DESIGN THEORY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

COLUMNS
• They are structural elements primarily required to resist axial loads
even though seldomly subjected to such only but moments about one
or two axes are usually present.

• They also act as vertical supports to suspended members such as

beams and roofs so as to transmit loads from these members down to
the foundations i.e. structural members in building carrying roof (beam)
and slab (floor) loads to the foundations as shown in figures below.

Sequence of load transfer between elements of a structure

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2
• The table below shows percentage reduction of imposed load as the
number of floors carried by member increases

Number of % reduction of imposed

floors carried by load on all floors above
member the member
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 to 10 40
Over 10 50

• They;
- are primarily compression members although they may also have
to resist bending moments transmitted by beams
- Can be symmetrical or non-symmetrical with respect to
reinforcement location;
- Can be designed governed using i) ultimate limit state; ii)
Deflection, and iii) cracking;
- can be short or slender, braced or unbraced depending on
structural and dimensional factors;

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 - have sections ranging from rectangular, square or circular with four,
six, eight or more reinforcement depending on the section as shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 – Types of column cross sections

• short columns fails when the material reaches its ultimate capacity
under the applied load and moment i.e. fail by crushing or squashing
while slender columns fail by buckling as shown in Fig. 3 below

• Columns classified as braced are those in which the lateral loads are
resisted by walls or some form of bracing. For such columns:

- Axial force and moment are caused by dead and

imposed loads only; and
- critical arrangement of ultimate load is usually that
which is caused by the greatest moment in the column
together with axial load.

- The lateral stability is provided by shear walls, lift shafts

and stair wells as shown in Fig. 3 below

• On the other hand, columns classified as unbraced are those whose

lateral loads are resisted by the bending action of the column and the
ultimate load is that which gives the largest moment together with a
large axial load. These are as shown in Fig. 4 below

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 (a) Braced frame; (b) unbraced frame

Column braced in the y direction and unbraced in the x direction

Column braced in both directions

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 Column unbraced in both directions

Fig. 3 – Behaviour of Braced and Unbraced Columns

• However, any section can be used but provided that the greatest
overall cross-sectional dimension does not exceed four times its
smaller dimension i.e. h  4b (for Fig. 2c). When h > 4b , the member
should be considered as a wall for design purposes.

• Columns may fail due to one of the three mechanisms:

1. Crushing/squashing caused by compression failure of the

concrete/Steel reinforcement (as shown in Fig. 4(b) i.e. for short/stocky
columns;
2. Buckling (as shown in Fig. 4(a) i.e. mostly for slender columns; and

3. Combination of buckling and compression failure

Fig. 4 – Failure modes of short and slender columns

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 • For any given cross section, failure mode 1 is most likely to occur with
columns which are short and stocky. Failure mode 2 is probable with
columns which are long and slender.

• short and slender column can be distinguished based on their failure

modes, hence having different and design procedures

• Based on Fig. 5, a column is considered short and braced if:

lex l
< 15 and ey < 15 ………………(1)
h b

Otherwise, they are slender

Where lex ; ley are the effective height of the column in respect of the major
(i.e. X-X ) and minor (Y-Y) axes respectively; b, h are the width and depth of
the column cross section as shown in Fig. 5 below.

Fig. 5 – Elevation and section of columns

• When both are less than 10, they are considered unbraced.

Effective height of a column

• For braced column, the effective height is less than 1.0 or equal to the
actual height,

• for unbraced column, the effective height is greater than the actual
height except where sway occurs without rotation of the ends.

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 • The effective height of a column is given by:

le =  lo ………………….(2)

Where lo ;  are the clear distance between the column end restraint; and the
coefficient which depends on the degree of end restraints or column fixity as
specified in the table below:

Value of  for braced columns

End conditions

- End condition 1: column end is fully restrained

- End condition 2: Column end is partially restrained
- End condition 3: column end is nominally restrained

The nature of these end conditions are as shown in Fig. 6 below

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 Fig. 6 – Diagrams showing different end conditions

The four end conditions are as follows:

• Condition 1. The end of the column is connected monolithically to

beams on either side which are at least as deep as the overall
dimension of the column in the plane considered. Where the column is
connected to a foundation structure, this should be of a form
specifically designed to carry moment.

• Condition 2. The end of the column is connected monolithically to

beams or slabs on either side which are shallower than the overall
dimension of the column in the plane considered.

• Condition 3. The end of the column is connected to members which,

while not specifically designed to provide restraint to rotation of the
column will, nevertheless, provide some nominal restraint.

• Condition 4. The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral

movement and rotation (e.g. the free end of a cantilever column in an
unbraced structure).

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Reinforcement details and design condition

• The minimum number of longitudinal bars in a column section is four

for rectangular and six for circular columns.

• The size of the bars should not be less than 12mm.

• The minimum percentage of reinforcement for both grade 250 and 460
reinforcement is given by:

100 As
= 0.4 ……………………(3)
Acc
Where As ; Acc are the area of steel in compression and the area of concrete in
compression respectively.

• The maximum area of reinforcement should not exceed 6% of the

gross cross-sectional area of a vertically cast column except at laps

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 100 As
where 10% is permitted i.e. not greater than 6.0 (in a vertical
Acc
100 As
cast column; and not greater than 8.0 in a horizontally cast
Acc
column.
100 As
• At laps, should not be greater than 10.0 for both types of
Acol
columns. (Where Acol = total area of longitudinal steel and cross-
sectional area of the column respectively)

• The diameter of links should not be less than 6mm or one-quarter of

the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar.

• The maximum spacing is to be 12 times the diameter of the smallest

longitudinal bar;

• The link should be arranged so that every corner bar and each
alternate bar in an outer layer is supported by a link passing around the
bar and having an included angle of not more than135 degrees.

• No bar is to be further than 150mm from a restrained bar.

Some of these conditions are as shown in Fig. 7 below.

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 Fig. 7 - a) Arrangement of links; b) column lap, c) column base

DESIGN OF SHORT- BRACED COLUMNS

• The design of such columns can be categorized into three:

1. Columns resisting axial load only;

2. Columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of
beams
3. Column resisting axial loads, uniaxial and biaxial bending.

1. Axially loaded columns

• Since both longitudinal steel and concrete assist in carrying the load,
then the ultimate load, N which can be supported by the column is the
sum of the loads carried by both concrete, Fc and reinforcement, Fs , is
given by:

N = Fc + Fs

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 But

…………………..(4)

Equation (4) assumed that the load is applied perfectly axially to the column.

• Since is generally not possible, a 10% reduction in design stresses for

small eccentricity is catered for and the above equation reduces to
(according to BS 8110):

………………….(5)

According to SABS 0100, the equation becomes:

N = 0.4 f cu ( Acg − Asc ) + 0.67 f y Asc ………………..(6)

• Also, for short columns sporting an approximately symmetrical

arrangement of beams with uniformly distributed imposed loads and
span does not differ by more than 15% of the longer span,

…….(7)

Where Acc ; Asc ; Acg are net cross sectional area of concrete in the column
(i.e. ; total area of vertical reinforcement, and gross area of concrete (i.e.
Acg = bh ) respectively.

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2. Columns supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement of
beams

• When the column is subjected to axial load and small moment, this
moment will decrease the design stresses for concrete and steel by
15%, hence the load carrying capacity of the column becomes:

N = 0.35 f cu Ac + 0.67 f y Asc ………………….(6)

Design of Short braced columns subjected to combined bending

moments (uniaxial & biaxial) and axial forces under Ultimate Limit Sate

• The area of longitudinal steel resisting both effects is determined by:

1. Using design charts or using M-N interaction diagrams.

- Charts for rectangular columns are readily available. Such chart
is as shown below.

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The basic equation derived from a rectangular section is given by:

N = Fcc + Fsc + Fs = 0.45 f cu bs + f sc As' + f s As

………………….(7)
h s h   h
M = Fcc  −  + Fsc  − d '  − Fs  d − 
2 2 2   2

• In using the design charts, each chart is particular for a selected:

a) characteristic strength of concrete;
b) characteristic strength of reinforcement, and
c) d ratio
h

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• Such charts exist for grades 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 concrete and
reinforcement of 460.

2. Using basic design equation; and

3. Using approximate method

• 2 and 3 can be use when an unsymmetrical arrangement of

reinforcement is required or when the cross section is non rectangular.
• Whichever method used, a column should not be designed for a
moment less than:
N  emin …………………..(8)
Where emin has the lesser value of h or 20mm
2

a) SHORT COLUMN DESIGN UNDER UNIAXIAL BENDING AND

AXIAL LOAD

• Columns subjected to axial load, N plus uniaxial bending moment, M,

N M
the procedure involved plotting the and ratios on the
bh bd 2
appropriate chart and read off the corresponding area of reinforcement
100 Asc
as a percentage of the gross sectional area of concrete i.e.
bh

• Where the actual d ratio for the section being designed lies between
h
two charts, both charts may be read, and the longitudinal steel area
found by interpolation.

b) SHORT COLUMN DESIGN UNDER BIAXIAL BENDING AND AXIAL LOAD

• In the case of biaxial bending, the problem is reduced to uniaxial

bending simply by increasing the moment about one of the axes using
the procedures below.

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 Cases:

M x h'
1. When  :
M Y b'

The enhanced design moment about the X-X axis, M x' is given by:

 h'
M x' = M x + M y …………………………(9)
b'

M x h'
2. When <
MY b'
The enhanced design moment about the Y-Y axis, M x is given by:
 h'
M y' = M y + M x …………………….(10)
h'

Where b ' ; h ' are the effective depths,  is the enhancement coefficient for biaxial
bending obtained from the table below:

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 Values of the  coefficient

• The area of the longitudinal steel can then be obtained using the
ultimate axial load, N and the enhanced moments above in the same
way as described for uniaxial bending.

Reinforcement Details

• For reinforcement area, the area of longitudinal reinforcement should

lie with the following limits:

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a) For vertical cast column;
0.4% Acol < ASC <6% Acol
b) For horizontally cast column
0.4% Acol  ASC  8% Acol

• At laps, the maximum area of longitudinal reinforcement may be

increased to 10% of the gross cross-sectional area of the column for
both types of columns

• For spacing of reinforcement, the minimum distance between adjacent

bars should not be less than the diameter of the bars or hagg + 5mm .

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 TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
Q.1

A short column is subjected to an ultimate applied axial load of 3000kN and a

nominal moment. Using the design data below:
i) Check that the column is short;
ii) Determine the required area of main reinforcement
iii) Determine suitable links

Design data
Characteristic strength of concrete 40 Nmm-2
Characteristic strength of steel 460 Nmm-2
Width of column 350mm
Depth of column 375mm
End condition at the top of the column for x-x axis 1
End condition at the top of the column for y-y axis 2
End condition at the bottom of the column for x-x axis 3
End condition at the bottom of the column fory-y axis 3
Clear height between the end restraints about both axes 5.0m

Q.2

Determine if the column shown in the figure below is short

Q.3

A short-braced column of characteristic strengths of concrete and steel of

30Nmm-2 and 460Nmm-2 is required to support an ultimate axial load of
2000kN. Determine a suitable section for the column assuming that the area

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of longitudinal steel, Asc is of the order of 3% of the gross cross-sectional area
of column, Acol.

Q.4

An internal column in a braced two-storey building supporting an

approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams 350mm wide x 600mm
deep result in characteristic dead and imposed loads each of 1000kN being
applied to the column. If the column is 350mm square and has a clear height
of 4.5m as shown in the figure below, design the longitudinal reinforcement
and links taking characteristic strengths of concrete, reinforcement and mild
steel links of 40, 460 and 250Nmm-2 respectively.

Q.5

Design the longitudinal and shear reinforcement for a 275mm square, short-
braced column which supports either a) an axial load of 1280 kN and a
moment of 62.5kNm about the x-x axis or b) an ultimate axial load of 1280kN
and bending moments of 35knm about the x-x axis and 25 kNm about the y-y
axis taking the characteristic strengths of concrete, reinforcement of 30 and
460Nmm-2 respectively and a cover to all reinforcements of 35mm.

Q.6

Calculate the ultimate axial load capacity of a short-braced column supporting

an approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams assuming that it is
500mm square and is reinforced with 8T 20mm diameter bars. Take
characteristic strengths of concrete and steel to be 40 and 460Nmm-2
respectively, and concrete cover of 20mm. Also design for shear.

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Q.7

a) A braced column which is 300mm square is restrained such that it has an

effective height of 4.5m. Classify the column as short or slender.
b) The column supports: i) an ultimate axial load of 500kN and a bending
moment of 200kNm, or ii) an ultimate axial load of 800kN and bending
moments of 75kNm about the x-axis and 50 kNm about the y axis. If the
characteristic strengths of concrete and steel are 40 and 460 Nmm -2 and the
cover is 35mm, using design charts, calculate the longitudinal steel required
for both loading cases.

Q.8
An internal column in a multi-storey building supporting an approximately
symmetrical arrangement of beams carries an ultimate load of 2000kN. If
storey height is 5.2, the effective height factor is 0.85, characteristic strengths
of concrete and steel of 30 and 460 Nmm-2, assuming that the column is
square, short and braced, calculate:
i) A suitable cross-section for the column;
ii) The area of the longitudinal reinforcement;
iii) The size and spacing of the links; and
iv) Sketch the reinforcement details in cross-section.

Q.9
Design the longitudinal reinforcement for a 500 by 300 mm column section if:
a) N = 2300kN and M x = 300 kNm
b) N = 2300kN and M y = 120kNm

Where M x is the bending moment about the major axis and M y is the bending
moment about the minor axis. Given f cu = 40 N / mm 2 ; f y = 460 N / mm 2

Q.10
Design the longitudinal reinforcement for a 500 by 300 mm column section if
N = 2300kN, M x = 300 kNm, M y = 120kNm. Given
f cu = 40 N / mm 2 ; f y = 460 N / mm 2
:

Q.11
A 300mm wide by 350mm height as shown below is to be designed to resist
an ultimate axial load of 1200kN plus moments of M xx = 75kNm; M yy = 80kNm .
Design the column for biaxial bending when the characteristics strengths of
concrete and steel ate 30 and 460Nmm-2 respectively.

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Q. 12

A braced column of 300x450 cross-section resists at the ultimate limit state an

axial load of 1700kN and end moments of 70kNm and 10kNm causing double
curvature about the minor axis X-X as shown below. If the column’s effective
heights are lex = 6.75m; ley = 8.0m and the characteristic material strengths are
30 and 460Nmm-2 respectively, design the slender column.

Q. 13
Design the longitudinal reinforcement for the braced slender column for:
a) bending about the minor axis if N = 2500kN;
M 1 y = 100kNm; M 2 y = 120kNm; f cu = 40 N / mm 2 ; f y = 460 N / mm 2
b) bending in the major axis if N = 2500,
M 1x = 200kNm; M 2 x = 250kNm; f cu = 40 N / mm 2 ; f y = 460 N / mm 2
c) biaxial bending if N = 2500,
M1x = 200kNm; M 2 x = 250kNm; M 1 y = 100kNm; M 2 y = 120kNm;
f cu = 40 N / mm2 ; f y = 460 N / mm 2

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Q. 14

The figure below shows frame of a heavily loaded industrial structure for
which the centre column along line PQ are to be designed. If the frames are
4m centres are braced against lateral forces, and support the following floor
loads, design the column using design charts.

Design data
Dead load, g k 10kNm-2
Live load, qk 15kNm-2
f cu 30 Nmm-2
fy 460Nmm-2

Q. 15

A reinforced concrete industrial frame shown below which forms part of a

structure is braced and comprises a series of such frames at 6.0m centres.
Using the design data below, determine suitable reinforcement for the internal
column at section x-x of the reinforced concrete multi-storey braced column.

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Design data
Characteristic dead load (including self-weight of floor):

Roof level g k = 4.0kNm-2

1st and 2nd floor levels g k = 8.0 kNm-2
Characteristic imposed load:
Roof level qk = 4.0 kNm-2
1st and 2nd floor levels qk = 12.0 kNm-2
Characteristic strengths of concrete 30 Nmm-2
Characteristic strength of reinforcement 460 Nmm-2
Exposure condition Mild
Minimum fire resistance 1 hour
All columns 300mm x 350mm
All main beams 300mm wide x 600mm deep

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Q. 16

A short braced axially loaded column 300mm square in section is reinforced

with four 25mm diameter bars. If the material strengths are 30 and 460 Nmm -2
for both concrete and steel reinforcement:
i) find the ultimate axial load that the column can carry;
ii) Determine the pitch and diameter of the links required.

Q. 17
A short, braced column of size 250mm by 250mm has to carry an ultimate
axial load of 1366kN. Taking material strengths of concrete and steel to be 30
and 460Nmm-2 respectively:
i) Find the steel area required for the longitudinal reinforcement; and
ii) Select suitable bars

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