GRAMMAR

I. PARTS OF SPEECH

1- Noun: A noun is a word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns can
function as the subject of a sentence, the object of a verb, the object of a
preposition, and more.

- Subject: Nouns can function as the subject of a sentence, performing the

action described by the verb. For example, in the sentence "John is running,"
"John" is the subject.

- Object: Nouns can also serve as objects within a sentence. There are two
types of objects: direct objects, which receive the action of the verb (e.g.,
"Mary reads a book"), and indirect objects, which receive the direct object
(e.g., "She gave him a gift").

- Complement: Nouns can act as complements that provide additional

information about the subject or object. For example, in the sentence "She is a
doctor," "doctor" is a complement.

2- Pronoun: A pronoun is a word that can function as a substitute for a noun.

Pronouns can take the place of nouns in a sentence to avoid repetition.

3- Verb: A verb expresses action, state, or occurrence. Verbs can show what the
subject of a sentence is doing or being. They are essential for constructing
sentences.

- Predicate: Verbs serve as the predicate of a sentence, expressing the action

or state of being of the subject. In the sentence "She sings beautifully," "sings"
is the verb.

- Transitive/Intransitive: Verbs can be transitive, taking a direct object

(e.g., "He ate an apple"), or intransitive, not requiring a direct object (e.g., "She
sleeps").

4- Adjective: Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, providing more information

about their qualities or characteristics. In the phrase "a beautiful flower,"
"beautiful" is modifying the noun "flower."
5- Adverb: An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
Adverbs often provide information about the manner, place, time, degree, or
frequency of an action or quality.

6- Preposition: A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun

or pronoun and other words in a sentence. Prepositions typically indicate location,
direction, time, or other logical relationships. For example, in the phrase "the book
on the table," "on" is a preposition.

7- Conjunction: Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses together. There are

different types of conjunctions, such as coordinating conjunctions (e.g., "and,"
"but," "or") that join similar elements, and subordinating conjunctions (e.g.,
"because," "although," "if") that connect dependent clauses to independent
clauses.

8- Interjection: An interjection is a word or phrase used to express strong emotions

or abrupt outbursts. Interjections often stand alone and are punctuated separately
from the rest of the sentence.

9- Article: Articles (definite article "the" and indefinite articles "a" and "an") are
words used before nouns to indicate specificity or generalization. They are a
subcategory of adjectives and play a crucial role in specifying or indicating noun
references.

Understanding the functions of each part of speech is essential for constructing

grammatically correct and coherent sentences in English.

II. PHRASES: Types and Functions

Phrases are groups of words that work together to convey a specific meaning or idea.
They can be broken down into different types and serve various functions in the
English language. Here are some common types and functions of phrases:

a) Noun Phrase: A noun phrase consists of a noun and any modifiers or

determiners that come before or after it. Its main function is to function as a
noun in a sentence, either as a subject, object, or complement. For example,
"the red car" or "a delicious apple."
 b) Verb Phrase: A verb phrase includes a main verb and any auxiliary or helping
verbs, as well as any objects, complements, or adverbs. It is the main part of a
sentence's predicate and expresses an action or state. For example, "is eating
ice cream" or "should have gone to the store."

c) Adjective Phrase: An adjective phrase includes an adjective and any modifiers

or intensifiers. It functions as an adjective, providing more information about a
noun or pronoun. For example, "extremely talented" or "beautifully crafted."

d) Adverb Phrase: An adverb phrase consists of an adverb and any modifiers or

intensifiers. It functions as an adverb, providing more information about a verb,
adjective, or other adverb. For example, "very quickly" or "quite loudly."

e) Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase includes a preposition, its object,

and any modifiers. It shows a relationship between a noun or pronoun and
another element in the sentence. For example, "on the table" or "without any
hesitation."

f) Infinitive Phrase: An infinitive phrase starts with an infinitive verb (to + base
form) and may include any modifiers or objects. It functions as a noun,
adjective, or adverb in a sentence. For example, "to swim in the ocean" or "to
find a solution."

g) Participial Phrase: A participial phrase includes a present or past participle

verb and any modifiers or objects. It functions as an adjective phrase,
describing a noun or pronoun. For example, "waving goodbye" or "surrounded
by beautiful flowers."

h) Gerund Phrase: A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb form ending in -

ing) and any modifiers or objects. It functions as a noun in a sentence, often as a
subject or object. For example, "Running is good exercise" or "I enjoy singing
in the shower."

These are just some of the types and functions of phrases in English. Understanding
and using these phrases correctly can enhance your writing and communication skills.
 III. SENTENCES
Sentence: is a basic unit of communication, a group of phrases + clauses. We use
sentences every day to ask questions, make statements, express emotions, or share
information.
→ It begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark, or
exclamation mark.
→ It must have a verb and a subject

A-Sentences by functions or purposes

We have four which are:

1- Declarative Sentences: These sentences make a statement or express an

opinion. They provide information or relay facts.
Ex: Abou loves eating cookies. (Statement)
His wife is smartly dressed (describes a person)
"The sun rises in the east." (Real fact)

2- Interrogative Sentences: Make a request and end with a question mark,

also begin with word like: Do, Why, What, How, When, Did, Where
Ex: What is an interrogative sentence?
Do you know Frieda?
"Did you finish your homework?"

3- Exclamative Sentences: These sentences convey strong emotions or

excitement. They express emotion, surprise, feeling, admiration, or other
intense feelings and end with an exclamation mark at the end
Ex: What a great day!
"What a beautiful sunset!"

4- Imperative Sentence: These sentences give a command, order, suggestion,

advice or make a request. They express a desire for action.
Ex: Stop it! (Command)
Please give me some tea. (a request).
"Please pass me the salt." (a request)
 B- Sentences by Structures
We have four also which are:

1- Simple Sentences: It consists of a single Independent clause. A simple

sentence can be short or long. It must contain a subject and a verb. It may also
contain various compounds: a compound subject, a compound verb, or both.
Other parts of the sentence may also be compound. A simple sentence,
however, does not contain any subordinate clauses. The following examples
show a few of the many possible variations of a simple sentence.
 One subject and verb: The siren sounded.
 Compound subject: Cats and dogs ran down the street.
 Compound verb: My sister acts and sings in the play.
 Compound subject and verb: Art and archaeology reflect and explain
Jerusalem’s history.
 With phrases and complements: A written history dating back to 600 B.C. was
found in a cave near Jerusalem.
2- Compound Sentences: Independent clauses are the key elements in a
compound sentence. A compound sentence consists of two or more
independent clauses. The independent clauses in most compound sentences are
joined by a comma and one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor,
or, so, yet). Sometimes a semicolon (;) is used to join independent clauses in a
compound sentence. Like simple sentences, compound sentences contain no
subordinate clauses.
 With coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS): For, And, Nor, But, Or,
Yet, So.
Ex: The population of Israel is approximately 4,700,000, but only 8 percent of
people live in rural areas.
 With a (;) is following by: however, therefore, furthermore, in contrast,
similarly ...
Ex: The contamination problems have long been none; however, what is not often
realized is the organic water carried in ground water can contaminate samples.
 with a (;) only
Ex: Depositors could see what was happening to the value of the land that was
supporting the banks, they moved quickly to remove they deposit for catch.

3- Complex Sentences: It is sentence with an adjective or adverb clause is called

a Complex sentence. A Complex sentence consists of one independent clause
and one or more subordinate clauses. The independent clause in a Complex
sentence is often called the main clause to distinguish it from the subordinate
 clause or clauses. The main clause and each subordinate clause have their own
subjects and verbs. Those in the independent clause are called the subject of
the sentence and the main verb.
Ex: When the fog lifted, we continued our trip.
The person who will speak last is my sister.
 In the first example, “we” is the subject of the sentence, and “continued”
is the main verb.
 In the second example, “person” is the subject of the sentence, and “is”
is the main verb.

NB: A Complex sentence connect a dependent clause with an independent clause.

Here is a list of words which introduce dependent clauses: Although, as, because,
before, even if, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, even though, if, in
order that, once, provided that, rather than, since, whereas, wherever, while, why,
whether...

4- Compound-Complex sentence: A Compound-Complex sentence, as the name

indicates, contains the elements of both a compound sentence and a complex
sentence. A Compound-Complex sentence consists of two or more independent
clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
Ex: “As he was leaving for school, Larry remembered to take his lunch, but he forgot
the report that he had finished the night before.”
"She sings beautifully, and her voice is captivating because she practices every
day."

IV. CLAUSES
This section explains the second important sentence elements: the clause. A clause is
a group of words or a part of sentence with its own subject and verb, usually joined to
the rest of sentence by a conjunction. There are two basic types of clauses, which
have an important difference between them.
 The first type is called an independent clause. An independent clause has a
subject and a verb and can stand by itself as a complete sentence. The length of
a clause has little to do with whether it can stand alone. Each of the following
examples can stand alone because it expresses a complete thought.
Ex: -The reporter shouted.
-Jerusalem is a relatively small city in area.
-The Dome of the Rock, a Jerusalem land mark, is a holy site.
  The second type of clause is called a subordinate clause. Like an independent
clause, it contains both a subject and a verb. A subordinate clause; however, is
not a sentence. A subordinate clause has a subject and a verb but cannot stand
by itself as a sentence. It is only part of a sentence. A subordinate clause does
not express a complete thought, even a verb.

Subordinate clauses: - when the phone rang.

- whom I often admired since the country was divided.
Each of these clauses has a subject and a verb, but each lacks something. Examine,
for example, the first clause: “when the phone rang.” When the phone rang, what
happened? More information is needed to complete the thought.

A. TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

In order to make sense, a subordinate clause usually must be combined with an

independent clause.
In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are italicized.
Ex: Since he arrived this morning, he has been working at top speed.
I will call the manager of the hotel tomorrow if the room is no clean.

1. Using Adjective Clauses

Some subordinate clauses act as adjectives. An adjective clause is a subordinate
clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjective clauses, like one-word adjectives
or adjective phrases, answer the questions what kind? or which one?
Most adjective clauses begin with one of the five relative pronouns: that, which,
who, whom, or whose.
Sometimes, an adjective clause will begin with an adverb such as when or where.
Examples:
- They visited the memorial that remembers Holocaust victims.
- That British stamp, which depicts Queen Victoria, will be sold at auction.
- The man who opened the door is my brother-in-law.
- Abou is the student whom we chose to represent us in the debate.
- The museum whose artifacts include the Dead Sea Scrolls is located in West
Jerusalem.
 2. Using Adverb Clauses
Subordinate adverb clauses (also known as adverbial clauses) are dependent clauses
that function like adverbs — they modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb in the
main clause. Because they're subordinate, they cannot stand alone as complete
sentences; they rely on the main clause for full meaning. Adverbial clauses often
indicate time, place, manner, condition, reason, purpose, or contrast. Adverb clauses
can answer any of the following questions about the words they modify: where?
when? in what manner? to what extent? under what condition? or why? Adverb
clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions: after, because, in order that, though,
whenever, although, before, since, unless, where, as, even though, so that, until,
wherever, as if, if, then, when, while, as long as...
In the following example, the adverb clause is italicized.
Examples:
- Jerusalem is interesting because it is home to several diverse religions.
 When an adverb clause begins a sentence, a comma is used.
- When she reached the station, Marie phoned.

Functions of Noun Clauses

They begin with They
subordinating answer
Examples:
conjunctions, such as: questions
like:
Time: after, before, when, When? I'll call you when I get home.
while, as soon as, until (The adverb clause "when I
get home" modifies "call" and
tells when.)
Cause/Reason: because, Why? She stayed home because she
since, as was sick. (Tells why she
stayed home.)
Condition: if, unless, Under what If it rains, we'll cancel the
provided that, in case condition? picnic. ("If it rains" gives the
condition for canceling.)
Contrast/Concession: In what Although he was tired, he kept
although, though, even way? working. (Shows contrast
though, whereas between being tired and
continuing to work.)
Purpose: so that, in order To what She left early so that she could
that extent? catch the bus. (Explains the
purpose of leaving early.)
Comparison: than, as...as Despite
what?

3. Using Noun Clauses

Subordinate noun clauses (also called noun clauses) are dependent clauses that act
like a noun in a sentence. That means they can function as a subject, object, or
complement in a sentence. Noun clauses begin with words such as: how, that, what,
whatever, when, where, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, why, if,
for, however.

 Functions of Noun Clauses

Noun clauses can act as subjects, subject complement, direct objects, object
complement, indirect object, prepositional complement, noun phrase complement,
adjective phrase complement, Appositive.

As the subject of a sentence - What she said was surprising.

- That he lied shocked everyone.

As the object of a verb - I know that she is coming.

- She explained how the machine works.
- She heard what he said.

As the object of a preposition: - We are interested in what he discovered.

- She is worried about how they will react.

As a subject complement (after - The truth is that he never called.

linking verbs like be): - My hope is that they succeed.

As an appositive (renaming a - The idea that we should leave early makes

noun): sense.
- His belief that honesty matters is
admirable.

I believe that you are right. I don't know who she is.
 Take whatever you need. I wonder whether he’ll agree
He explained why he left.

IMPORTANT THINGS TO KNOW WHEN JOINING

CLAUSES

 We can join two or many independent clauses (main clauses) if we want; this
process is call Coordination.

There are two methods to join independent clauses;

- Join two independent clauses with a semicolon
- Join two independent clauses with a comma and coordinating conjunction
(FANBOYS)
Using coordinating conjunctions between independent clauses means that they are
equals

JOINING INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

Method 1

 Semicolon Independent Conjunctive adverbs Independent

clause clause

Moreover, however,
 Semicolon with Independent consequently,
conjunctive adverbs and clause indeed,
comma Independent
nevertheless,
clause
therefore,
Method 2

Comma and coordinating Independent For, and, nor, but, Independent

conjunction clause or, yet, so clause
NB:
• We can’t join two independent clauses with a simple comma (This error is called:
comma splice)
• We can’t join two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction alone,
omitting the comma (This error is called: run-on)

 We must join dependent clause (subordinated clause) to an independent

clause(main clause); this process is called Subordination.

When we join dependent clause to independent clause, we’re not joining equal
clauses; One side is stronger (independent clause) and the other side is weaker or
subordinate (dependent clause.

When, in a sentence, the dependent/subordinate clause comes first, (like an

introduction to the independent/main clause), it is followed by a comma.
When the independent/main clause comes first, there is no punctuation (comma) to
separate it from dependent clause

JOINING DEPENDENT CLAUSE TO INDEEPENDENT CLAUSE

Method 1

Independent clause comes Independent No punctuation Dependent

first clause (comma) clause

Method 2

Independent clause comes Dependent , (there is Independent

last (dependent clause clause punctuation clause
come first)

Words used to join unequal clauses (independent and dependent) are called
subordinating conjunctions; Some scholars call them “dependent-making words”
or “dependent maker words”
Here is a list of those conjunctions: after, in order that, unless, although, rather
than, until, as, since, when, as if, because, so that, whenever, before, than,
whereas, even though, whether, that, if, while, though, what, who, whether, how,