 Hz

(Hz) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2 22 23
1

Sound heard?

yes (√) OR no
(×)

Frequency, f ×10 Hz ×100 Hz

(Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sound heard?

yes (√) OR no
(×)

Frequency, f ×1000 Hz ×10000 Hz

(Hz) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Sound heard?

yes (√) OR no
(×)

Discussions

Students are to fill in the table below by stating the possible source(s) of error and the
precautions they took to minimise the effects of such errors.

Possible sources of error Precautions taken

121
Conclusion

The human audible range was found to be Hz to Hz

Audible range for other animals

Human beings can only hear sounds having frequencies greater than 20 Hz and less than
20 kHz. This range, 20 Hz to 20 kHz, narrows further with age. However, some animals
can hear sounds having much higher frequencies than 20 kHz. For example, dogs can
hear sounds having frequencies up to 50 kHz i.e. 50 kHz. Thus a burglar alarm set at 40
kHz would alert a guard dog of the intruder’s presence. The dog will hear the loud
ringing of the alarm at 40 kHz but the intruder will hear nothing (complete silence). Bats
can hear sounds of even higher frequencies, up to 150 kHz i.e. 150 000 Hz.

122
 MAGNETISM

A magnet is a object that attracts certain other materials which are made from magnetic
materials.

a. Magnetic material
Magnets only attract strongly certain materials such as iron, steel, nickel,
cobalt which are called ferro-magnetics.

b. Magnetic poles
These are places in a magnet to which magnetic materials are attracted.
They are near the ends of a bar magnet and occur in pairs of equal
strength.

Note: There can never be a one pole existing on its own (monopole), if a
magnet is cut into small pieces each piece will have its own South and
North pole.

Illustration: Poles
of a bar magnet

c. North and South pole

If a magnet is supported so that it can swing in a horizontal plane it
comes to rest with one pole, the north-seeking pole or North (N) pole
pointing roughly towards the Earth’s north pole, a south-seeking pole or
South (S) pole pointing towards the Earth’s south pole. A magnet can
therefore be used as a compass.

Illustration: South an d North poles

d. Law of magnetic poles

If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the N pole of a
suspended magnet repulsion occurs i.e. the suspended
magnet moves away. The two south poles also repel. By

123
 contrast, N and S poles always attract. The law of magnetic poles
summarises these facts and states that:

Note: A magnetic material is attracted to both South and North poles of a

magnet by inducing an opposite pole on the near end of the magnetic
material. This means attraction can not be used to determine whether an
object is a magnet or not. The only reliable test for a magnet is REPULSION
since similar poles would repel each other.

Like poles repel and unlike poles attract

Magnetic and Non-magnetic materials

A magnetic material is one which can be magnetized and is attracted to magnets. All
strongly magnetic materials contain iron, nickel, or cobalt. For example, steel is mainly
iron.

Strongly magnetic metals like these are called ferromagnetics. They are descried as hard
or soft depending on how well they keep their magnetism when magnetized.

Hard magnetic materials such as steel and alloys called Alcomax and Magnadur are
difficult to magnetize but do not readily lose their magnetism. They are used for
permanent magnets.

Soft magnetic materials such as iron and Mumetal are relatively easy to magnetize but
their magnetism is temporal. They are used in the cores of electromagnets and
transformers because their magnetic effect can be switched o or off or reversed easily.

Illustration: Hard and soft magnetic material

124
In the above diagrams it shows that iron is a soft magnetic material while steel is a hard
magnetic material.

Non- magnetic materials can not be magnetized unlike magnetic materials. These
include metals such as copper, brass, zinc, tin and aluminium.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL

Procedure:

A strip of iron and a strip of steel of the same dimensions, both initially unmagnetised
are placed side by side in contact with a pole of a magnet as shown below.

Observations:

Both strips become magnetized by

induction, and on dipping their free
ends into iron filings it is noticed
that slightly more cling to the iron
than steel. If both strips are held
firmly in the fingers while the
magnet is removed it is noticed that
practically all the iron filings fall
from the iron strip while few fall from steel strip.

Conclusion:

Iron is a soft magnetic material while steel is a hard magnetic material.

INDUCED MAGNETISM

125
Materials like iron and steel are attracted to a magnet because they themselves become
magnetized when a magnet is nearby. The magnet induces some magnetism in them.
The induced pole nearest the magnet is opposite of the pole of the magnet.

Induced magnetism can be used to from a ‘magnetic chain’ as shown below.

Illustration: Induced magnetism

DOMAIN THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The domain theory of magnetism regards each individual atom or molecule of a

magnetic material as a small magnet with north and south pole, i.e. as a dipole. A close
group of atoms (domain) may have the magnetic axis in the same direction (fig. a).
Given that the heads of the arrows represent the north poles, the net effect of the
domain is represented by a single arrow. In an un-magnetized specimen the axes in the
domains lie in closed chains, or pointing in random directions thereby canceling out or
giving very small net magnetism (fig. b). When all the domains are aligned in one
direction the specimen is magnetized with the poles near the end (fig. c).

Illustration: Domain theory of magnetism

MAGNETIC SATURATION

Not all the dipoles and or domains of a magnetic material can be aligned in one
direction. This means there is a maximum aligned of domains and or dipoles of a
magnetic material. When no further alignment of dipoles is possible the material is said
to be magnetically saturated.

126
 Methods of Magnetization

There are two methods of magnetization which are the electrical and stroking methods.

a)Electrical method

The best method of making a magnet is to use the magnetic

effect of an electric current.

Procedure: A steel bar is put inside a solenoid (a cylindrical

conducting coil wound with 500 or more turns of insulated
copper wire is connected in series with a 6 or 12 V electrical battery and switched on as
shown below). A short but very large pulse of electric current through the solenoid
produces a strong magnetic field. This magnetizes the steel bar by aligning the magnetic
dipoles in the iron core.

A rule for poles: The RIGHT- HAND RULE

The polarity of the magnet depends on the direction of flow of the electrical current.
This is determined by the right–hand rule. It states that if the fingers of the right-hand
grip the solenoid in the direction of the current
(convectional-flows from positive to negative terminal) the
THUMB points to the North pole.

Illustration: The Right-Hand rule

b)Stroking method

Two methods can be used;

i)Single touch: in this method, a (steel) bar is stroked from one end to end several times
in the same direction with one pole of a magnet Between successive strokes the pole is
lifted high above the bar, otherwise magnetism
already induced in it will tend to be weakened.

The disadvantage of the above method is that it

produces magnets in which one pole is nearer
the end of the bar than the other.

127
ii)Divided touch is better than single touch. In this method the (steel) bar is stroked
from the centre outwards with unlike poles of two magnets simultaneously as below.

NB: The polarity produced at that end of the bar (for

both methods) where the stroking finishes is opposite
kind to that of the stroking pole.

DEMAGNETIZATION

Anything which tends to disarrange the parallel magnetic dipoles in a magnet will
reduce its magnetism.

 Storing a magnet without keepers will weaken its magnetism over a period of
time.
 Heating a magnet to a high temperature causes greatly increased vibrations of its
atoms which will totally destroy any magnetization of the material.
 Dropping and knocking magnets can disarrange tiny magnetic dipoles.
 An alternating current in an electromagnet can be used to demagnetize
magnets. The change in direction of current disorganizes the dipoles and
domains.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

The space surrounding a magnet where it produces a magnetic force is called a

magnetic field, and contains something we call magnetic flux.

Magnetic flux is a vector quantity and, like all vectors, has magnitude and direction. It
may be represented by magnetic filed lines.

Direction of Magnetic Filed Lines

The direction of the field at any point should be the direction of the force on a N pole
and it can be determined by;

a) Plotting compass

128
 A plotting compass is a small pivoted magnet in a glass case with non-magnetic
metal walls.

Procedure;

 Place a bar magnet on a sheet of paper and

draw its outline.
 Position the plotting compass near one pole of
the magnet and mark dots A and B at the end
of its needle ie n and s poles
 Position the plotting copass needle pole originally at A now at B and mark
with another dot (C) the position of the other neddle pole.
 Continue to plot points in the direction indicated by the N pole of the
compass needle until reaching the N pole of the magnet.
 Join up the dots to show the
magnetic field lines.

b) Iron filing method

Procedure;

 Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet.

 Sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly onto the paper.
 Tap the paper gently.
Observations:

The iron filings should form patterns of the lines of force. Each filing turns in the
direction of the field when the paper is tapped.This method is quick but no use for weak
fields.

Typical Field Patterns

a) Single bar magnet

129
 b) Combined magnetic field due to two neighbouring magnets can also be plotted
to give patterns like those shown below.

In figure a, where two like poles are facing

each other, the point X is called neutral
point.

At X the field due to one magnet cancels out that due to other and there are no

lines of force.

ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet is a coil of wire wound on a soft iron or Mumetal core.

NB. If an electric current is passed through a wire, a weak magnetic field is produced.
The field has three features:

 The magnetic field lines are circular

 The field is strongest close to the wire
 Incr
easi
ng
the

current increases the strength of the field

The direction of the magnetic field produced by a current is given by RIGHT HAND GRIP
RULE, as on the figure above.

A current produces a stronger magnetic field in a solenoid than in one straight wire. The
magnetic field by a current-carrying coil has these features:

The field is similar to that of a bar magnet, and there are magnetic poles at the ends of
the coil.

 Increasing the current increases the strength of magnetic field

 Increasing the number of turns on the coil increases the strength of the field

130
 Unlike an ordinary permanent magnet, an
electromagnet can be switched on or off. When
current flows through the coil, it produces a
magnetic field. This magnetizes the core, creating
a magnetic field about a thousand times stronger
the coil by itself. With an iron or Mumetal core,
the magnetism is only temporary, and is lost as
soon as the current is switched off. Steel would
not be suitable as a core because it would become permanently magnetized.

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS

a) The magnetic relay

When the switch S in the input circuit

is closed, a current flows through the
electromagnet. This pulls the iron armature towards it, which closes the contacts C. As a
result the current flows through the motor.

b) The circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the

current in a circuit if this rises above a specified value. It has
the same effect as a fuse but, unlike a fuse, can be reset after it
has tripped.

131
In the type shown here, the current flows through two contacts and also through an
electromagnet. If the current gets too high, the pull of the electromagnet becomes
strong enough to release the iron catch, so the contacts open and stop the current.
Pressing the reset button closes the contacts again.

c) Electric bell

An electric bell contains an electromagnet that repeatedly switches itself off and on
rapidly, moving the bell hammer as it does so. The arrangement is called a ‘make or
break’ circuit. When you press the switch, current flows through the electromagnet,
which pulls the hammer across so that it strikes the gong. The movement separates the
contacts and switches off the electromagnet. So the hammer springs back, the contacts
close, the electromagnet pulls the hammer across again….. and so on.

USES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS

 Loudspeakers
 Generators
 Ammeter
 Electric drill

132
 MAGNETIC SHIELDING

Magnetic materials affect magnetic field in which it is placed. The lines of

force are drawn towards the magnetic material as shown below. For
diagrams a) and b) the bar magnet induces magnetism in the soft iron
materials. In diagram c) the lines of force moves along the material of the
iron ring and do not pass through the space in the middle of the ring. A
plotting compass placed in the middle of the ring does not experience any
magnetic effect of the bar magnet. This effect is called magnetic shielding.

Exercises:

Q1. The diagram below shows an electromagnet and I is the convectional current
flowing in the circuit.

a) What is the method used to locate the poles of the bar magnet called?
b) Describe the method identified above in (a).
c) Use the method to label the poles resulting in the iron bar.
d) What factors affect the strength of an electromagnet?

Q2. The diagrams below show the direction of magnetic force between two ends of bar
magnets.

133
a) What are the polarities at
(i) a is ----------------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------------pole
b) What is position X called?
c) Describe and explain what would happen when a few iron filings are placed at
point X.

d) Complete the field pattern between the poles of bar magnets below by
indicating the direction of the magnetic force.

Q3. The diagram below shows two soft iron nails hanging from the end of a magnet.

a) What is the effect that the magnet has on

the nails called?
b) What are the poles at the free ends the
nails?
c) What would happen when another nail is
brought in very close to the free ends of the
nails? Explain.
d) What is difference between the magnetic
properties of iron and steel?
e) What is likely to happen between the free ends of the iron nails in the
diagram below?

f) What are the polarities at

(i) a is ----------------pole

134
 (ii) b is ----------------pole

Q4. The diagram below shows a method of magnetizing a steel bar.

a) On the diagram above

(i) Show the direction of the
current.
(ii) Label the north pole of
magnetized steel bar.
b) Explain how you arrived at your
answer to (a) (ii).
c) State two uses of an electromagnet.
d) What would be the effect of using a
soft iron bar instead of steel bar?

Q5.The diagram below shows a method of magnetization.

a) Name the method.

b) What pole is induced at B?
c) The diagram below shows a bar magnet that is then cut into halves.
Label the poles of the halves and explain how you arrived at the
labeling.

Illustration: Magnetic screening by soft iron hollow box

135
Q6. a) What is magnetic shielding and the material used in
magnetic shielding?

b) State one application of magnetic shielding.

136
 ELECTRICITY

ELECTROSTATIC (STATIC ELECTRICITY)

All matter contain many electrons. When some of them are transferred from the surface of one
object to the surface of another, they produce what is known as static electricity.

Static electricity is transfer of charge (electrons)

STATIC CHARGE

This refers to charge that is not moving. The charge is absorbed in materials that have very few
free electrons.

If a sweater is taken off a crackling sound may be heard and, if in dark, may see sparks. A
person sometimes feels an electric shock after walking across a nylon carpet.

In these examples you have become charged by friction (rubbing). There is a transfer of
electrons between you and your sweater or you and the carpet.

 If a material gains electrons it becomes negatively charged.

 If electrons are lost the body becomes positively charged.

TYPES OF ELECTRICAL CHARGE

There are types of electrical charges, namely;

a) Negative charge (-) -which is carried by an electron.

b) Positive charge (+) – which is carried by a proton.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). Coulomb is the quantity of electric charge. The symbol
of charge is Q.

Example

If a polythene is rubbed with a duster it becomes negatively charged (gains electrons), but if an
acetate or perplex rod is rubbed with the same duster it becomes positively charged (looses
electrons). Why does this happen?

Explanation

In an atom negatively charged electrons orbit a small but massive nucleus that contains
positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons. The size of the charge on an electron is
equal in size to the charge on a proton. There are equal number of electrons and protons, so an
atom is uncharged (electrically neutral).

137
Therefore, when polythene is rubbed with a duster, electrons rub off the duster more easily
than they rub off the polythene. The polythene therefore gains electrons and becomes
negatively charged. The duster looses electrons and becomes positively charged. However the
duster is not a good insulator and electrons from the earth quickly pass through the hand that
holds it and neutralise the positive charge.

Exercise: Explain how the acetate rod

acquires the positive charge and how
and why the duster remains uncharged
(neutral). Use diagram b).

N.B.*only electrons can move between

rubbed objects.

*rubbing materials together does not make electrical charge. It just separates charges that are
already there.

*a negatively charged object has atoms which have more electrons than protons.

*a positively charged object has atoms which have fewer electrons than protons.

Forces between Charges

Procedure:

 Rub two polythene rods with a cloth

 Balance the two charged polythene rods on pivots.
 Bring another charged polythene rod near one polythene rod and a charged
perplex rod near another charged polythene rod.

Observations:

Conclusion: Like charges repel; unlike

charges attract (This statement is
sometimes called the Law of electric
charges)

138
INDUCED CHARGE (ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION)

Charges that “appear” on objects because there is a charged object nearby are called induced
charges.

Example of Electrostatic InductioN

The example below shows how induced charge may result in attraction.

The diagram on the left shows what happens if a positively charged rod is
brought near a small piece of aluminium foil. Electrons in the foil are pulled
towards the rod which leaves the bottom of the foil with a net positive
charge. As a result, the top of the foil is attracted to the rod, while the
bottom is repelled. However, the attraction is stronger because the attracting charges are closer
than the repelling ones.

Exercise: Draw the arrangement of positive and

negative charges in the spherical ball and explain the
observation thus made.

DETECTION OF CHARGE

Electrostatic charge can be detected using a gold leaf electroscope as

shown below.

If a charged object is placed near the cap, charges are induced in the
electroscope. Those in the gold leaf and metal plate repel, so the leaf
rises.

139
Illustration: Gold Leaf detecting charge

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Conductors: are materials that let electrons pass them. Metals are the best electrical
conductors. Some of their electrons are so loosely held to their atoms that they can pass freely
between them (metals generally have a sea of electrons). These free electrons also make
metals good thermal conductors. eg silver, gold, copper , aluminium

Insulators: These are materials that hardly conduct at all. Their electrons are tightly held to
atoms and are not free to move, although they can be transferred through rubbing. Carbon is
the only non metal that conducts electricity in the form graphite.

Charge Distribution on Different-Shaped Conductors

The amount of charge that accumulates at any given point on a surface depends on the
curvature at that point. The
greater the curvature i.e. the
smaller the radius, the
greater the charge
concentration at that point.
There is therefore a greater
concentration of charge at
the pointed end of a pear-
shaped conductor.

Effects of Discharging of
Static Charge

A common example of
discharging is the occurrence of lightning.

A tall building is protected by a lightning conductor consisting of a thick copper

strip on the out side of the building connecting metal spikes at the top to a
metal plate in the ground, figure below.

Thunderclouds carry charges and a negatively charged one passing overhead

repels electrons from the spikes to the earth. The points of the spikes are left
with a large positive charge (charge concentrates on sharp points) which
removes electrons from near by air molecules, so charging them positively and
causing them to be repelled from the spike. This effect, called action at points,
results in an ‘electric wind’ of positive air molecules streaming upwards to

140
cancel some of the charge on the clouds. If a flash does occur it is less violent and the conductor
gives it an easy path to ground.

Electric fields and forces

We have seen that a charged object can affect other objects nearby without touching them.
This action at a distance can be explained by what is called the electric field of the charged
object.

An electric charge sets up an electric field in the space surrounding it and an electric force is
exerted on any charged body placed on the field. Electric fields may be represented by electric
field lines.

 An electric field line is a line drawn in an electric field such that its direction at any
point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
 The direction of an electric field at any point is the direction of the force on a small
positive charge placed at the point.
 Such a small (point) positive charge would be repelled by positive charge and be
attracted to negative charge.

Electric field of point positive and negative charges

Interaction of Unlike and Like charges

Attraction repulsion

Unlike charges like charges

141
Below are two parallel electrodes with unlike charges, the arrows show the direction of the
electric field. When he electric fields line are closer it shows a stronger electric field.

Exercises

1.

2.

142
 1. Two metal spheres supported by insulating stands are held
in contact to each other and a negatively charged rod placed
near sphere B as shown.
a) Draw the induced charges in both sphere and explain
how this chare distribution results. [5]
b) The spheres are separated by their stands while the
negatively charged rod is in proximity of sphere B.
Draw the net charges in the separate spheres after
they are separated. [4]

4. A positively charged rod is brought near the cap of a gold leaf electroscope as shown below.

On the left side of the diagram above indicate by a diagram the possible observation made and
charge arrangement in the gold leaf. Explain the arrangement in terms of charge movement.
[8]

5. The diagram shows a light uncharged aluminium ball suspended with an insulating
thread. A negatively charged plate is held near the ball.

What happens to the ball?

A It moves towards the plate.

B It moves away from the plate.

C It will swing to and fro next to the plate.

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D It does not move.

6. The diagram below shows a negatively charged strip held near a metal rod, EF.

Which statement correctly describes the movement of charge?

A. The positive charge in the charged strip moves

towards E.

B. The positive charge in the metal rod moves

towards E.

C. The negative charge in the metal rod toward F.

D. The negative charge in the metal rod moves towards E.

6. An aircraft flies below a negatively charged thunder cloud. Movement of free electrons

causes electrostatic charges to be induced in the aircraft.

a) Show the positions and signs of the induced charges on

the aircraft. [2]
b) Explain, in terms of the movement of electrons, the
distribution of the charges you have shown. [1]

___________________________________________________________________________
_______

c) What will happen to the induced charges when the aircraft flies away from the cloud?
[1]

144
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Common Circuitry symbols

ELECTRIC CURRENT

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge or electrons.

 The electrons move from negative terminal to the positive terminal.

 The moving electrons are the loosely held or valence electrons.
The charge that produces attraction and repulsion between charged objects also produce
electric currents when it flows in conductors.

Electric charge can flow continuously only round unbroken conducting paths called closed
circuits.

The quantity of electric charge Q is measured in Coulombs (symbol C)

 1 C = 1/1.6*10-19 electrons
 6*1018 electrons = 1C

The size or ‘strength’ of an electric current, I, is measured in amperes (symbol A).

Relationship between I and Q

Current = Charge / time

145
OR

I=Q/t

A current of 1 ampere is a flow of charge at a rate of one coulomb per second.

Example

If a charge of 180C flows through a lamp every 2 minutes, what is the electric current in the
lamp?

Q = 180C

t = 2 minutes = 2*60s = 120s

using I = Q/t  I = 180C/120s = 1.5A

A battery circulates charge round a circuit for 30s. If the current in the circuit is 5A, what
quantity of charge passes through the battery?

Q= It =5A*30s =5C/s*30s = 150C

Current direction

Some circuit diagrams have arrowheads marked on them. These show the conventional current
( I ) direction: the direction from + to – round the circuit. Electrons actually flow the other way.

Illustration: direction of conventional current

TYPES OF CIRCUITS

There are two types of circuits, namely;

a) Series circuit: A circuit that contains only one path.

b) Parallel circuit: A circuit with more than one path.
Illustration: Series and Parallel Circuits

146
 Current Measurement

Ammeters, as their name suggest, are ‘amp meters’ and measure current in amperes. The
ampere (A) is the SI unit of current. The current may be measured with an ammeter placed in
series with other electrical appliances. An ammeter has a low resistance, so that it introduces
as little resistance as possible in a circuit.

Rem: the symbol for ammeter is

An ammeter has both negative and positive terminals and should be connected in series with
other electrical components observing polarity. There are ammeters with different ranges as
illustrated below.

147
Measurement of Current in Series Circuit

Connect the circuit as shown below. Measure current at different positions (1, 2, 3, etc).

Results : Typical results

Position Current (A)

Hence ; A= A1=A2=A3

Conclusion: Current is the same at every point in a series circuit.

Measurement of Current in Parallel Circuit

Connect the circuit as shown in the figure and measure current in the respective paths and
compare them.

148
Electromotive force (e.m.f)

In a cell or battery (or other sources of electrical energy) chemical changes take place which
produce energy needed to drive charge round the circuit.

The electromotive force is defined as the total energy expended (work done) per coulomb of
electricity when charge is driven form negative terminal to positive terminal inside the cell.
Work is done against electric field which is directed from positive terminal to negative terminal.

e.m.f is measured in volts, e.m.f is normally denoted with E.

E is always greater than V unless no charge flows on the circuit, when E = V.

There is a step of energy from the negative to the positive terminal which is obtained from the
chemical reaction in the cell. This step-up of energy puts the positive terminal at a high
potential difference to drive the charge round the circuit.

The energy per coulomb required to drive the charge from positive to the negative terminal in
the external circuit is the potential difference (p.d).

Potential difference (p.d)

Electriic potential, work is done against electric field when charge is moved from a lower
potential level to a higher potential level. The difference between the two levels is known as
the potential difference (p.d) or voltage, and is measured in volts (V).

If one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of charge between two points, then the p.d
between the two points is one volt.

OR

The p.d between two points in a circuit is one volt if one joule of electrical energy is transferred
to other forms of energy when one coulomb passes from one point to other.

i.e.

Volt = Joule/ Coulomb

In symbols

V = W/Q {energy per unit charge}

It follows from the definition that, if 2C of charge is moved between two points, 2J work is
done.

149
V = W/Q but Q = It

Substituting Q, we get;

V = W/t *1/I

Therefore p.d may also be defined as the rate of dissipation of energy per

unit current .

OR

W = V*I*t

Voltages round circuits

a) Series

The voltage at terminals of a battery equals the sum of the voltages across the devices in the
external circuit from one battery terminal to the other.

V = V1 + V2 + V3

b) Parallel

The voltages across devices in parallel in a circuit are equal.

V = V1 = V2

C) Cells in series

150
V = V1 + V2 + V3

Greater voltages are obtained by connecting cells in series.

d) cells in parallel

If two 1.5V cells are connected in parallel as above, the voltage at

terminals P,Q is still 1.5 V but the arrangement behaves like a large cell
and will last longer.

Voltmeters

A voltmeter is used to measure the p.d between two points in a circuit, so obviously it should
be placed in parallel (or across) with whatever is between the two points. Including the
voltmeter in a circuit must not alter the p.d it is supposed to measure.

Voltmeters like ammeters have polarity, i.e. + (red) of the voltmeter is connected to the + of the
power source, similarly – (black) of the voltmeter to the – of the power source.

Rule: a voltmeter should have a very large resistance and be

connected in parallel.

Reading voltmeters

151
Voltmeters have different ranges and scales depending on the amount of voltage it is intended
to be measured.

i.e.

Resistance

Electrons move more easily through some conductors than others when p.d is applied. The
opposition of a conductor to current is called resistance. A good conductor has low resistance
and a poor conductor has high resistance.

The resistance is where the electrons give up the p.d they carry from the battery (power
source). E.g. the resistance of a lamp causes the electrical energy to change to other forms,
such as heat and light. If a lamp filament had no resistance, no energy change could occur in it
and it would not light up.

Experiment

Title: Investigation of Ohm’s law, by measuring resistance using ammeter and voltmeter.

Apparatus:

 ammeter
 voltmeter
 rheostat

152
  fixed resister
 connecting wires
 battery

Procedure:

 Arrange apparatus as shown below.

 After closing the switch, adjust the rheostat (variable resistor) until a suitable current, I,
is recorded on the ammeter.
 Record both this reading and the readings of I and V. suitable values of I are 0.2, 0.4, 0.6,
0.8 and 1.0 A.
 Tabulate the results in a table and calculate the value V/I.
 Plot a graph of V against I
 Draw a conclusion

Results and analysis

Voltage (V) /V Current I /A V/I = R (Ω)

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Graph of V us I

Gradient = V / I which is the resistance.

Note: Ohm’s law is R = V/ I.

The three quantities are related as shown in the

triangle below.

153
The ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which the current is 1 A flow when the p.d.
between the ends is 1 volt.

Examples

1. If a current of 4A flows through a car headlamp when it is connected to 12V car battery,
providing a voltage of 12V across the lamp, what is its resistance?
Solution:
Ι=4 A ,V =12V
V 12V
R= = =3 Ω
I 4A

2. What voltage would be needed to drive a current of 0.2A through a torch lamp of
resistance 22.5Ω ?
Solution:

R=22. 5 Ω, I=0 . 2 A
V =I×R=0 . 2 A×22 .5 Ω=4 . 5 V

3. What is the resistance of the resistor?

154
 1 .5 V
R=V = =0 . 3 Ω
I 5A

Factors Affecting the Resistance of a Conductor (Wire)

The resistance of a conductor depends on three two factors or properties:

a)its dimensions (length and cross section area)

b)the type of material or nature of substance
c) temperature
Experiments have shown that the resistance of a wire of a given material is

(i) directly proportional to the length ℓ ie. Rαℓ .

It therefore follows that a long wire should have more resistance than a short wire of the
same material.
1
Rα
(ii) Inversely proportional to its cross-section area A, ie A.
This means that a thick wire has low resistance while a thin wire has high resistance of
the same material.

Combining (i) and (ii) gives

where: R is the resistance (in Ω )

ρ (in Ω m ) is a constant , called the resistivity of a material.

A is cross sectional area (in m2)

ℓ is ht length of material (in m)

Resistors in series

Resistors shwon are in series, the

same current I flows through

155
 each and the total voltage V across all three equals the separate voltages across them,
i.e.

V = V1 + V2 + V3 ………..1

But VI = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3 ………….2

Substituting equation 2 in 1, we get:

V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3, since R is the combined resistance we can write,

IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Dividing by I through out we get:

R = R 1 + R2 + R 3

Resistors in parallel

In general the effective resistance of resistors in parallel is given by;

1 1 1 1
= + + .. .. . ..
R
R R
1 2 R N

where N represent the number of resistors or the Nth resistor.

Internal Resistance

Rem: Work is done against electric field which inside the cell to drive charge from negative to
positive terminal. There is therefore some internal resistance r of the electrolyte within the
cell.

Illustration: Internal resistance, r

156
Exercise

The diagram below shows the structure of a mains light bulb.

a) What effect of electricity is used during by the light bulb

in operation?
b) Write the main energy changes in the bulb?
c) What is the purpose of using a coiled wire filament?

COLOUR CODED RESISTORS

Practical resistors have colour codes representing their values. The first three colours give the
1st digit, 2nddigit and the3rd number of zeros, the fourth one if available give tolerance and
normally: silver = 10%, gold = 5%, red = 2% and brown = 1%.

Summary on colour codes fro resistors

±+colour 1st band =1st 2nd band = 2nd 3rd band =

digit digit zeros

black 0 0 none

brown 1 1 one

red 2 2 Two

157
orange 3 3 Three

yellow 4 4 Four

green 5 5 Five

blue 6 6 Six

violet 7 7 Seven

grey 8 8 Eight

white 9 9 Nine

Example: What is the value of a resistor colour coded violet green orange gold?

violet green orange gold

7 5 000 ±5%
The value of the resistor is 750005%

Exercise:

a) What is the value of resistor colour coded grey white white silver ?

b) Give the colour code of a 24 M 10% resistor.

I / V Graphs: Ohm’s law

a) Metallic conductors (Ohmic conductors)

Metals and some alloys give I-V graphs which are a straight line through the origin, so long as
temperature is constant. I is directly proportional to V i.e. I α V. Doubling V doubles I, etc. Such
conductors obey Ohm’s law, stated as follows;

The current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the voltage

across its ends if the temperature and other conditions are constant.
V
=a
They are called Ohmic or Linear conductor and since IαV , it follows that I constant.
The resistance of an Ohmic conductor therefore does not change when voltage does.

158
b) Non-Ohmic conductors

Non-Ohmic materials have a non-linear IαV relationship’. One common semi conducting
device that has non-linear IαV characteristics is the junction diode (semiconductors)

The resistance for this device is low for currents in one direction and high for currents in the
reverse direction. In fact, most modern electronic devices, such as transistors, have non-linear
current – potential difference relationships; their proper operation depends on the particular
way I which they violate ohm’s law.

Limitations of Ohms law

Ohmic resistors will become non-ohmic if they

become very hot.. Under normal working conditions a
resistor is ohmic, its résistance does not depend on
the current or the p.d. applied to it. If too much
current flows through the resistor, it will become too hot and its resistance will start to increase
as shown below.

For ‘normal’ currents (0 to X) the resistor is ohmic (i.e p.d. is directly proportional to I). If the
current exceeds X, the resistor starts to heat up and become non-Ohmic (i.e p.d. is no longer
proportional to I).

159
 PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY

ELECTRIC POWER

Power is the rate at which energy is transformed (changed from one form to another). The SI
unit of power is the watt (W).

W
P=
and in symbols t but W  IVt

IVt
∴ P=
t or or

Note that W =E=IVt

E must be in joules, I in amperes and V in volts.

Examples

1. Calculate the power of the lamp in the circuit below.

Solution:

To calculate power of an electrical appliance , multiply the current I through it by the p.d.
across it.

160
 I=0 . 25 A
V =240V

P=IV
=0.25 A×240V
=60W
The lamp is transferring 60J of electrical energy into heat and light each second.

2. How much electrical energy in joules does a 100 watt lamp transfer in
a) 1 second
b) 5 seconds
c) 1 minute
solutions:

3. What is the power of an appliance rated 12V 3A?

Solution:

I=3 A , V =12 V
P=I×V =3 A×12 V =36 W

4. How many joules of electrical energy are transferred per second by a 6V 0.5A lamp?

Solution:

161
 I=0. 5 A ,V =6 V
P=I×V =0 .5 A×6 V =3 . 0 W

3 joules are transferred per second.

PAYING FOR ELECTRICITY

Electrical supply companies use the kilowatt-hour (kWh), rather than the joule-second as their
unit of energy measurement.

One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy supplied when an appliance whose power rating 1kW is
used for 1 hour.

Energy in kilowatt hours is calculated as follows:

Note: 1kJ=1kWh

Example:

What is the energy supplied to a 2kW heater used for 3 hours?

=2 kW ×3 hr =6 kWh

The cost of electricity

The cost of running individual electrical appliances can be calculated as follows.

Note: a unit of electricity= 1kWh.

Example: The energy cost per unit is 10 thebe. Calculate the cost of using

a) an electrical fire rated 3kW for 5 hours.

Solution:

Cost=Energy Supplied×Cost perUnit

162
 10 thebe
= (3 kW×5 h )× =150 thebe
kWh

b) 5 50w bulbs for 12 hours.

Cost=Energy Supplied×Cost perUnit
Energy Supplied=Power×time
=5×60W ×12h=0.3kW ×12h=3.6kWh=3.6units
∴ Cost=Energy Supplied×Cost per Unit
10 thebe
=3 . 6 units× =36 thebe
unit
c) a 1200w hairdryer for 15 minutes.
1
Power=1200 W=1 . 2 kW , time=15 minutes= h
4

Energy Supplied=Power×time
1
=1. 2 kW × h=0 . 3 kWh=0 . 3units
4
∴ Cost=Energy Supplied×Cost per Unit
10 thebe
=0 . 3units× =3 thebe
unit

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS AND SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

USES OF ELECTRICITY

These are some of the many uses of electricity:

(a) Lighting
(b) Operation of machines
(c) Security
(d) Communication (e.g telephones)
(e)
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

These are conditions and situations that make the use of electricity unsafe or dangerous.

The main electrical hazards are: (i) damaged insulation

163
 (ii) overheating of cables

(iii) damp conditions

(iv) overloading of sockets

1. If cables are worn (insulation stripped off) and only a few strands are carrying current,
then the resistance becomes much higher. The wire becomes hot when current passes
through and could cause fire.
2. Overloading of cables is often due to putting too many appliances in one mains socket.
If all appliances are used at once, then a large current will flow, which will overheat the
cable, leading to fire outbreak.
3. Damp conditions: If your hand or body is wet, the body resistance decreases. If you
then touch a bare wire the current is likely to flow through you causing either severe
burning or heart attack. For this reason, toilet or bathroom switches are either pull
cords or outside the room.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY

FUSE

Symbol:

Function: To protect appliances from excessive (overload of) current.

How it works: A fuse is a wire made of a material with low melting point. If a fuse is part of the
circuit, the metal will eventually melt as it overheats due to increase in current, and break the
circuit. Current will then stop flowing because of the gap which results thereafter. Fuses must
be connected to the Live wire. This ensures that when the fuse melts, the appliance is
isolated from the live terminal.

FUSE RATINGS

Plugs are normally fitted with 3A or 13A fuses. The value printed on the fuse tells the value of
current needed to “blow” (melt) the fuse. A fuse rated 3A will melt when a current of 3A flows
through it. A fuse rated 13A will melt when a current of 13A flows through it, and so on.

Note: The value of the fuse should always be more than the actual current drawn by the
appliance, but as close as possible.

THE EARTH WIRE

Function: safety and prevention of electrical shocks.

164
How it works: Most appliances are connected to the wire called the EARTH WIRE. One end of
the earth wire is connected to the metal case of the appliances. The other end is connected via
the wall sockets to the metal pipe outside the house, then to the ground.

The earth wire provides a path of zero electrical resistance from the case of the appliance to
the ground. If the earth wire accidentally touches the metal case of the appliance, a large
current will flow through the earth wire and the fuse will melt, isolating the appliance.
Without the earth wire the case would become live and anyone touching it would have a
dangerous electric shock.

DOUBLE INSULATION

Most modern appliances have plastic cases. There is no risk of getting shock from a plastic case
since it is an insulator. Such materials are said to have a double insulation because:

(i) The live and neutral wires are covered in an insulating sheet(plastic)
(ii) The appliance itself is covered by an insulating case.

THE THREE PIN MAINS PLUG

The three pin mains plug has three pins connected to Live, Neutral and Earth wires.

The diagram below shows a correctly wired three pin mains plug.

LIVE wire (It is brow in colour): This is the most dangerous wire which carries and brings
alternating current (a.c.) at a high voltage.

NEUTRAL wire (It is Blue in colour): After the

appliance the current flows through the
neutral wire. The voltage is zero in the
neutral wire. It completes the circuit.

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EARTH wire (It is Green or Green with Yellow stripes in colour): It conducts current leaks into
the ground and stops electric shocks.

The diagram above shows how the wires of the three pin plug fit into an electrical appliance.

A HOUSE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY

The house has two or three ring main circuits, which supply all the wall sockets. On each ring
main there usually about ten sockets. Notice that all the sockets are in parallel, so the full mains
voltage is supplied to everything that is plugged into the socket. The advantage of using a ring
main circuit is that current can flow two ways into a particular socket. So the connecting wires
can be thinner, because they carry a smaller current than they would do otherwise.

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In addition the live and neutral wires, the ring main circuit carries an earth wire ( for safety
reasons).

The lights of a house have their own circuit. Again each light fitting is in parallel, so that each
light bulb receives the mains voltage of 240 V. Light bulbs draw a small current (about 0.4 A for
a 100W bulb) so about ten lights can be safely run through a 5 A fuse.

Note: all fuses are connected to the live wire.

Fault finding

When an appliance stops working it may be due to a fault that is easy to rectify. Before running
helter skelter looking for a technician, it is wise to try to diagnose a fault.

Diagnostic steps;

 Check that the appliance is switched on.

 Check that the power is on,. Do other appliances work
 Check the fuse. If it is blown replace it. If the new fuse blows check for a short circuit.
 Check that the plug is correctly connected, with no loose wires or untidy strands of wire
sticking out.
 Check that the cable connection to the appliance is firm
 Check that the insulation is in good condition. If it looks worn or torn replace it with a
similar cable.

If after checking all the above, the appliance is still not working, take it to a trained
technician.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

Electromagntic Induction

1) Induced e.m.f. and current in a moving a) wire and b)coil

When a wire is moved across a magnetic field, as shown below, a small e.m.f (voltage) is
generated in the wire. The effect is called ELECTREOMAGNETIC INDUCTION. Strictly speaking
we say ‘an e.m.f is induced in the wire’. If the wire forms part of a complete circuit, the e.m.f
makes current to flow and can be detected by a galvanometer which is sensitive to small
currents. The pointer moves to the right or left of the zero depending on the direction of the
current.

Note

The induced e.m.f or current can be increased by:

moving the wire faster

using a stronger magnet
increasing the length of the wire in the magnetic field – for example, by looping the wire
through the field several times, as shown above.
2) Induced e.m.f. and current in a coil due to a moving magnet

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If a bar magnet is pushed into a coil, as shown below, an e.m.f is induced in the coil. In this case,
it is the magnetic field that is moving rather than the wire, but the results are the same;
magnetic filed lines are being cut.

The induced e.m.f or current can be increased by:

 moving the magnet faster

 using a stronger magnet
 increasing the number of turns of the coil(as this increases the length of the wire cutting
through the magnetic field)

Direction of induced current

The direction of the induced current depends on the following factors.

 the direction of motion of the wire

 magnetic field direction
The direction of current can be predicted using FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE as shown in the
diagram below.

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Note

Experiments with the magnet and the coil have also given the following results

 If the magnet is pulled out of the coil, the direction of the induced e.m.f (and current) is
reversed.
 If the S pole is used rather than the N pole is pushed into the coil, this also reverses the
current direction.
 If the magnet is held still, no magnetic filed lines are cut, so there is no induced e.m.f or
current.
GENERATORS

Most of the electricity comes from huge generators in power stations. There are small
generators in cars and some in bicycles. These generators, or dynamos, all use the
electromagnetic induction. When turned, they induce an e.m.f (voltage) which can make
current to flow. Most generators give out alternating current (a.c.)

A SIMPLE A.C GENERATOR (alternator)

Illustration: A.C generator

A simple a.c generator consists of a rectangular coil between the poles of a magnet. The ends of
the coil are joined to a two slip rings on the axle. Carbon brushes press against the slip rings.

How it works

The figure above shows the design of a very simple alternating current ( a.c.) generator. By
turning the axle you can make a coil of wire move through (cut ) a magnetic field. This causes a
voltage ( EMF ) to be induced between the ends of the coil ( this makes a current to flow). The

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slip rings are fixed to the coil and rotate with it. The brushes are two contacts which rub against
the slip rings and keep the coil connected to the outside part of the circuit.

You can see how the voltage waveform, produced by this generator, looks on an oscilloscope
screen.

 In position ( i ) the coil is vertical with AB and CD. In this position the sides CD and AB are
moving parallel the magnetic field. No voltage is generated since the wires are not
cutting across the magnetic field lines.
 When the coil has been rotated through a ¼ turn to position ( ii ), the coil produces its
greatest voltage. Now the sides CD and AB are cutting through the magnetic field at the
greatest rate.
 In position ( iii ), the coil is again vertical and no voltage is produced.
 In position ( iv ) a maximum voltage is produced, but in the opposite direction. Side AB is
moving upwards and side CD downwards.

The following all increase the maximum EMF ( and current ):

 Increasing the number of turns in the coil

 Increasing the area of the coil
 Using a stronger magnet
 Rotating the coil faster

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Faster rotation also increases the frequency of the a.c.

THE TRANSFORMER

Symbol:

Function: To increase (step up) or decrease (step down)

voltage supplied to appliances.

Structure: A transformer is made up of two cols of insulated

copper wire wrapped around a laminated soft iron core. An
alternating current is supplied to the primary coil and an
alternating e.m.f and current is induced in the secondary coil.

Illustration: Transformer

How it works: The transformer has two coils wound around the same iron core.

The primary coil is an electromagnet: if an alternating current flows through the coil a magnetic
field is produced around it and the iron core becomes magnetized. Since the current is
constantly changing in size and direction, the field is also constantly changing.

The secondary coil is wound around the same iron core. The changing magnetic field from the
electromagnet induces an e.m.f in the secondary coil. The induced current will also alternate
because the field is always changing.

Note: the transformer only works when an alternating current is supplied. The output e.m.f and
current will also be alternating, and with the same frequency as the supply current.

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Step-up and step-down transformers:

When the primary and secondary coils have exactly the same number of turns the output
voltage will be exactly the same as the input voltage.

If the secondary (output) coil has more turns than the primary (input) coil the output voltage
will be higher than the input voltage. The transformer has increased the voltage. This type of a
transformer is called a step up transformer.

If the secondary (output) coil has fewer turns than the primary (input) coil the output voltage
will be reduced. This type of transformer is called a step down transformer.

Illustration: Step up/down transformers

The transformer Equation

The relationship between the voltages and number of turns in the coils is given by;

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Example: A transformer has 1000 turns on the primary coil and 2500 turns on the secondary
coil.

(a) Is this a step up or step down transformer? Step up

(b) If the transformer is used on a 220 V mains supply, what will be the output
voltage?

Solution;

V p =220 V
V s=?
N p =1000 Np Vp 1000 220 V ( 220 V ×2500 )
= = V = =550 V
N s=2500 ⇒ Ns V s ⇒ 2500 Vs ⇒ s
1000

The output voltage will be 550V.

Current Changes in Transformers

If a transformer is 100% efficient, the electrical power input in the primary coil will be equal to
electrical power output that comes out of the secondary coil.

In a Step Up transformer the voltage is increased. This means that the current must be reduced
in order for the equation to remain balanced.

In a Step Down transformer the voltage is reduced, so the current must be increased in order
for the equation to remain balanced.

The formula can be rearranged to give;

Example:

A 100% efficient transformer increases 25 000 V to 400 000V. The current in the primary coil is
200 000 A.

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 a) What turns ration is needed?
Ratio of turns in secondary coil to turns in primary coil is

N s V S 400000 V
= =
N p V p 25000 V
=16
The ratio of Ns to Np is 16 to 1

N s :N p
ie 16 :1

b) What is the i) power input and ii) power output?

i)

Power input=Input Voltage×Input Current

Pin =V in ×I in
=25000V ×200000 A=500000000 W =500 MW
note: M = Mega = 106

ii) the transformer is 100% efficient hence;

Power output=Power input=500 MW

The power output is 500MW

c) How much current flows out of the secondary coil?

Ip Vp I pV p 200000 A×25000 V
= ⇒ I s= ⇒ I s= =1250 A
Is Vs Vs 400000 V

1250 A flows out of the secondary coil.

d) What is the advantage of stepping up the voltage in power transmissions?

This reduces current and makes it cheaper to transfer power using thinner and lighter
cables as opposed to heavier, thick and expensive cables needed for transmission of
power at high current.

Note:

 If voltage is increased, current must decrease and visa versa.

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  If voltage is doubled, current is halved. If voltage becomes 10 times smaller, current
becomes 10 times greater etc.

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