Unit - 4

Hashing
-Raxit Jani
What is Hashing?
▪ Sequential search requires, on the average O(n) comparisons
to locate an element, so many comparisons are not desirable
for a large database of elements.
▪ Binary search requires much fewer comparisons on the
average O (log n) but there is an additional requirement that
the data should be sorted. Even with best sorting algorithm,
sorting of elements require O(n log n) comparisons.
▪ There is another widely used technique for storing of data
called hashing. It does away with the requirement of keeping
data sorted (as in binary search) and its best case timing
complexity is of constant order O(1). In its worst case, hashing
algorithm starts behaving like linear search.
▪ Best case timing behavior of searching using hashing = O(1)
▪ Worst case timing Behavior of searching using hashing = O(n)
 What is Hashing?
▪ In hashing, the record for a key value "key", is directly referred by
calculating the address from the key value.
▪ Address or location of an element or record x, is obtained by
computing some arithmetic function f.
▪ f(key) gives the address of x in the table.

Record Hash
1 Table
2
3
f()Address 4
5
6
7
Mapping of Record in hash table
Hash Table Data Structure
▪ There are two different forms of hashing.
1. Open hashing or external hashing
• Open or external hashing, allows records to be
stored in unlimited space (could be a hard disk).
• It places no limitation on the size of the tables.
2. Close hashing or internal hashing
• Closed or internal hashing, uses a fixed space for
storage and thus limits the size of hash table.
 Open Hashing Data Structure
▪ The basic idea is that the records [elements] are partitioned into
B classes, numbered 0,1,2 … B-1
▪ A Hashing function f(x) maps a record with key x to an integer
value between 0 and B-1
▪ Each bucket in the bucket table is the head of the linked list of
records mapped to that bucket
Bucket
Table
0
1
. The open hashing
. List of Elements
data organization
.
B-1
 Close Hashing Data Structure
▪ A closed hash table keeps the elements
in the bucket itself.
▪ Only one element can be put in the
bucket. 0 A
▪ If we try to place an element in the 1
bucket and find it already holds an 2 C
element, then we say that a collision has
occurred. 3
▪ In case of collision, the element should 4
be rehashed to alternate empty location 5 B
within the bucket table.
▪ In closed hashing, collision handling is a
very important issue.
Hashing Functions
▪ Characteristics of a Good Hash Function
• A good hash function avoids collisions.
• A good hash function tends to spread keys evenly in the
array.
• A good hash function is easy to compute.
▪ Different hashing functions
1. Division-Method
2. Midsquare Methods
3. Folding Method
4. Digit Analysis
5. Length Dependent Method
6. Algebraic Coding
7. Multiplicative Hashing
Division-Method
▪ In this method we use modular arithmetic system to divide
the key value by some integer divisor m (may be table size).
▪ It gives us the location value, where the element can be
placed.
▪ We can write, L = (K mod m) + 1,
• L = location in table/file
• K = key value
• m = table size/number of slots in file
▪ Suppose, k = 23, m = 10 then
• L = (23 mod 10) + 1= 3 + 1=4
• The key whose value is 23 is placed in 4th location.
Midsquare Methods
▪ In this case, we square the value of a key and
take the number of digits required to form an
address, from the middle position of squared
value.
▪ Suppose a key value is 16
• Its square is 256
• Now if we want address of two digits
• We select the address as 56 (i.e. two digits starting
from middle of 256)
Folding Method
▪ Most machines have a small number of primitive data types
for which there are arithmetic instructions
▪ Frequently key to be used will not fit easily in to one of these
data types
▪ It is not possible to discard the portion of the key that does
not fit into such an arithmetic data type
▪ The solution is to combine the various parts of the key in
such a way that all parts of the key affect for final result such
an operation is termed folding of the key
▪ That is the key is actually partitioned into number of parts,
each part having the same length as that of the required
address
▪ Add the value of each parts, ignoring the final carry to get the
required address
Folding Method
▪ This is done in two ways
▪ Fold-shifting: Here actual values of each parts of key are
added
• Suppose, the key is : 12345678, and the required address is
of two digits,
• Break the key into: 12, 34, 56, 78
• Add these, we get 12 + 34 + 56 + 78 : 180, ignore first 1 we
get 80 as location
▪ Fold-boundary: Here the reversed values of outer parts of
key are added
• Suppose, the key is : 12345678, and the required address is
of two digits,
• Beak the key into: 21, 34, 56, 87
• Add these, we get 21 + 34 + 56 + 87 : 198, ignore first 1 we
get 98 as location
Digit Analysis
▪ This hashing function is a distribution-dependent
▪ Here we make a statistical analysis of digits of the key, and
select those digits (of fixed position) which occur quite
frequently
▪ Then reverse or shifts the digits to get the address
▪ For example,
• The key is : 9861234
• If the statistical analysis has revealed the fact that the third
and fifth position digits occur quite frequently,
• We choose the digits in these positions from the key
• So we get, 62. Reversing it we get 26 as the address
Length Dependent Method
▪ In this type of hashing function we use the
length of the key along with some portion of
the key to produce the address, directly.
▪ In the indirect method, the length of the key
along with some portion of the key is used to
obtain intermediate value.
Algebraic Coding
▪ Here a n bit key value is represented as a
polynomial.
▪ The divisor polynomial is then constructed
based on the address range required.
▪ The modular division of key-polynomial by
divisor polynomial, to get the address-
polynomial.
• Let f(x) = polynomial of n bit key = a1 + a2x + ……. +
anxn-1
• d(x) = divisor polynomial = d1 + d2x + …. + dnxn-1
• Required address polynomial will be f(x) mod d(x)
 Multiplicative Hashing
▪ This method is based on obtaining an address of a key, based on
the multiplication value.
▪ If k is the non-negative key, and a constant c, (0 < c < 1)
• Compute kc mod 1, which is a fractional part of kc.
• Multiply this fractional part by m and take a floor value to get
the address

└ m (kc mod 1)
┘
0 < h (k) < m
Collision Resolution Strategies
▪ Collision resolution is the main problem in
hashing.
▪ If the element to be inserted is mapped to the
same location, where an element is already
inserted then we have a collision and it must
be resolved.
▪ There are several strategies for collision
resolution. The most commonly used are :
• Separate chaining - used with open hashing
• Open addressing - used with closed hashing
Separate chaining
▪ In this strategy, a separate list of all elements mapped to the
same value is maintained.
▪ Separate chaining is based on collision avoidance.
▪ If memory space is tight, separate chaining should be avoided.
▪ Additional memory space for links is wasted in storing address
of linked elements.
▪ Hashing function should ensure even distribution of
elements among buckets; otherwise the timing behaviour of
most operations on hash table will deteriorate.
Separate chaining
0 10 50 A Separate Chaining
1 Hash Table
2 12 32 62
3

4 4 24
5

7 7
8

9 9 69
 Example - Separate chaining
Example : The integers given below are to be inserted in a hash table
with 5 locations using chaining to resolve collisions.
Construct hash table and use simplest hash function.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 21, 22, 33, 34, 15, 32, 31, 48, 49, 50

An element can be mapped to a location in the hash table using

Hash Table Location Mapped elements

1 1 21 31

2 2 22 32

3 3 33 48

4 4 34 49

Hash Table
Open Addressing
▪ Separate chaining requires additional memory
space for pointers.
▪ Open addressing hashing is an alternate
method of handling collision.
▪ In open addressing, if a collision occurs,
alternate cells are tried until an empty cell is
found.
a. Linear probing
b. Quadratic probing
c. Double hashing.
 Linear Probing
▪ In linear probing, whenever there is a collision, cells are searched
sequentially (with wraparound) for an empty cell.
▪ Fig. shows the result of inserting keys {5,18,55,78,35,15} using the hash
function (f(key)= key%10) and linear probing strategy.
Empty After 5 After 18 After 55 After 78 After 35 After 15
Table
0 15
1
2
3
4
5 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 55 55 55 55
7 35 35
8 18 18 18 18 18
9 78 78 78
Linear Probing
▪ Linear probing is easy to implement but it
suffers from "primary clustering"
▪ When many keys are mapped to the same
location (clustering), linear probing will not
distribute these keys evenly in the hash table.
▪ These keys will be stored in neighbourhood of
the location where they are mapped.
▪ This will lead to clustering of keys around the
point of collision
Quadratic probing
▪ One way of reducing "primary clustering" is to use quadratic
probing to resolve collision.
▪ Suppose the "key" is mapped to the location j and the cell j is
already occupied.
▪ In quadratic probing, the location j, (j+1), (j+4), (j+9), ... are
examined to find the first empty cell where the key is to be
inserted.
▪ This table reduces primary clustering.
▪ It does not ensure that all cells in the table will be examined
to find an empty cell.
▪ Thus, it may be possible that key will not be inserted even if
there is an empty cell in the table.
Double Hashing
▪ This method requires two hashing functions f1 (key) and f2
(key).
▪ Problem of clustering can easily be handled through double
hashing.
▪ Function f1 (key) is known as primary hash function.
▪ In case the address obtained by f1 (key) is already occupied by
a key, the function f2 (key) is evaluated.
▪ The second function f2 (key) is used to compute the
increment to be added to the address obtained by the first
hash function f1 (key) in case of collision.
▪ The search for an empty location is made successively at the
addresses
• f1(key) + f2(key),
• f1(key) + 2 * f2(key),
• f1 (key) + 3 * f2(key),...