Biyani's Think Tank

Concept based notes

Computer Graphics
BCA Part-III

Bindiya Patel
Revised By : Ms Ujjwala
Lecturer
Deptt. of Information Technology
Biyani Girls College, Jaipur
2

Published by :
Think Tanks
Biyani Group of Colleges

Concept & Copyright :

Biyani Shikshan Samiti
Sector-3, Vidhyadhar Nagar,
Jaipur-302 023 (Rajasthan)
Ph : 0141-2338371, 2338591-95 Fax : 0141-2338007
E-mail : [email protected]
Website :www.gurukpo.com; www.biyanicolleges.org

ISBN: 978-93-82801-34-4

First Edition : 2009

While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any mistake or
omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that neither the
publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind arising to
anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.

Leaser Type Setted by :

Biyani College Printing Department
Computer Graphics 3

Preface
I am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the
students. The book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in
understanding the fundamental concepts of the topics. The book is self-explanatory
and adopts the “Teach Yourself” style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The
language of book is quite easy and understandable based on scientific approach.
This book covers basic concepts related to the microbial understandings about
diversity, structure, economic aspects, bacterial and viral reproduction etc.
Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections,
omission and inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the
readers for which the author shall be obliged.
I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chairman & Dr. Sanjay
Biyani, Director (Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who are the backbones and main
concept provider and also have been constant source of motivation throughout this
Endeavour. They played an active role in coordinating the various stages of this
Endeavour and spearheaded the publishing work.
I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various
educational institutions, other faculty members and students for improvement of the
quality of the book. The reader may feel free to send in their comments and
suggestions to the under mentioned address.
Author
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Syllabus
BCA III
Computer Graphics

1.) Introduction to Computer Graphics :

Definition, Application areas of Computer graphics, Graphical user
interface, Cathode ray tubes, Random scan displays, Raster scan displays
(with introduction to flickering, interlacing. American standard video
etc), Color CRT monitors, Flat panel displays (Plasma Panels, Liquid
crystal displays, Electroluminescent displays), Graphics software (GKS,
PHIGS), Color Models (RGB, CMYK, HSV, Lookup tables etc.)
2.) Raster Graphics Algorithms:
Line drawing algorithms (DDA, Bresenham's algo), Circle and Ellipse
drawing algorithms, Filling (Scan-converting Polygon filling, Inside
outside tests boundary fill and area fill algo).
3.) Transformations and Projections:
2-D transformations (Rotation, Reflection, shearing, scaling),
Homogeneous coordinate representation, Translation, 3-D
transformations, Projection classification, Parallel projections,
Perspective projections (One point, Two point).
4.) Two dimensional Clipping and visible surface detection methods:
Viewing pipeline, window and viewport, Sutherland Cohen sub division
algorithm, Cyrus-beck algorithm, classification of visible surface
detection algorithm, Backface algo, Depth sorting method, Area
subdivision method etc.
5.) Introduction to Digital Image Processing:
Definition application areas Digital Image Processing, difference
between computer graphics and Image processing. The storage and
capture of digital images. File forms, Basic digital Image processing
techniques like antialiasing, Convolutions, Thresholding etc, Image
enhancement.
Computer Graphics 5

Content
S.No. Name of Topic
1. Graphics Application and raster graphics
1.1 Introduction to Computer Graphics
1.2 Application of Computer Graphics
1.3 Video Display Devices
1.4 Raster Scan Displays
1.5 Random Scan Displays
1.6 Color CRT Monitor
1.7 Shadow Mask Methods

2. Transformation
2.1 Transformation in 2-dimension & 3-dimension
2.2 Rotation in 2-dimansion & 3-dimension
2.3 Scaling in 2-dimansion & 3-dimension
2.4 Composite Transformation
2.5 Reflection
2.6 Shear

3. Output Primitives
3.1 Line Drawing Algorithms
(a) DDA
(b) Bresenham‟s Algorithm
3.2 Circle Drawing Algorithm
3.3 Ellipse Drawing Algorithm
3.4 Boundary Fill Algorithm
3.5 Flood Fill Algorithm

4. Clipping Algorithm
4.1 Introduction to Clipping
4.2 Application of Clipping
4.3 Line Clipping Methods
(a) Cohen Sutherland Method
(b) Cyrus – Beck Algorithm
6

S.No. Name of Topic

5. Visible Surface Detection
5.1 Depth Buffer Method
5.2 Z – Buffer Method
5.3 Object Space Method
5.4 Image Space Method
5.5 Painter‟s Algorithm
5.6 Back – Face Detection
5.7 A – Buffer Method
5.8 Scan Line Method

6. Curves and Surfaces

6.1 Bezier Curves and Surfaces
6.2 Properties of Bezier Curves
6.3 B - Spline Line and Surfaces
6.4 Properties of B – Spline Curves
6.5 Hermite Interpolation
6.6 Continuity Conditions

7. Image Processing
7.1 Introduction to Image Processing
7.2 Operations of Image Processing
7.3 Application of Image Processing
7.4 Image Enhancement Techniques

□□□
Computer Graphics 7

Chapter-1

Graphics Application and Hardware

Q.1 What is Computer Graphics? What is its application?

Ans.: Computer has become a powerful tool for rapid and economical production
of pictures. There is virtually no area in which graphical displ ays cannot is
used to some advantage. To day computer graphics is used delusively in
such areas as science, medicine, Engineering etc.
Application of computer graphics :
(1) Computer – Aided Design : Generally used in the design of building,
automobiles, aircrafts, textiles and many other products.
(2) Presentation Graphics : This is used to produce illustration for or to
generate 35-cm slides or trans pare miss for use with projectors.
(3) Computer Art : Computer graphics methods are widely used in both
fine arts and Commercial Arts Applications.
(4) Entertainment : Computer graphics methods are now commonly used
in making motion pictures, music videos, television shows.
(5) Education and Training : Computer generated models of physical,
financial, and economic systems are after used as education aids.
(6) Visualization : This is used in connation with data sets related to
commerce, industry and other scientific areas.
(7) Image Processing : It applies techniques to modify or inter put
existing pictures such as photographs.
(8) Graphical user Interface : It is common now for software packages to
provide a graphical Interface.
8

Q.2 What are Video Display Devices?

or
Explain how Cathode Ray Tube works including details how colors are
achieved?
Ans.: The primary output device in a graphics system is a video controller. The
operation of most video monitors is based on the standard cathode-ray tube
(CRT) design.
Refresh Cathode Ray Tube : Fig (1) illustrates the basic operation of a CRT

Fig.1

Here electron beam is emitted by the electron gun in a CRT. It passes

through focusing and deflection system that directs the beam towards
specified position on the phosphor coated system. The light emitted by the
phosphor fades very rapidly. In order to maintain the screen picture or to
keep the phosphor is to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directing
the electron beam over the same point. This process is called refresh CRT.

Fig.2

The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal
cathode and control guide as in Fig 2.
Computer Graphics 9

Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil of wire

called filament, inside the cylindrical cathode structure this heats up the
electrons & the heated up electrons move with high positive voltage towards
the phosphor screen.
Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by setting voltage levels on the
control grid. A high negative voltage will shut off the beam by repel ling
electrons & stopping them from passing through. Amount of light emitted
depend on number of electron striking the screen.
Focusing system in a CRT is needed to force the electron beam to coverage
into a small spot as it strikes the phosphor. Otherwise electron would repel
each other.
Focusing is accomplished with either electric or magnetic fields. Electrostatic
focusing is commonly used in television and computer graphics monitors.
With electrostatic focusing, the electron beam passes through a positively
charged metal cylinder that forms an electron lens, as shown in Fig. 2-3, The
action of the electrostatic lens focuses the electron beam at the center of the
screen, in exactly the same way that an optical lens focuses a beam of light at
a particular focal distance. Similar lens focusing effects can be accomplished
with a magnetic field setup by a coil mounted around the outside of the CRT
envelope. Magnetic lens focusing produces the smallest spot size on the
screen and is used in special purpose device.
Additional focusing hardware is used in high-precision system to keep the
beam in focus at all screen position. The distance that the electron beam must
travel to different points on the screen varies because the radius of curvature
for most CRTs is greater than the distance from the focusing system to the
screen center. There fore, the electron beam properly only at the center of the
screen. As the beam moves to the outer edges of the screen, displayed images
become blurred. To compensate for this, the system can adjust the focusing
according to the screen position of the beam.
As with focusing, deflection of the electron beam can be controlled either
with electric fields or with magnetic fields. Cathode-ray tubes are now
commonly constructed with magnetic deflection coils mounted on the
outside of the CRT envelope, as illustrated in Fig. 2-2. Two pairs of coils are
used, with the coils in each pair mounted on opposite sides of the neck of the
CRT envelop. One pair is mounted on the top and bottom of the neck, the
magnetic field produced by each pair of coils results in a transverse
deflection force that is perpendicular both to the direction of the magnetic
field and to the direction of travel of the electron beam. Horizontal deflection
is accomplished with one pair of coils, and vertical deflection by the other
pair. The proper deflection amounts are attained by adjusting the current
10

through the coils. When electrostatic deflection is used, two pairs of parallel
palates are mounted inside the CRT envelope. One pair of plates is mounted
horizontally to control the vertical deflection, and the other pair is mounted
vertically to control horizontal deflection (Fig. 2-4).

Spots of light are produced on the screen by the transfer of the CR T beam
energy to the phosphor. When the electrons in the beam collide with the
phosphor coating, they are stopped and their energy is absorbed by the
phosphor. Part of the beam energy is converted by friction into heat energy,
and the remainder causes electrons in the phosphor atoms to move up to
higher quantum-energy levels. After a short time, the “excited” phosphor
electrons begin dropping back to their stable ground state, giving up their
extra energy as small quantum‟s of light energy. What we see on the screen is
the combined effect of all the electron light emissions: a glowing spot that
quickly fades after all the excited phosphor electrons have returned to their
ground energy level. The frequency (or color) of the light emitted by the
phosphor is proportional to the energy difference between the excited
quantum state and the ground state.
Difference kinds of phosphor are available for use in a CRT. Besides color, a
major difference between phosphor is their persistence : how long they
continue to emit light (that is, have excited electrons returning to the ground
states) after the CRT beam is removed. Persistence is defined as the time it
takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its original
intensity. Lower-persistence phosphor requires higher refresh rates to
maintain a picture on the screen without flicker. A phosphor with low
persistence is useful for displaying highly complex, static, graphics monitors
are usually constructed with persistence in the range from 10 to 60
microseconds.
Figure 2-5 shows the intensity distribution of a spot on the screen. The
intensity is greatest at the center of the spot, and decreases with a Gaussian
Computer Graphics 11

distribution out to the edge of the spot. This distribution corresponds to the
cross-sectional electron density distribution of the CRT beam.
The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a
CRT is referred to as the resolution. A more precise definition of resolution is
the number of points per centimeter that can be plotted horizontally and
vertically, although it is often simply stated as the total number of points in
each direction. Spot intensity has a Gaussian distribution (Fig. 2-5), so two
adjacent spot will appear distinct as long as their separation is greater than
the diameter at which each spot has intensity in Fig. 2-6. Spot size also
depends on intensity. As more electrons are accelerated toward the phosphor
per second, the CRT beam diameter and the illuminated spot increase. In
addition, the increased excitation energy tends to spread to neighboring
phosphor atoms not directly in the path of the beam, which further increases
the spot diameter. Thus, resolution of a CRT is dependent on the type of
phosphor, the intensity to be displayed, and the focusing and deflection
system. Typing resolution on high-quality system is 1280 by 1024, with
higher resolution available on many systems. High resolution systems are
often referred to as high-definition system. The physical size of a graphics
monitor is given as the length of the screen diagonal, with sizes varying form
about 12 inches to 27 inches or more. A CRT monitor can be attached to a
variety of computer systems, so the number of screen points that can actually
be plotted depends on the capabilities of the system to which it is attached.
Another property of video monitors is aspect ratio. This number gives the
ratio of vertical points to horizontal points necessary to produce equal -length
lines in both directions on the screen. (Sometimes aspect ratio is stated in
terms of the ratio of horizontal to vertical points.) An aspect ratio of ¾ means
that a vertical line plotted with three points has the same length as a
horizontal line plotted with four points.

Q.3 Write short note on Raster–Scan Displays and Random Scan Displays.
Ans.: Raster–Scan Displays : The most common type of graphics monitor
employing a CRT is the raster-scan display, based on television technology.
In a rater-scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row
at a time from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each row,
the beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated
spots. Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh buffer
12

or frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the
screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh
buffer and “Painted” on the screen one row (scan line) at a time (Fig. 2-7).
Each screen point is referred to as a pixel or pel (shortened forms of picture
element). The capability of a raster-scan system to store intensity information
for each screen point makes it well suited for the realistic display of scenes
containing subtle shading and color patterns. Home television sets and
printers ate examples are examples of other system using raster-scan
methods.
Intensity range for pixel positions depends on the capability of the raster
system. In a simple black-and –white system, each screen point is either on or
off, so only one bit per pixel is needed to control the intensity of screen
position. For a bi-level system, a bit value of 1 indicates that the electron
beam is to be turned on at that position, and a value of 0 indicates that the
beam intensity is to be off. Additional bits are needed when color and
intensity variations can be displayed. Up to 24 bits per pixel are included in
high-quality system, which can require several megabytes of storage for the
frame buffer, depending on the resolution of the system. A system with 24
bits per pixel and a screen resolution of 1024 by 1024 requires 3 megabytes of
storage for the frame buffer. On a black-and-white system with one bit per
pixel, the frame buffer is commonly called a bitmap. For system with
multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is often referred to as a pixmap.

Refreshing on raster-scan displays is carried out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames

per second, although some systems are designed for higher refresh rates.
Sometimes, refresh rates are described in units of cycle per second, or Hertz
(Hz), where a cycle corresponds to one frame. Using these units, we would
describe a refresh rate of 60 frames per second as simply 60 Hz. At the end of
each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin
displaying the next scan line. The return to the left of the screen, after
refreshing each scan line, is called the horizontal retrace of the electron beam.
And at the end of each frame (displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second), the
electron beam returns (vertical retrace) to the top left corner of the screen to
begin the next frame.
Computer Graphics 13

On some raster-scan system (and in TV sets), each frame is displayed in two

passes using an interlaced refresh procedure. In the first pass, the beam
sweeps across every other scan line form top to bottom. Then after the
vertical retrace, the beam sweeps out the remaining scan lines (Fig. 2-8).
Interlacing of the scan lines in this way allows us to see the entire screen
displayed in one-half the time it would have taken to sweep across all the
lines at once from top to bottom. Interlacing is primarily used with slower
refreshing rates. On an older, 30 frame-per-seconds, no interlaced display, for
instance, some flicker is noticeable. But with interlacing, each of the two
passes can be accomplished in 1/60th of a second, which brings the refresh
rate nearer to 60 frames per second. This is an effective technique for
avoiding flicker, providing that adjacent scan lines contain similar display
information.
Random Scan Displays : When operated as a random-scan display unit, a
CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where a
picture is to be drawn. Random-scan monitor draw a picture one line at a
time and for this reason are also referred to as vector displays (or stroke-
writing of calligraphic displays). The component lines of a picture can be
drawn and refreshed by a random-scan system in any specified order (Fig. 2-
14

9). A pen plotter in a similar way and is an example of a random-scan, hard-

copy device.

Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be

displayed. Picture definition is now stored as a set of line -drawing
commands in an area of memory referred to as the refresh display file.
Sometimes the refresh display file is called the display list, display program,
or simply the refresh buffer. To display a specified picture, the system cycles
through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each component
line in turn. After all line drawing commands have been processed, the
system cycle back to the first line command in the list. Random-scan displays
are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each
second. High-quality vector systems are capable of handling approximately
100,000 “short” lines at this refresh rate. When a small set of lines is to be
displayed, each refresh cycle is delayed to avoid refresh rates greater than 60
frames per second. Otherwise, faster refreshing of the set of lines could burn
out the phosphor.
Random-scan systems are designed for line-drawing applications and can-
not display realistic shaded scenes. Since picture definition is stored as a set
of line-drawing instruction and not as a set of intensity values for all screen
points, vector displays generally have higher resolution then raster s ystem.
Also, vector displays produce smooth line drawings because the CRT beam
directly follows the line path. A raster system, in contrast, produces jagged
lines that are plotted as discrete point sets.
Computer Graphics 15

Q.4 Write short note on Color CRT Monitor. Explain Shadow Mask Method.
Ans.: A CRT monitor displays color picture by using a combination of phosphor
that emit different-colored light. By combining the emitted light from the
different phosphor, a range of colors can be generated. The two basic
techniques for producing color displays with a CRT are the beam-penetration
method and the shadow-mask method.
The beam-penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used
with random-scan monitors. Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green,
are coated onto the inside of the CRT screen, and the displayed color depends
on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphor layers. A beam of
slow electrons excites only the outer red layer. A beam of very fast electron
penetrates through the red layer and excites the inner green layer. At
intermediate beam speeds, combinations of red and green light are emitted to
show two additional colors, orange and yellow. The speed of the electrons,
and hence the screen color at any point, is controlled by the beam-
acceleration voltage. Beam penetration has been an inexpensive way to
produce color in random-scan monitor, but only four colors are possible, and
the quality of picture is not as good as with other methods.
16

Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan system (including

color TV) because they produce a much wider range of colors than the beam
penetration method. A shadow-mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at
each pixel position. One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a
green light, and the third emits a blue light. This type ofCRT has three
electron guns, one for each color dot, and a shadow-mask grid just behind the
phosphor-coated screen. Figure 2-10 illustrates the delta-delta shadow-mask
method, commonly used in color CRT system. The three beams are deflected
and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains a series of
holes aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns. When the three beams pass
through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot triangle, which
appears as a small color spot on the screen. The phosphor dots in the
triangles are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only its
corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask. Another
configuration for the three electron guns is an in-line arrangement in which
the three electron guns, and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on
the screen, are aligned along one scan line instead of in a triangular pattern.
This in-line arrangement of electron guns is easier to keep in alignment and is
commonly used in high-resolution color CRTs.

We obtain color variations in a shadow-mask CRT by varying the intensity

levels of the three electron beams. By turning off the red and green guns, we
get only the color coming from the blue phosphor. Other combinations of
beam intensities produce a small light spot for each pixel position, since our
eyes tend to merge the three colors into one composite. The color we see
depends on the amount of excitation of the red, green, and blue phosphors. A
white (or gray) area is the result of activating all three dots with equal
intensity. Yellow is produced with the green and red dots only, magenta is
produced with the blue and red dots, any cyan shows up when blue and
green are activated equally. In some low-cost systems, the electron beam can
only be set to on or off, limiting displays to eight colors. More sophisticated
Computer Graphics 17

systems can set intermediate intensity level for the electron beam, allowing
several million different colors to be generated.
Color graphics systems can be designed to be used with several types of CRT
display devices. Some inexpensive home-computer system and video games
are designed for use with a color TV set and an RF (radio-frequency)
modulator. The purpose of the RF modulator is to simulate the signal from a
broad-cast TV station. This means that the color and intensity information of
the picture must be combined and superimposed on the broadcast-frequency
carrier signal that the TV needs to have as input. Then the circuitry in the TV
takes this signal from the RF modulator, extracts the picture information, and
paints it on the screen. As we might expect, this extra handling of the picture
information by the RF modulator and TV circuitry decreased the quality of
displayed images.

Q. 5 Differentiate between Raster Scan and Random Scan Display?

Ans. :
S.No. Raster Scan Random Scan

1. In this, the electron beam is In this, the electron beam is

swept across the screen, one directed only to the parts of the
row at a time from top to screen where a picture is to be
bottom. drown.

2. The pattern is created by Here a picture is drawn one

illuminated spots. line at a time.

3. Refreshing on Raster Scan Refresh cycle is displayed to

display is carried out at the aroid refresh rate greater than
rate of 60 to 80 frames per 60 frames per second for small
second. set of lines. Refresh rate
depends on number of lines to
be displayed.

4. This display porous produces In this display it produces

smooth line drawings as the jagged lines that are potted as
CRT beam directly follows the discrete point sets.
line path.

5. This provides higher This provides lower resolution.

resolution.
18

Chapter-2

Transformation

Q.1 What is Transformation? What are general Transformations Techniques?

Ans.: Transformation are basically applied to an object to reposition and resize two
dimensional objects. There are three transformation techniques.
(1) Translation : A translation is applied to an object by repositioning it
along a straight line path from one coordinate location to another. We
translate a two-dimensional point by adding translation distances tx
and ty to the original coordinate position (x, y) to more the point to a
new position (x‟, y‟).
x‟ = x + tx , y‟ = y + ty _ _ _ (1)
The translation distance pair (tx, ty) is called translation vector on shift
vector :

x1 x '1 tx
P , P‟ = , T _ _ _ (2)
x2 x'2 ty

2 – dimensional translation matrix form :

P‟ = P + T _ _ _ (3)
In this case, we would write in matrix as row :
P = [x, y] , T = [tx , ty]
Translation is a rigid body transformation that moves object without
deformation.
That is T1 every point on the object is translated by the same amount.
A straight line segment is translated by applying the transformation
equation (3) to each of the line end point & redrawing the line between
the new end point positions.
(2) Rotation : A two dimensional rotation is applied to an object by
repositioning it along a circular path in the xy plane. To generate a
Computer Graphics 19

rotation, we specify a rotation angle and the position (x, y) of the

rotation point (or pivot pt) about which the object is to be rotated
figure (1)
P‟
Yr θ
P

Xr
This transformation can be described as a rotation about a rotation axis
that is perpendicular to the xy plane & passes through the pivot point.
We can express the transformation in terms of angle θ & Ø as :
x‟ = r cos(Ø+ θ) = r cos Ø cosθ - r sin Ø sin θ
y‟ = r sin(Ø+ θ) = r cos Ø sin θ + r sin Ø cos θ _ _ _ (4)
The original coordinates of the point in polar coordinators :
x = r cos Ø , y = r sin Ø _ _ _ (5)
Substituting expression (5) into (4) we obtain transformation equations
for rotating a point at position (x, y) through an angle θ about the
origin :
x‟ = x cos θ – y sin θ , y‟ = x sin θ + y cos θ _ _ _ (6)
We can write the rotation equation for rotating a point at position (x,
y) through an angle θ about the origin equation in matrix form :
P‟ = R . P _ _ _ (7)
Where rotation matrix form :
cosθ -sinθ
P‟= R . P
sinθ cosθ

When coordinate positions are represented as row vectors instead of

column vectors, the matrix product in rotation eq.(7) is transposed so
that the transformed row coordinate vector [x‟, y‟] is calculated as :
P‟T = (R . P)T = PT . RT _ _ _ (8)
(xr, yr) → Pivot Point
Where PT= [x, y] transposing R T of matrix R obtained by interchanging
rows & columns.
20

By rotating major & minor axis of ellipse

(x‟, y‟)
r
r (x, y)
ø
(xr, yr)

x' = xr + (x – xr ) cos θ - (y – yr) sin θ

y' = yr + (x – xr) sin θ - ( y – yr ) cos θ _ _ _ (9)
(3) Scaling : A scaling transformation attars the size of an object. This
operation can be carried out for polygons by multiplying the
coordinate values (x, y) for each vertex by scaling factors S x and Sy to
produce the transformed coordinates (x‟, y‟)
x‟ = x . Sx „ y‟ = y . Sy _ _ _ (10)
Scaling factors Sx scales objects in the x direction while Sy scales in the
y direction.
The transformation equation (10) can also be written in the matrix
form :

x' sx 0 x
= _ _ _ (11)
y' 0 sy y
Or P‟ = S . P _ _ _ (12)
Where S is 2x2 scaling in eq.(11) any positive numeric values can be assigned
to the scaling factors Sx and Sy values less than 1 reduce the size of object;
values greater than 1 reduce the size of object & specifying a value of 1 for
both Sx and Sy leaves the size of object unchanged. When Sx and Sy are
assigned the same value, a uniform scaling is produced that maintains
relative object proportions unequal values of Sx and Sy result in a differential
scaling that is often used in design application where picture are constructed
form a few basic shapes that can be adjusted by scaling & positioning
transformation.

Q.2 What are composite Transformation? Give the 3-types of Composite

Transformation.
Ans.: Composite transformation Matrix can be obtained by calculating. The matrix
product of the individual transformations forming products of
Computer Graphics 21

transformation matrix is often referred to as concatenation or composition of

matrices.
(1) Translation : If two successive translation vectors (t x1 , ty1 ) and (tx2 , ty2 )
are applied to a coordinate position P, final transformed location P‟ is
calculated as :
P‟ = T (tx2 , ty2 ) . {T (tx1 , ty1 ) . P} = {T(tx2 , ty2 ) .T(tx1 , ty1 )} . P _ _ _ (3)
Where P and P‟ are represented as homogenous – coordinate column
vectors. We can verify this result by calculating the matrix product for
the tow associative groupings. Composite Matrix for this sequence is :
1 0 t x2 1 0 t x1 1 0 t x1 + tx2
0 1 t y2 0 1 t y1 = 0 1 t y1 + ty2 _ _ _ (4)
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Or T(tx2 , ty2 ) . T(tx1 , ty1 ) = T(tx1 + tx2 , ty1 + ty2 ) _ _ _ (5)

Which shows that two successive translations are additive.
(2) Rotations : Two successive rotations applied to point P produce the
transformed position :
P‟ = R(θ2 ). {P(θ1 ). P} = {R(θ2 ). R(θ1 )}. P _ _ _ (6)
By multiplying 2–rotation matrices, we can verify that two successive
rotations are additive :
R(θ2 ). R(θ1 ) = R(θ1 + θ2 ) _ _ _ (7)
So that final rotated coordinates can be calculated with the composite
rotation matrix as :
P‟ = R(θ1 + θ2 ) . P _ _ _ (8)
(3) Scaling : Concatenating transformation matrices for 2-successive
scaling operations produce the following composite scaling matrix:
s x2 0 0 s x1 0 0 s x1 , s x2 0 0
0 s y2 0 0 s y1 0 = 0 s y1 , sy2 0 _ _ _ (9)
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Or S(Sx1 , Sy2 ). S(Sx1 , Sy1 ) = S(Sx1 . Sx2 , Sy1 . Sy2 ) _ _ _ (10)

The resulting matrix in this case indicates that successive scaling
operations are multiplicative. That is if we were to triple the size of an
object twice in successive the final size would be nine times that of the
original.
22

Q.3 Write short notes on following -

(1) Reflection
(2) Shear
Ans.: (1) Reflection : A reflection is a transformation that produces a mirror
Image of an object. The mirror image for a 2 -D reflection is generated
relative to an axis of reflection by rotating the object 1800 about the
reflection axis we can choose an axis of reflection in the xy plane or
perpendicular to x-y plane.
When the reflection axis is a line in the xy plane, the rotation
path about this axis is in a plane perpendicular to xy plane.
For reflection axis that is perpendicular to xy plane, the rotation
is in xy plane.
Y 1
Reflection Original Original Reflected
of an object Position Position Position
about x-axis 2 3 2 2’
2’ 3’ Reflected 1 1’
Position 3 3’

1’
Fig. 1 Fig-2 : Reflection of an object about y-axis
(i) Reflection about the line y =o, the x-axis is accomplished with
transformation matrix :
1 0 0
0 -1 0 _ _ _ (8)
0 0 1
This transformation keeps x-values the same but flips the y-
values of coordinate positions.
(ii) Reflection about the y-axis flips x-coordinates keeping y-
coordinates the same The matrix for this transformation is :

-1 0 0
0 1 0 _ _ _ (9)
0 0 1
Computer Graphics 23

Now elements of the reflection matrix can be set to values other then
±1 values whose magnitudes are greater than 1 shift the mirror Image
farther from the reflection axis & values with magnitude less than 1
brings the mirror image closer to the reflection axis.
(2) Shear : A transformation that distorts the shape of an object such that
the transformed shape appears as if the object were composed of
internal layer that had been caused to slide over each other is called a
shear two common shearing transformations are those that shift
coordinate x values and those that shift y values.
An x-direction shear relative to the x-axis is produced with
transformation Matrix.
1 Sh x 0
0 1 0 _ _ _ (3)
0 0 1

Which transforms coordinate position as :

x' = x +Shx . y y‟ = y _ _ _ (4)
Any real number can be assigned to shear parameter Shx.
We can rene5rate x-direction shears relative to other reference lines
with.
1 Sh x - Sh x .y ry
0 1 0 _ _ _ (5)
0 0 1

With coordinate position transformed as :

x' = x + Shx (y -yry) , y‟ = y _ _ _ (6)
A y-direction shear relative to the line x = x ry is generated with
translation matrix :
1 0 0
Sh y 1 - Sh y .x ry _ _ _ (7)
0 0 1

Which generates transformed coordinate position

x' = x , y‟ = Shy (x -xry) + y _ _ _ (8)
24

Q.4 Explain 3-different types of Transformations in 3- dimension?

Ans.: The there different types of transformations are :
(1) Translation
(2) Rotation
(3) Scaling
(1) Translation : In three dimensional homogenous coordinate
representation a point is translated from position P = (x, y, z) to
position P‟ = (x‟, y‟, z‟) with the matrix operation :
x‟ 1 0 0 tx x
y‟ = 0 1 0 ty y _ _ _ (1)
z‟ 0 0 1 tz . z
1 0 0 0 1 1

Or P‟ = T . P _ _ _ (2)
Parameter tx, ty, tz specifying translation distance for the coordinate
direction x, y, z are assigned any real values.
The matrix representation in eq.(1) is
x' = x + tx , y‟ = y + ty , z‟ = z + tz _ _ _ (3)
y-axis
(x‟, y‟, z‟)

(x, y, z) T = (tx, ty, tz )

z-axis x-axis

Fig(i): Translating a point with translation under

T = (tx, ty, tz )
An object is translated in 3-diminision by transforming each of the
defining points of the object. For an object represented as a set of
polygon surfaces. We translate each vertex of each surface and redraw
the polygon facts in the new position.
Computer Graphics 25

(2) Rotation : To generate a rotation transformation for an object, we must

designate an axis of rotation (about which the object is to be rotated)
and the amount of angular rotation unlike the two dimensional
application, where all transformation are carried out in the xy plane, a
three dimensional rotation can be specified around any line in space.
Now we have the following equations for x, y, z coordinates
x' = x cos θ – y sin θ
y‟ = x sin θ + y cos θ _ _ _ (4)
z‟ = z
Parameter θ specifies the rotation angle In homogenous coordinate
form, the 3-d, z – axis rotation equations are expressed as :

x1 cosθ -sinθ 0 0 x
y1 sinθ cosθ 0 0 y
1
= . _ _ _ (5)
z 0 0 1 0 z
1 0 0 0 1 1

Which can be written as :

P‟ = Rx (θ) . P _ _ _ (6)
Now equation for x axis rotation
y' = y cosθ - z sinθ
z‟ = y sinθ + z cosθ _ _ _ (7)
x‟ = x
Which are represented in matrix form as :
x1 1 0 0 0 x
y1 0 cosθ -sinθ 0 y
= . _ _ _ (8)
z 1
0 sinθ cosθ 0 z
1 0 0 0 1 1

P‟ – Rx(θ) . P _ _ _ (9)
Now we have equation for y-axis rotation is
26

x1 cosθ 0 sinθ 0 x
y1 0 1 0 0 y
= . _ _ _ (8)
z1
-sinθ 0 cosθ 0 z
1 0 0 0 1 1

Equations are :
z'= z cosθ – x sinθ
x‟ = z sinθ + x cosθ _ _ _ (11)
y‟ = y
P‟ = Ry (θ) . P _ _ _ (12)
(3) Scaling : The matrix expression for the scaling transformation of a
position P=(x,y,z) relative to the coordinate origin can be written
as :
x1 Sx 0 0 0 x
y1 0 Sy 0 0 y
1
= . _ _ _ (13)
z 0 0 Sz 0 z
1 0 0 0 1 1
P‟ = S . P _ _ _ (14)
Where scaling Parameters Sx, Sy, and Sz are assigned any positive
values.
x' = x . Sx , y‟ = y. Sy , z‟ = z . Sz _ _ _ (15)
Scaling an object with transformation changes the size of the object
and repositions the object relative to the coordinate origin. Also if the
transformation is not all equal relative dimensions in the object are
changed. We pressure the original shape of an object with uniform
scaling (Sx = Sy = Sz ).
Scaling with respect to a selected fixed position (x f. yf. zf) can be
represented with following transformation sequence
(i) Translate the fixed point to the origin.
(ii) Scale the object relative to the coordinate origin.
(iii) Translate the fixed point to its original position.

□□□
Computer Graphics 27

Chapter-3

Output Primitives

Q.1 Explain the Line Drawing Algorithms? Explain DDA and Bresenham’s
Line Algorithm.
Ans.: Slope intercept equation for a straight line is
y=mx+b _ _ _ (1)
with m representing the slope of the line and b as the y intercept. Where the
two end point of a line segment are specified at positions (x 1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
as shown is Fig.(1) we can determine values for the slope m and y intercept b
with the following calculations.
y 2 - y1
M= _ _ _ (2) y2
x 2 - x1
b = y1 – mx1 _ _ _ (3) y1
Obtain value of y interval
∆y – m . ∆x _ _ _ (4)
x1 x2
Similarly we can obtain ∆ x interval Fig. (1) Line Path between endpoint
y
∆x= position (x1 , y1 ) & (x2 , y2 )
m
For lines with slope magnitude m <1, ∆x can be set Proportional to a small
horizontal deflection voltage and the corresponding vertical deflection is then
set proportional to ∆y.
For lines with slope magnitude m >1, ∆y can be set proportional to a small
deflection voltage with the corresponding horizontal deflection voltage set
proportional to ∆x.
For lines with m = 1 ∆x = ∆y.
DDA Algorithm : The Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) is a scan.
Conversion line Algorithm based on calculating either ∆y or ∆x using
28

equation (4) & (5). We sample the line at unit intervals in one coordinate and
determine corresponding integer values nearest. The line paths for the other
coordinate.
Now consider first a line with positive slope, as shown in Fig.(1). If the slope
is less than one or equal to 1. We sample at unit x intervals (∆x = 1) compute
each successive y values as :
yk+1 = yk + m _ _ _ (6)
Subscript k takes integer values starting form 1, for the first point & increase
by 1 until the final end point is reached.
For lines with positive slope greater than 1, we reverse the role of x and y.
That is we sample at unit y intervals (∆y = 1) and calculate each succeeding x
value as :
1
xk+1 = xk + _ _ _ (7)
m
Equation (6) and (7) are based on assumption that lines are to be processed
form left end point to the right end point.
If this processing is reversed the sign is changed
∆x = - 1 & ∆y = - 1
yk+1 = yk – m _ _ _ (8)
1
xk+1 = xk – _ _ _ (9)
m
Equations (6) to (9) are used to calculate pixel position along a line with
negative slope.
When the start endpoint is at the right we set ∆x = -1 and obtain y position
from equation (7) similarly when Absolute value of Negative slope is greater
than 1, we use ∆y = -1 & eq.(9) or we use ∆y = 1 & eq.(7).
Bresenham’s Line Algorithm : An accurate and efficient raster line
generating Algorithm, developed by Bresenham, scan concerts line using
only incremental integer calculations that can be adapted to display circles
and other curves. The vertical axes show scan-line position, & the horizontal
axes identify pixel columns as shown in Fig. (5) & (6)
Computer Graphics 29

13 Specified Line

12 Path 50 Specified Line

11 49 Path

10 48

10 11 12 13 50 51 52 53 53

Fig.5 Fig.6
To illustrate Bresenham‟s approach we first consider the scan conversion
process for lines with positive slope less than 1. Pixel position along a line
path are then determined by sampling at unit x intervals starting form left
and point (x0 , y0 ) of a given line, we step at each successive column (x
position) & plot the pixel whose scan line y is closest to the line path.
Now assuming we have to determine that the pixel at (x k , yk) is to be
displayed, we next need to divide which pixel to plot in column x k+1 . Our
choices are the pixels at position (xk+1 , yk) and (xk+1 , yk+1 ).

At sampling position xk+1 , we label vertical pixel separations from the

mathematical line path as d 1 and d2 . Fig.(8). The y coordinate on the
mathematical line at pixel column position xk+1 is calculated as :
y = m(xk + 1) +b _ _ _ (10)
Then d1 = y – yk = m (xk + 1) +b - yk
and d2 = (yk + 1) –y = yk + 1 – m (xk + 1) – b
The difference between these two separations is
d1 - d2 = 2m (xk+1) - 2yk + 2b - 1 _ _ _ (11)
A decision Parameter P k for the K th step in the line algorithm can be obtained
by rearranging eq.(11) so that it involves only integer calculation. We
accomplish this by substituting m = ∆y/∆x. where ∆y & ∆x are the vertical &
horizontal separation of the endpoint positions & defining.
Pk = ∆x (d1 – d2 ) = 2∆y. xk - 2∆x yk + c _ _ _ (12)
30

The sign of P k is same as the sign of d 1 - d2 . Since ∆x > 0 for our example
Parameter C is constant & has the value 2∆y + ∆x (2b -1), which is
independent of pixel position. If the pixel position at y k is closer to line path
than the pixel at yk+1 (that is d1 < d2 ), then decision Parameter P k is Negative.
In that case we plot the lower pixel otherwise we plot the upper pixel.
Coordinate changes along the line owner in unit steps in either the x or
directions. Therefore we can obtain the values of successive decision
Parameter using incremental integer calculations. At step k = 1, the decision
Parameter is evaluated form eq.(12) as :
Pk+1 = 2∆y . xk+1 - 2∆x . yk+1 + C

yk+1 • d2

y • d1

yk •

xk+1 Fig.8
Subtracting eq.(12) from the preceding equation we have
Pk+1 – Pk = 2∆y (xk+1 – xk) - 2∆x (yk+1 – yk)
But xk+1 = xk + 1
So that, Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x (yk+1 – yk) _ _ _ (13)
Where the term yk+1 - yk is either 0 or 1, depending on sign of Parameter P k.
This recursive calculation of decision Parameter is performed each integer x
position, starting at left coordinate endpoint of the line. The first parameter P 0
is evaluated from equation (12) at starting pixel position (x 0 , y0 ) and with m
evaluated as ∆y/∆x.
P0 = 2∆y - ∆x _ _ _ (14)
Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm for m <1 :

(1) Input the two line endpoints & store the left end point in (x 0 , y0 ).
(2) Load (x0 , y0 ) into frame buffer that is plot the first point.
Computer Graphics 31

(3) Calculate constants ∆x, ∆y, 2∆y and 2∆y - 2∆x and obtain the starting
value for the decision parameter as : P0 = 2∆y - ∆x.
(4) At each xk along the line starting at k = 0, perform the following test if
Pk < 0 the next point to plot is (xk+1 , yk) and Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y otherwise
the next point to plot is (xk+1 , yk+1 ) and Pk+1 = Pk +2∆y - 2∆x.
(5) Repeat step 4 ∆x times.

Q.2 Digitize the line with end points (20, 10) & (30, 18) using Bresenham’s Line
Drawing Algorithm.
y 2 - y1 18 - 10 8
Ans.: slope of line, m = = = = 0.8
x 2 - x1 30 - 20 10
∆x = 10 , ∆y = 8
Initial decision parameter has the value
P0 = 2∆y - ∆x = 2x8 – 10 = 6
Since P0 > 0, so next point is (xk + 1, yk + 1) (21, 11)
Now k = 0, Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P1 = P0 + 2∆y - 2∆x
= 6 + (-4)
= 2
Since P1 > 0, Next point is (22, 12)
Now k = 1, Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P2 = 2 + (- 4)
= -2
Since P2 < 0, Next point is (23, 12)
Now k = 2 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y
P2 = - 2 + 16
= 14
Since P3 > 0, Next point is (24, 13)

Now k = 3 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x

P4 = 14 – 4
= 10
Since P4 > 0, Next point is (25, 14)
Now k = 4 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P5 = 10 – 4
32

= 6
Since P5 > 0, Next point is (26, 15)
Now k = 5 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P6 = 6–4
= 2
Since P6 > 0, Next point is (27, 16)
Now k = 6 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P7 = 2 + (- 4)
= -2
Since P7 < 0, Next point is (28, 16)

Now k = 7 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y

P8 = - 2 + 16
= 14
Since P8 > 0, Next point is (29, 17)
Now k = 8 Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x
P9 = 14 – 4
= 10
Since P9 > 0, Next point is (30, 18)

K Pk (xk+1 , yk+1 )
0 6 (21, 11)
1 2 (22, 12)
2 -2 (23, 12)
3 14 (24, 13)
4 10 (25, 14)
5 6 (26, 15)
6 2 (27, 16)
7 -2 (28, 16)
8 14 (29, 17)
9 10 (30, 18)
Plot the graph with these following points.
Computer Graphics 33

Q.3 Write the properties of a Circle. Explain the Mid Point Circle Algorithm.
Ans.: A circle is a set of points that are at a given distance r form the center position
(xc, yc). This distance relationship is given as :
(x – xc)2 + (y – yc)2 – r2 = 0
This equation is used to calculate the position of points along the circle path
by moving in the x direction from (xc - r) to (xc + r) and determining the
corresponding y values as :

y = yc (x c - x)2 - r 2
However this method is not the best method to calculate the circle point as it
requires heavy computation. Moreover spacing between the points is not
uniform. Another method that can be used by calculating the polar
coordinates r and θ where
x = xc + r cos θ
y = yc + r sin θ

Although this method results in equal spacing between the points but it also
requires heavy computation. The efficient method is incremental calculation
of decision parameter.
Mid Point Algorithm : We move in unit steps in the x-direction and calculate
the closed pixel position along the circle path at each step. For a given radius
r & screen center position (xc, yc). We first set our Algorithm to calculate the
position of points along the coordinate position (x 0 , y0 ).

These calculated positions are then placed at this proper screen position by
adding xc to x and yc to y.

For a circle from x = 0 to x = y in first quadrant, the slope varies from 0 to 1.

We move in the positive x direction and determine the decision parameter to
find out the possible two y values along the circle path. Points in the other 7
octants are calculated by symmetry.
34

y (x = y)
(y, x) (y, x)
(-x, y) (x, y)

45º
x (x = 0)
(-x, -y) (x, -y)

(-y, -x) (y, -y)

To apply this method we define a circle function as :

fcircle( x, y) = x2 + y2 - r2 _ _ _ (1)
Any point (x, y) on the boundary of the circle with radius r satisfy the
equation of fcircle( x, y) = 0
„The relative position of any point (x, y) can be determined by checking the
sign of circle function.
< 0 if (x, y) is inside circle boundary.
fcircle( x, y) = 0 if (x, y) on circle boundary. _ _ _ (2)
> 0 if (x, y) is outside circle boundary.

yk

yk -1

xk xk+1 xk+2

Assuming we have just plotted a pixel at (xk, yk). We next need to determine
whether the pixel (xk+1 , yk) or (xk+1 , yk-1 ) is closer.
Our decision parameter is the circle function evaluated at the mid point
between these two pixels.
Computer Graphics 35

Pk = fcircle (xk + 1, yk - ½)
Or Pk = (xk + 1 )2 +(yk - ½)2 – r2 _ _ _ (3)
If Pk < 0, Mid point is inside the circle boundary and the pixel on the
scan line yk is closer to the circle boundary.
Otherwise, Mid point is on or outside the circle boundary and the point on
the scan line yk - 1 is closer.
Successive decision parameters are obtained by incremental calculations.
Next decision parameter at next sampling position.
xk+1 + 1 = xk + 2
Pk+1 = fcircle(xk+1 + 1, yk+1 - ½)
Or Pk+1 = [(xk + 1) + 1]2 + (yk+1 - ½)2 – r2
Or Pk+1 = Pk + 2(xk + 1) + (yk+12 – yk2 ) – (yk + 1 – yk) + 1 _ _ _ (4)
Successive increment for P k is 2xk+1 +1(If Pk < 0) otherwise (2xk+1 +1 - 2yk+1 )
where
2xk+1 = 2xk + 2 & 2yk+1 = 2yk – 2
Initial decision parameter P 0 is obtained as (0, r) = (x0 , y0 )
P0 = fcircle(x, y) = fcircle (1, r - ½) = 1 + (r - ½)2 – r2
5
Or P0 = -r
4
If r is a integer then P 0 = 1 – r
Algorithm :

(1) Input radius r and circle center ( xc, yc) and obtain the first point on
circumference of a circle centered on origin (x0 , y0 ) = (0, r)
5
(2) Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as : P0 = -r
4
(3) At each xk position, starting at k = 0 if P k < 0 the next point along the
circle is (xk+1 , yk) and Pk+1 = Pk + 2xk+1 + 1, otherwise the next point
along the circle is (xk + 1, yk - 1) and Pk+1 = Pk + 2xk+1 + 1 – 2yk+1 where
2xk+1 = 2xk + 2 & 2yk+1 = 2yk – 2.
(4) Determine symmetry points in other seven octants.
36

(5) Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the circular path
centered on (xc, yc) & plot coordinate values x = x + xc & y = y + yc.
(6) Repeat step (3) through (5) until x ≥ y.

Q.4 Demonstrate the Mid Point Circle Algorithm with circle radius, r = 10.
Ans.: P0 = 1 – r =1 - 10 = - 9
Now the initial point (x0 , y0 ) = (0, 10) and initial calculating terms for
calculating decision parameter are
2x0 = 0 , 2y0 = 20 Since Pk < 0, Next point is (1, 10)
P1 = - 9 +3 = - 6 Now P1 < 0, Next point is (2, 10)
P2 = - 6 + 5 = - 1 Now P2 < 0, Next point is (3, 10)
P3 = -1+ 7 = 6 Now P3 > 0, Next point is (4, 9)
P4 = 6 + 9 - 18 = - 3 Now P4 < 0, Next point is (5, 9)
P5 = - 3 + 11 = 8 Now P5 > 0, Next point is (6, 8)
P6 = 8 +13 - 16 = 5 Now P6 > 0, Next point is (7, 7)

K (xk+1 , yk+1 ) 2xk+1 2yk+1

0 (1, 10) 2 20
1 (2, 10) 4 20
2 (3, 10) 6 20
3 (4, 9) 8 18
4 (5, 9) 10 18
5 (6, 8) 12 16
6 (7, 7) 14 14
Plot the graph with these points.

Q.5 Give the properties of Ellipse & explain the Algorithm.

Ans.: An ellipse is defined as a set of points such that the sum of distances from
two fixed points (foci) is same for all points given a point P = (x, y), distances
are d1 & d2 , equation is :
Computer Graphics 37

d1 + d2 = constant _ _ _ (1)
In terms of local coordinates
F1 = (x1 , y1 ) & F2 (x2 , y2 )
Equation is :

(x - x1 )2 +(y - y1 )2 (x - x 2 )2 +(y - y 2 ) 2 0 _ _ _ (2)

This can also be written in the form :

Ax2 + By2 + Cxy + Dx + Ey + F = 0 _ _ _ (3)
(More A, B, C, D, E, & F are evaluated in terms of focal coordinates & major
minor axis).
Major axis – which extends form 1 point to other through foci.
Minor axis – which spans the shouter dimension bisecting major axis at
ellipse center.
An interactive method for specifying an ellipse in an arbitrary orientation is
to input two foci & a point on ellipse boundary & evaluate constant in
equation (1) & so on.
Equation can be simplified if ellipse is in “standard position” with major &
minor axis oriented parallel to x and y axis.
y

ry
yc
rx

xc x
rx
2 2
x - xc y - yc
+ =1 _ _ _ (4)
rx ry
Now using polar coordinates r & θ
Parameter equations are :
x = xc + rx cos θ
y = yc + ry sin θ
Mid Point Ellipse Algorithm : Here approach is similar to that used in circle
rx and ry and (xc, yc) obtain points (x, y) for ellipse centered on origin.
38

Mid point ellipse algorithms process the quadrants in 2 parts. Figure shows
the division of quadrant with rx < ry.

(-x, y) (x, y)

Region1
Slope = -1
ry
Region2
rx

(-x, -y) (x, -y)

Fig.-1 : Ellipse processing regions over region Fig.-2 : Shows the

l, the ellipse slope is less than 1. Over symmetry of an ellipse
region 2, the magnitude of slope is
greater than 1.

Region 1 & 2 can be processed in different ways: Region 1 is processed

starting at (0, ry) we step clockwise along the path in unit steps in x - direction
& then unit steps in y- direction.

Ellipse function can be written as :

fellipse(x, y) = (0, ry)

fellipse(x, y) = ry2 x2 + rx2 y2 - rx2 ry2 _ _ _ (5)
Which has the following properties :

< 0 (x, y) is inside boundary.

fellipse = 0 (x, y) is on the boundary.
> 0 (x, y) is outside the boundary.
Computer Graphics 39

Thus the ellipse function fellipse(x, y) serves as a decision parameter in the mid
point Algorithm. Starting at (0, ry) we step in x direction until we reach
boundary between Region 1 & 2 slope is calculated at each step as :

dy -2r 2 x
= y2 - {from eq.(5)}
dx 2rx x
dy
At boundary = -1 So, 2ry2 x = 2rx2 y
dx
We move out of Region 1 when 2ry2 x ≥ 2rx2 y _ _ _ (7)
Figure (1) shows mid point between 2-candidate pixel at (xk+1 ), we have
selected pixel at (xk, yk) we need to determine the next pixel.

yk

•
yk-1 mid
point
xk xk+1 Fig.:1
P1k = fellipse( xk + 1, yk – ½) = ry2 ( xk + 1)2 + rx2 (yk - ½)2 – rx2 ry2 _ _ _ (8)
Next symmetric point (xk+1 +1, yk+1 - ½)
P1k +1 = ry2 [(xk + 1) + 1]2 + r2x [(yk +1 – ½)2 (yk – ½)2 ] _ _ _ (9)
Where yk + 1 is either yk or yk -1 depending on sign of P1k
2ry2 xk+1 + ry2 if Pk < 0
Increments =
2ry2 xk+1 – 2rx2 yk+1 + ry2 if Pk ≥ 0
With initial position (0, ry) the two terms evaluate to
2ry2 x = 0 , 2rx2 y = 2rx2 ry
Now when x & y are incremented the updated values are
2ry2 xk+1 = 2ry2 xk + 2ry2 , 2rx2 yk+1 = 2rx2 yk – 2rx2
And these values are compared at each step & we move out of Region 1
when condition (7) is satisfied initial decision parameter for region 1 is
calculated as :
P10 = fellipse(x0 , y0 ) = (1, ry – ½) = ry2 + rx2 ( ry - ½)2 – rx2 ry2
40

P10 = ry2 – rx2 ry + ¼ rx2 _ _ _ (10)

Over Region 2, we step in (-)ve y-direction & mid point selected is between
horizontal pixel positions
P2k = fellipse(x, y) = (xk + ½, yk – 1)
P2k = ry2 (xk + ½)2 + rx2 ( yk – 1)2 – rx2 ry2 _ _ _ (11)

yk

yk-1 •

xk xk+1
If P2k > 0 then we select pixel at xk +1
Initial decision parameter for region (2) is calculated by taking (x 0 , y0 ) as last
point in Region (1)
P2k + 1 = fellipse(xk+1 + ½, yk+1 –1) = ry2 (xk+1 + ½)2 + rx2 [(yk – 1) -1]2 – rx2 ry2
P2k + 1 = P2k – 2rx2 (yk – 1) + rx2 + ry2 [(xk +1 + ½)2 – (xk + ½)2 ] _ _ _ (12)
At initial position (x0 , y0 )
P20 = fellipse(x0 +½, y0 – 1) = ry2 ( x0 + ½)2 + rx2 (y0 – 1)2 – rx2 ry2 _ _ _ (13)

Mid Point Ellipse Algorithm :

(1) Input rx, ry and ellipse centre (xc, yc) obtain the first point (x0 , y0 ) = (0,
ry)
(2) Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 1 as
P10 = ry2 – rx2 ry + ¼ rx2
(3) At each xk position in region 1, starting at K = 0. If P k < 0, then next
point along ellipse is (xk+1 , yk) and P1k+1 = P1k + 2ry2 xk+1 + ry2 otherwise
next point along the circle is (xk +1, yk –1) and P1k+1 = P1k + 2ry2 xk + 1 –
2rx2 yk + 1 + ry2 with 2ry2 xk+1 = 2ry2 xk + 2ry2 , 2rx2 yk+1 = 2rx2 yk – 2rx2 and
continue until 2ry2 x ≥ 2rx2 y.
Computer Graphics 41

(4) Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region (2) using
last point (x0 , y0 ) calculated in region 1 as P20 = ry2 (x0 + ½)2 + rx2
(y0 – 1)2 – rx2 ry2.
(5) At each yk position in region (2), starting at k = 0 perform following
test : If P2k > 0 next point is (xk, yk – 1) and P2k+1 = P2k – 2rx2 yk + 1 + rx2
otherwise next point is ( xk + 1, yk – 1) and P2k+1 = P2k + 2ry2 xk + 1 –
2rx2 yk+1 + rx2.
(6) Determine the symmetry points in other three quadrants.
(7) More each calculated pixel position (x, y). Center on (x c, yc), plot
coordinate values x = x + xc & y = y + yc.
(8) Repeat the steps for region 1 until 2ry2 x ≥ 2rx2y.

Q.6 Illustrate the Mid Point Ellipse Algorithm by ellipse parameter r x = 8 ry = 6

Ans.: rx2 = 64, ry2 = 36
2rx2 = 128, 2ry2 = 72
1
P10 = 36 – (64 x 6) + x 64 = 36 – 384 + 16 = – 332
4
P10 < 0 Next point is (1, 6)
P11 = – 332 + 72 x 1 + 36 = – 332 + 108 = – 224
P11 < 0 Next point is (2, 6)
P12 = – 224 + 72 x 2 + 36 = – 224 + 144 + 36 = – 44
P12 < 0 Next point is (3, 6)
P13 = – 44 + 72 x 3 + 36 = – 44 + 216 + 36 = 208
P13 > 0 Next point is (4, 5)
P14 = 208 + 72 x 4 – 128 x 5 +36 = 208 + 288 – 640 + 36 = – 108
P14 < 0 Next point is (5, 5)
P15 = – 108 + 72 x 5 + 36 = 288
P15 > 0 Next point is (6, 4)
P16 = 288 + 72 x 6 – 128 x 4 + 36 = 244
P16 > 0 Next point is (7, 3)
P17 = 244 + 72 x 7 – 128 x 3 + 36 = 1168
42

K12 P1k (xk+1 , yk+1 ) 2ry2 xk+1 2rx 2 yk+1

1 – 332 (1, 6) 72 768

1 – 224 (2, 6) 144 768

2 – 44 (3, 6) 216 768

3 208 (4, 5) 288 640

4 – 108 (5, 5) 360 640

5 288 (6, 4) 432 512

6 244 (7, 3) 504 384

Now we move to region 2 since 2rx2 > 2rx2 y

Now For region the initial point is (x0, y0 = (7, 3) the initial decision
parameter is
P2 0 = f(7 + ½, 3 – 1) = 36 (7 + ½)2 + 64 (2)2 – 64 x 36 = 2025 + 256 – 2304 =– 23
The remaining positions are then calculated as :

K P1k (xk+1 , yk+1 ) 2ry2 xk+1 2rx 2 yk+1

0 – 23 (8, 2) 576 256
1 – 215 (8, 1) 576 128
2 – 279 (8, 0) - -
Now Plot these point on the graph.

Q.7 Why is DDA Algorithm not good & efficient Algorithm?

Ans.: (1) DDA traces out the successive x & y values by simultaneously
increasing x & y by small steps proportional to their first derivative. In
dy
our example the x increment is 1 but y increment is = m. since the
dx
real values have limited Precision, the accumulation of round off error
in “m” causes the accumulative error. Build up which drifts the pixel
positions from the true line path in most lines.
Computer Graphics 43

(2) Moreover the round off operations & floating point incrementation is
still time consuming.

Q.8 What do you understand by Area Filling? Discuss any one Algorithm.
Ans.: A standard out put primitive in general graphics package is a solid-color or
patterned polygon area. There are two basic approaches to area filling on
raster system :
(1) To fill an area is to determine the overlap intervals for scan lines that
cross the area.
(2) Another is t start from a given interior position & point outward from
this point until we specify the boundary conditions.
Now scan line approach is typically used in general graphics package to still
polygons, circles, ellipses and simple curses.
Fill methods starting from an interior point are useful with more complex
boundaries and in interactive painting systems.
Boundary Fill Algorithm : Another approach to area filling is to start at a
point inside a region and paint the interior outward toward the boundary. If
the boundary is specified in a single color, the fill Algorithm precedes
outward pixel by pixel until the boundary color is encountered. This method
is called Boundary Fill Algorithm.
Boundary Fill Algorithm procedure accepts as input the coordinates of an
interior point (x, y), a fill color and a boundary color. Starting with (x, y),
neighbouring boundary points are also tested. This process continues till all
the pixels up to the boundary color for the area is tested.

Diagram

1 Fill method applied to 4-connuted 2 Fill method applied to 8-

area. connuted area.
Recursive boundary fill Algorithm may not fill regions correctly if some
interior pixels are already displayed in the fill color. This occurs because the
Algorithm checks next point both for boundary color and for fill color.
The pixel positions are stored in form of a stack in the Algorithm.
44

Flood Fill Algorithm : Sometimes we want to fill in (or recolor) an area that
is not defined within a single color boundary suppose we take an area which
is bordered by several different color. We can paint such area by replacing a
specified interior color instead of searching for a boundary color value. This
approach is called flood fill Algorithm.
We start from interior paint (x, y) and reassign all pixel values that are
currently set to a given interior color with the desired fill color. If the area we
want to paint has move than one interior color, we can first reassign pixel
value so that all interior points have the same color.

□□□
Computer Graphics 45

Chapter-4

Clipping Algorithm

Q.1 What is Clipping? How can a point be clipped?

Ans. : Any procedure that identifies those portion of a picture that are either inside
or outside of a specified region of space is referred to as a clipping Algorithm
or clipping. This region against which an object is to be clipped is called a clip
window.
Application of Clipping :
(1) Extracting parts of defined scene for veiwing.
(2) Identifying visible surface in three dimentional views.
(3) Antialising line segments or object boundaries.
(4) Creating objects using solid-modeling procedures.
(5) Displaying multi window environment.
(6) Drawing and painting operations.
Point Clipping : Assuring that clip window is a rectangle in standard
Position, we save a point P = (x, y) for display if following inequalities are
satisfied.
xwmin ≤ x ≤ xwmax
ywmin ≤ y ≤ ywmax
Where the edges of clip window (xwmin, xwmax, ywmin, ywmax) can be either
would coordinate window boundaries or view port boundaries. If any one of
these inequalities is not satisfied the point is clipped.
Application : Point clipping can be applied to scenes involving explosions or
sea foam that are modeled with particles (points) distributed in some region
of the scene.
46

Q. 2 What is Line Clipping? Explain Cohen Sutherland Method of Line

Clipping.
Ans. A line clipping procedure involves several parts First, we can test a given line
segment to determine whether it lies completely inside the clipping window.
If it does not, we try to determine whether it lies completely outside the
window. Finally if we can not identify a line as completely inside or
completely outside we must perform intersection calculation with one or
move clipping boundaries. We process lines through inside-outside tests by
checking the line end points.
P9
P4 P2
P10
P1
P8
P5 P5 P6
P3 P7

A line with both end paints inside all clipping boundaries such as line
form P1 to P2 is saved.
A line with both end points outside any one of the clip boundaries
(line P 3 , P4 in Fig.) is outside the window.
All other lines cross one or more clipping boundaries and may require
calculation of multiple intersection point. For a line segment with end
points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) and one or both end points outside clipping
rectangle, the parametric representation.
x = x1 + u(x2 – x1 )
y = y1 + u(y2 – y1 ), 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
Could be used to determine values of parameter u for intersections
with the clipping boundary coordinates. If the value of u for an
intersection with a rectangle boundary edge is outside the range 0 to 1,
the line does not enter the interior of the window at that boundary. If
the value of u is within the range from 0 to 1, the line segment does
indeed cross into the clipping area.
Cohen - SutherlandLline Clipping : This is one of the oldest and most
popular line clipping procedures. Generally, the method speeds up the
processing of line segments by performing initial test that reduces the
Computer Graphics 47

number of intersections that must be calculated. Every line end point in a

picture is assigned a four digit binary code called, a region code, that
identifies the location of the points relative to the boundaries of the clipping
rectangle. Regions are set up in reference to the boundaries as shown is Fig.:

1001 1000 1010

0000
0001 WINDOW 0010
W
0101 0100 0110

Each bit position in the region code is used to indicate one the four relative
coordinate positions of the point with respect to the clip window: to the left,
right, top and bottom. By numbering the bit position in the region code as 1
through 4 right to left, the coordinate regions can be correlated with the bit
positions as :
bit 1 : left ; bit 2 : right ; bit 3 : below ; bit 4 : above
A value of 1 in any bit position indicates that point is in that relative position
otherwise the bit position is set to 0.
Now here bit values in the region are determined by comparing end
point coordinate values (x, y) to the clip boundaries.
Bit 1 is set to 1 if x < xwmin
Bit 2 is set to 1 it xwmax < x
Now Bit 1 sign bit of x – xwmin
Bit 2 sign bit of xwmax – x
Bit 3 sign bit of y – ywmin
Bit 4 sing bit of ywmax – y
(1) Any lines that are completely inside the clip window have a region
code 0000 for both end points few points to be kept in mind while
checking.
(2) Any lines that have 1 in same bit position for both end points are
considered to be completely outside.
48

(3) Now here we use AND operation with both region codes and if result
is not 0000 then line is completely outside.
Now for lines that cannot be identified as completely inside or completely
outside the window by this test are checked by intersection with window
boundaries.
For eg. P2
P2 ‟

P2 ‟‟

P1 ‟
P3 P3 ‟ P1
P4

We check P 1 against left right we find it is below window. We find

intersection point P1 ‟ and then discard line section P 1 to P1 ‟ & Now we have P 1
to P2 . Now we take P 2 we find it in left position outside window then we take
an intersection point P2 ‟‟. But we find it outside window then we again
calculate final intersection point P2 ‟‟. Now we discard line P2 to P2 ‟‟. We
finally get a line P2 ‟‟ to P1 ‟ inside window similarly check for line P3 to P4 .
For end points (x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) y–coordinate with vertical boundary can be
calculated as
y = y1 + m(x – x1 ) where x is set to xwmin to xwmax

Q.3 Discuss the Cyrus Beck Algorithm for Clipping in a Polygon Window.
Ans. Cyrus Beck Technique : Cyrus Beck Technique can be used to clip a 2–D line
against a rectangle or 3–D line against an arbitrary convex polyhedron in 3-d
space.
Liang Barsky Later developed a more efficient parametric line clipping
Algorithm. Now here we follow Cyrus Beck development to introduce
parametric clipping now in parametric representation of line Algorithm has a
parameter t representation of the line segment for the point at which that
segment intersects the infinite line on which the clip edge lies, Because all clip
Computer Graphics 49

edges are in general intersected by the line, four values of t are calculated.
Then a series of comparison are used to check which out of four values of (t)
correspond to actual intersection, only then are the (x, y) values of two or one
actual intersection calculated.
Advantage of this on Cohen Sutherland :
(1) It saves time because it avoids the repetitive looping needed to clip to
multiple clip rectangle edge.

(2) Calculation in 3D space move complicated than 1-D

E
PEi Ni • [P(t) – PEi] < 0
Ni • [P(t) – PEi] > 0 P1 Fig.1

Ni • [P(t) – PEi] = 0
P0 Ni

Cyrus Beck Algorithm is based on the following formulation the intersection

between 2-lines as in Fig.1 & shows a single edge Ei of clip rectangle and
that edge‟s outward normal Ni (i.e. outward of clip rectangle).
Either the edge or the line segment has to be extended in order to find
intersection point.
Now before this line is represented parametrically as :
P(t) = P0 + (P1 – P0 )t
Where t=0 at P0
t=1 at P1
Now pick an arbitrary point PEi on edge Ei Now consider three vectors P(t) –
PEi to three designated points on P0 to P1 .
Now we will determine the endpoints of the line on the inside or outside half
plane of the edge.
50

Now we can determine in which region the points lie by looking at the dot
product Ni • [P(t) – PEi].
Negative if point is inside half plane
Ni • [P(t) – PEi] Zero if point is on the line containing the edge
Positive if point lies outside half plane.
Now solve for value of t at the intersection P 0 P1 with edge.
Ni • [P(t) – PEi] = 0
Substitute for value P(t)
Ni • [P0 + (P1 – P0 ) t – PEi] = 0
Now distribute the product
Ni • [P0 – PEi] + Ni [P1 – P0 ] t = 0
Let D = (P 1 – P0 ) be the from P 0 to P1 and solve for t
Ni • [P0 - PEi]
t= _ _ _ (1)
- Ni • D
This gives a valid value of t only if denominator of the expression is non-
zero.
Note : Cyrus Beck use inward Normal Ni, but we prefer to use outward
normal for consistency with plane normal in 3d which is outward. Our
formulation differs only in testing of a sign.
(1) For this condition of denominator to be non-zero. We check the
following :
Ni ≠ 0 (i. e Normal should not be Zero)
D ≠ 0 (i.e P1 ≠ P0 )
Now hence Ni • D ≠ 0 (i.e. edge Ei and line between P 0 to P1 are not
parallel. If they were parallel then there cannot be any intersection
point.
Now eq.(1) can be used to find the intersection between the line & the
edge.
Now similarly determine normal & an arbitrary PEi say an end of edge
for each clip edge and then find four arbitrary points for the “t”.
(2) Next step after finding out the four values for “t” is to find out which
value corresponds to internal intersection of line segment.
Computer Graphics 51

(i) Now 1st only value of t outside interval [0, 1] can be discarded
since it lies outside P 0P1 .
(ii) Next is to determine whether the intersection lies on the clip
boundary.
P1 (t = 1)
PE P1 (t = 1) P1 (t = 1)
PL Line 1 PL PL
P0 PE Line 2 PL
(t = 0) P0 (t = 0) Line 3
PE PE
P0 (t = 0) Fig.2

Now simply sort the remaining values of t choose the intermediate

value of t for intersection points as shown in Fig.(2) for case of line 1.
Now the question arises how line 1 is different from line 2 & line 3.
In line 2 no portion of the line lies on the clip boundary and so the
intermediate value of t correspond to points not on the clip boundary.
In line 3 we have to see which points are on the clip boundary.
Now here intersections are classified as :
PE Potential entering
PL Potential leaving
(i) Now if moving from P 0 to P1 and the line causes to cross a
particular edge t enter the edge inside half plane the
intersection is PE.
(ii) Now if it causes to leave the inside plane then it is denoted as
PL.
Formally it can be checked by calculating angle between P0, P1 and
Ni.
Ni • D < 0 PE (angle is greater than 90o)
Ni • D > 0 PL (angle is less than 90 o)
(3) Final steps are to select a pair (PE, PL) that defines the clipped line.
52

Now we suggest that PE intersection with largest t value which we call

tE and the PL intersection with smallest t value tL. Now the intersection
line segment is then defined by range ( tE, tL). But this was in case of an
infinite line. But we want the range for P 0 to P1 line. Now we set this as
:
t = 0 is a upper bound for tE
t = 1 is a upper bound for tL
But if tE > tL
Now this is case for line 2, no portion of P 0 P1 is in clip rectangle so
whole line is discarded. Now tE and tL that corresponds to actual
intersection is used to find value of x & y coordinates.
Table 1 : For Calculation of Parametric Values.
Normal Ni.( P0 PEi )
Clip edge i PEi P0 – PEi t
Ni Ni.D
( x0 xmin)
Left : x = xmin (– 1, 0) (xmin, y) (x0 – xmin, y0 – y)
( x x0 )
( x0 xmax)
right : x = xmax (1, 0) (xmax, y) (x0 – xmax, y0 – y)
( x1 x0 )
( y0 ymin )
bottom : y = ymin (0, – 1) (x, ymin) (x0 – x, y0 – ymin)
( y1 y0 )
( y0 ymax)
top : y = ymax (0, 1) (x, ymax) (x0 – x, y0 – ymax)
( y1 y0 )

□□□
Computer Graphics 53

Chapter-5

Visible Surface Detection

Q.1 Explain the Depth Buffer Method in detail or Z–Buffer Method.

Ans.: This is commonly used image space approach to detecting visible surfaces is
the depth buffer method, which compares surface depths at each pixel
position on the projection plane. This procedure is referred to as the z-buffer
method since object depth is usefully me as used from the view plane along
z-axis of the viewing system. Each surface of a scene is processed separately,
one point at a time across the surface. This method is mainly applied to
scenes containing only polygon surfaces, because depth values can be
computed very quickly and method is easy to implement.

With object descriptions converted to projection coordinates, each (x, y, z)

position on the polygon surface corresponds to the orthographic projection
point (x, y) on the view plane. Therefore, for each pixel position(x, y) on the
view plane, object depths can be compared by comparing z-values.

This Fig.(1) shows three surfaces at varying distances along the orthographic
projection line form position (x, y) in a view plane taken as x vyv plane.
Surface S1 is closest at this position, so its surface intensity value at (x, y) is
saved.

As implied by name of this method, two buffer areas are required. A depth
buffer is used to store depth values for each (x, y) position as surfaces are
processed and the refresh buffer stores the intensity values for each position.
54

yv

(x, y) xv

z
Fig.(1) : At view plane position (x, y) surface s 1 has the smallest depth form
the view plane and so is visible at that position.
Initially all values/positions in the depth buffer are set to 0 (minimum depth)
and the refresh buffer is initialized to the back ground intensity. Each surface
listed in polygon table is then processed, one scan line at a time, calculating
the depth (z-values) at each (x, y) pixel position. The calculated depth is
compared to the value previously stored in the depth Buffer at that position.
If the calculated depth is greater than the value stored in the depth buffer, the
depth value is stored and the surface intensity at that position is determined
and placed in the same xy location in the refresh Buffer.
Depth Buffer Algorithm :
(1) Initialize the depth buffer and refresh buffer so that for all buffer
position (x, y).
depth ( x, y) = 0 , refresh (x, y) = IBackgnd
(2) For each position on each polygon surface, compare depth values to
previously stored values in the depth buffer, to determine visibility.
Calculate the depth z for each (x, y) position on the polygon.
If z > depth (x, y) : then set
depth (x, y) = z , refresh (x, y) = Isurf.(x, y)
Where Ibackgnd. is the value for the background intensity Isurf.(x, y) is the
projected intensity value for the surface at pixel (x, y). After all
surfaces have been processed, the depth Buffer contains depth values
Computer Graphics 55

for the visible surfaces and the refresh Buffer contains the
corresponding intensity values for those surfaces.
Depth values for a surface position (x, y) are calculated form the plane
equation for each surface :
- Ax - By - D
Z _ _ _ (1)
C
y-axis

y
y-1

x-axis
x x+1

Fig.(2) : From position (x, y) on a scan line, the next position across the
line has coordinate (x+1, y) and the position immediately below on the
next line has coordinate (x, y–1).
The depth z‟ of the next position (x+1, y) along the scan line is
obtained from equation (1) as :
- A(x+1) - By - D
Z'= _ _ _ (2)
C
A
Z' = Z - _ _ _ (3)
C
The ratio – A/C is constant for each surface, so succeeding depth
values across a scan line are obtained form preceding values with a
single addition.
Depth values for each successive position across the scan line are then
calculated by equation (3).
Now we first determine the y–coordinate extents of each polygon and
process the surface from the topmost scan line to the bottom scan line
as shown in Fig.(3).
56

Top Scan Line

Y – Scan Line
Let Edge
Intersection Bottom Scan Line

Fig.(3) : scan lines intersecting a polygon surface.

Starting at a top vertex we can recursively calculate x–positions down a left
1
edge of the polygon as x‟ = , where m is the slope of the edge.
m
Depth values down the edge are then obtained as :
A
B
Z' Z m _ _ _ (4)
C
If we process down a vertical edge, the slope is infinite and the recursive
calculation reduce to
B
Z'=Z + _ _ _ (5)
C
One way to reduce storage requirement is to process one section of the scene
at a time, using smaller depth buffer. After each view section is processed,
the buffer is reused for next section.
Q.2 How is Depth Buffer Method different form A Buffer Method?
Ans.:
S.No. Z – Buffer Method A – Buffer Method

1. In Z–Buffer method alphabet The A–Buffer method

Z – represents depth. represents an antialised, area
averaged, accumulation Buffer
method.

2. It can find only one visible In this each position in the

surface at each pixel position buffer can reference a linked
that is it deals only with list of surfaces.
opaque surfaces.
Computer Graphics 57

3. This can‟t accumulate More than one surface intensity

intensity values for more than can be taken into consideration
one surface. at each pixel position.

Q.3 What is Object Space Method of Visible Surface Detection?

Ans.: Visible surface detection algorithm is broadly classified according to whether
they deal with object definitions directly or with their projected Images.
These two approaches are called.
object – space methods
Image – space methods.
An object – space method compares objects and parts of objects to each other
within the scheme definition to determine which surfaces, as a whole, we
should label as visible.
Object space methods can be used effectively to locate visible surfaces in
some cases.
Line display algorithm uses object space method to identify visible lines in
wire frame displays.

Q. 4 Differentiate between Object Space Method and Image Space Method?

Ans.:
S.No. Z – Buffer Method A – Buffer Method
1. This method deals with object This method deals with their
definition directly projected Images.
2. This method compares objects In this visibility is decided
and parts of objects to each point by point at each pixel
other within the scene position on the projection
definition. plane.
3. This method can be used Most visible surfaces use this
effectively to locate visible Method.
surfaces in some cases.

Q.5 Explain Painter’s Algorithm for removing hidden surfaces?

Ans.: Depth sorting methods for solving hidden surface problem is often refered to
as Painter‟s Algorithm.
58

Now using both image space and object space operations, the depth sorting
method performs following basic functions :
(1) Surfaces are sorted in order of decreasing depth.
(2) Surfaces are scan consented in order, starting with the surface of
greatest depth.
Sorting operations carried out in both image and object space, the scan
conversion of the polygon surface is performed in image space.
For e.g. : In creating an oil painting, an artist first paints the background
colors. Next the most distant objects are added, then the nearer objects and so
forth. At the final step, the foreground objects are painted on the canvas over
the Background and other objects that have been painted on the canvas. Each
layer of paint covers up the previous layer using similar technique, we first of
sort surfaces according to their distances form view plane. The intensity
value for the farthest surface are then entered into the refresh Buffer. Taking
each succeeding surface in turn (in decreasing depth) we paint the surface
intensities onto the frame buffer over the intensities of the previously
processed surfaces.
Painting polygon surfaces onto the frame buffer according to depth is carried
out in several steps.
Viewing along Z – direction, surfaces are ordered on the first pass according
to smallest Z value on each surface with the greatest depth is then compared
to other surfaces S in the list to determine whether there are any overlaps in
depth. if no depth overlaps occurs, S is scan converted.
Fig.1 : Two surfaces with no depth overlap
YV
ZMax. S
ZMin.
ZMax. S‟
ZMin.
XV

ZV
This process is then repeated for the next surface in the list. As long as no
overlaps occur, each surface is processed in depth order until all have been
scan converted.
Computer Graphics 59

If a depth overlap is detected at any point in the list we need to make some
additional comparison tests. We make the test for each surface that overlaps
with S. If any one of these test is true, no reordering is necessary for that
surface.
(1) The bounding rectangle in the xy plane for the two surfaces does not
overlap.
(2) Surface S is completely behind the overlapping surface relative to the
viewing position.
(3) The overlapping surface is completely in front of S relative to the
viewing position.
(4) The projection of the two surfaces onto the view plane do not overlap.
We perform these tests in the order listed and processed to the next
overlapping surface as soon as we find one of the test is true. If all the
overlapping surfaces pass at least one of these tests none of them is behind S.
No reordering necessary and S is scan converted.
(1) Test 1 is performed in two parts. We first check for overlap in x
direction, then we check for overlap in y direction. If either of these
directions shows no overlap the two planes can‟t obscure one another.
Fig.(2) shows depth overlap that is overlap in z – direction but no
overlap in x – direction.
YV

S S’
XV
XMin. XMax. XMin. XMax.

(2) Test 2 and 3 with an inside outside polygon test. That is, we substitute
the coordinates for all vertices of S into the plane equation for the
overlapping surface and check the sign of the result. If the plane
equations are set u, so that the outside of the surface is towards the
viewing position, then S is behind S‟ if all the vertices of S are inside S‟.
similarly S‟ is completely in front of S it all vertices of S are outside of
S‟
60

YV

S
S’
XV

Fig.(3) shows an overlapping surface S that is completely in front of S

but s is not completely inside S‟. (i. e test 2 is not true)
YV

S
S’
XV

Fig.(4) shows overlapping surface S‟ is completely in front (“outside”)

of surface S but S is not completely behind S‟.
Now if test 1 through 3 has all failed, we try test 4 by checking for
intersection between the bounding edges of the two surfaces using line
equation in xy plane.
Fig.(5) Two surfaces with overlapping bounding rectangle in the xy
plane.

(a) (b)
Computer Graphics 61

If all four tests fail with a particular overlapping surface S‟, we

interchange surfaces S and S‟ in the sorted list.

Q.6 Write short notes on -

(i) Back Face Detection
(ii) A – Buffer Method
(iii) Scan Line Method
Ans.: Back Face Detection : A fast and simple object space method for identifying
the back faces of a polyhedron is based on “inside-outside” tests discussed. A
point (x, y, z) is inside a polygon surface with plane parameters A, B, C and D
if
Ax + By + Cz + D < 0 _ _ _ (1)
When an inside point is along the line of sight to the surface, the polygon
must be back face (we are inside that face and can‟t see the front of it from
our viewing position). We can simplify this test by considering the normal
vector N to a polygon surface which has Cartesian components (A, B, C). In
general if v is a vector in the viewing direction from the eye (a camera)
Position shown in fig we then this polygon is a back if
V. N > 0 _ _ _ (2)
If object description have been converted to projection coordinates and our
viewing direction is parallel to the viewing Z v axis then V = (0, 0, Vz ) and
V. N = Vz C
So that we only need to consider sign of C the Z component of Normal vector
N.

N (A, B, C)
V

Fig.(1) : Vector V in the viewing direction and a back face normal vector N of
the Polyhedron.
62

In right handed viewing system with viewing direction along negative Z v

axis Fig.(2).
YV
N (A, B, C) XV
Fig.(2)
V
ZV
The polygon surface is back face if C < 0, Also we can‟t see any face whose
normal has Z component C = 0. Since our viewing direction is grazing that
polygon. Thus in general, we label any polygon as a back face if its normal
vector has a Z – component value.
C≤0
By examining Parameter C for the different planes defining an object, we can
immediately identify all the Back faces. For a single convex polyhedron such
as pyramid in Fig.(2) this test identifies all the hidden surfaces on the object,
since each surface is either completely visible or completely hidden. For other
objects such as concave polyhedron more tests need to be performed to
determine whether these are additional faces that are to tally or partly
obscured by other Faces.
A – Buffer Method : An extension of the ideas in the depth Buffer method is
A – Buffer method. The A – buffer method represents an antialised, area
averaged, accumulation buffer method.
The A – Buffer method expands the depth buffer so that each position in the
buffer can reference a linked list of surfaces. Thus move than one intensity
can be taken into consideration at each pixel position and object edges can be
antialised.
Each position A in A – Buffer has two fields :
(1) Depth Field : Stores a positive and negative real Number.
(2) Intensity Field : Stores surface Intensity Information or a painter value.

d>0 I d<0 Surf 1 Surf 1

depth Intensity depth Intensity

field field field field •••
Fig.(1) organization of A – Buffer pixel position :
(a) Shows single surface overlap of corresponding pixel area.
(b) Shows multiple surface overlap.
Computer Graphics 63

If the depth field is positive, the member stored at that position is the depth
of a single surface overlapping the corresponding pixel area. The intensity
field then stores RGB components of surface color at that point and the
percentage of pixel coverage as shown in Fig.(1).
Data for each surface in the linked list includes :
1) RGB Intensity Component 5) Surface Identifier
2) Opacity Parameter 6) Other Surface Rendering Parameter
3) Depth 7) Pointer to Next Surface
4) Percent of Area Coverage
Scan – Line Method : The image space method for removing hidden surfaces
is a extension of the scan line Algorithm for filling Polygon interior of filling
first one surface we now deal with the multiple surfaces. As each scan line is
processed, all Polygon surfaces intersecting that line are examined to
determine which are visible. Across each scan line depth calculations are
made for each overlapping surface to determine which is nearest to the view
plane. When the visible surface has been determined, the intensity value for
that position is entered into the refresh Buffer.
Two tables are used for various surfaces :
(i) Edge Table (ii) Polygon Table
Edge Table : contains coordinate end points for each line in the scene, the
inverse slope of each line and pointers into the polygon table to identify the
surface bounded by each line.
Polygon Table : Contains coefficient of the plane equation for each surface,
intensity information for the surfaces and possible pointers into the edge
table.

□□□
64

Chapter-6

Curves and Surfaces

Q.1 What are Bezier Curves and Surfaces. Write the properties of Bezier
Curves.
Ans.: This spline approximation method was developed by French Engineer Pierre
Bezier for use in the design of Renault automobile bodies Bezier splines have
a number of properties that make them highly useful and convenient for
curves and surface design. They are easy to implement. Bezier splines are
widely available in CAD systems.
Bezier Curves : A Bezier curve can be fitted to any number of control points.
The number of control point to be approximated and their relative position
determine the degree of Bezier polynomial. As with interpolation splines, a
Bezier curve can be specified with boundary conditions, with characterizing
matrix or with blending functions.
Suppose we have (n + 1) control point positions: P k – (xk, yk, zk,) with K
varying from 0 to n. These coordinate points can be blended to produce the
following position vector P(u), which describes the path of an approximating
Bezier Polynomial function between P 0 & Pn.
n
P (u) = ∑ Pk BEZ k,n (u) 0≤u≤1 _ _ _ (1)
K=0

The Bezier blending functions BEZ k,n (u) are the Bernstein polynomial.
BEZk,n(u) = C (n, k) u k (1 – u) n-k _ _ _ (2)
Where C(n,k) are the binomial coefficients
n
C( n ,k ) _ _ _ (3)
kn k
Equivalently we can define Bezier blending function with recursive
calculation :
Computer Graphics 65

BEZ k,n (u) = (1 – u) BEZ k,n-1 (u) + u BEZ k-1,n-1 (u) n > k ≥ 1 _ _ _ (4)
Three parametric equations for individual curve coordinates :
n n n
x(u) = ∑ xk BEZ k,n (u) y(u) = ∑ yk BEZ k,n (u) z(u) = ∑ zk BEZ k,n (u)
K=0 K=0 K=0

A Bezier Curve is a polynomial of degree one less than the number of control
points used.
Three points generates Parabola.
Four points generates Cubic Curve.

(a) (b)

Bezier Curves generated from three or four control points. Dashed lines
connect the control point positions.
Properties of Bezier Curve :
(1) It always passes through the first and last control points. That is
boundary condition at two ends of the curve are :
For two end points P (0) = P0
P (1) = Pn _ _ _ (6)
Now value for the first derivative of a Bezier Curve at the end points
can be calculated from control point coordinates as :
P‟(0) = - nP0 +nP1 First derivative for the

P‟(1) = - nPn-1 + nPn first & last 2 end points _ _ _ (7)

Slope of the curve at the beginning of curve is calculated by
joining the beginning 2- points.
Slope of the curve at the end of curve is calculated by joining the 2 –
end points.
66

Similarly second derivative of Bezier Curve at the end point are : -

P‟‟(0) = n (n – 1) [(P2 – P1 ) – (P1 – P0 )]
P‟‟(1) = n (n – 1) [ (Pn–2 – Pn–1 ) – (Pn–1 – Pn)] _ _ _ (8)
(2) Another property of Bezier Curve is, it lies within the convex hull.
Therefore this follows the properties of Bezier blending function. That
is they are all positive & their sum is always 1.
n
∑ BEZ k,n (u) = 1 _ _ _ (9)
K=0

So that any curve position is simply weighted sum of the control

points positions.
The convex hull also ensures that polynomial smoothly follows the
control points without erratic oscillations.
Bezier Surfaces : Two sets of orthogonal Bezier Curves can be used to design
an object surface by specifying by an input mesh of control points.
Blending function are :
m n
P(u, v) = ∑ ∑ Pj,k BEZj,m (v) BEZk,n (u) _ _ _ (10)
j = 0 k=0
With Pj,k specifying location of (m + 1) by (n + 1) control points.
Bezier surfaces have same properties as Bezier Curves. Zero order continuity
is obtained by matching control points at the boundary.
First order continuity is obtained by choosing control points along a straight
line across the boundary & by maintaining a constant ratio of collinear line
segments for each set of specified control points across section boundaries.
NOTE : In context to Cubic Bezier Curve. Derive Bezier Matrix.
1 0 -3 1
3 -6 3 0
-3 3 0 0
1 0 0 0
Write the same answer as the above one.
Computer Graphics 67

Q.2 What are B-Spline Line, Curves and Surfaces? Write the properties of B-
Spline Curves?
Ans.: These are most widely used class of approximating splines B-splines have
two advantage over Bezier splines.
(1) The degree of a B – spline polynomial can be set independently of the
number of control points (with certain limitations).
(2) B – spline allow local control over the shape of a spline curve or
surface.
The trade of off is that B – splines are move complex than Bezier splines.
B – spline Curves : Blending function for B – spline curve is :
n
P (u) = ∑ Pk Bk,d (u) umin ≤ u ≤ u max
K=0 2 ≤ d ≤ n+1
Where the P k are an input set of (n + 1) control points. There are several
differences between this B-spline formulation and that for Bezier splines. The
range of parameter u now depends on how we choose the B – spline
parameters. And the B – spline blending functions B k,d are polynomials of
degree d – 1, where parameter d can be chosen to be any integer. Value in the
range from 2 up to the number of control points , n + 1, Local control for B –
splines is achieved by defining the blending functions over subintervals of
the total range of u.
Blending function for B – spline curves are defined by Cox – de Boor
recursion formulas :
1 if uk ≤ u ≤ u k+1
Bk,d (u) =
0 otherwise
u uk uk d u
Bk,d u Bk, d 1 u Bk=1,d 1 u
uk d 1 uk uk d uk 1
Where each blending function is defined over d subintervals of the total
range of u. values for umin and umax then depends on the number of control
points we select, we can increase the number of values in the knot vector to
aid in curve design.

Properties of B – spline Curve :

(1) The polynomial curve has degree (d – 1) and Cd–2 continuity over the
range of u.
68

(2) For (n + 1) control points, the curve is described with (n + 1) blending

function.
(3) Each blending function B k,d is defined over d subintervals of the total
range of u, starting at knot value u k.
(4) The range of parameter u is divided into (n + d) subintervals by the (n
+ d + 1) values specified in knot vector.
(5) With knot values labeled as { u0 , u1 , - - - , un+d} the resulting B – spline
over is defined only in the interval from knot value u d-1 up to the knot
value un +1.
(6) Each section of the spline curve (between two successive knot values)
is influenced by d – control points.
(7) Any one control points can affect the shape of almost d curve section.
For any vale of u in the interval from knot value u d-1 to un-1 the sum over all
basis function is 1.
n
∑ Bk,d (u) = 1
K=0

We need to specify the knot values to obtain the blending function using
recurrence relation.
Classification of B – splines according to the knot vectors :
Uniform, Periodic B – splines : When spacing between knot values is
constant. The resulting curve is called a uniform B – spline.
For e.g. : { - 1.5, -1.0, -0.5, 0.0}
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

0 1 2 3

Periodic B - spline blending functions for n = d = 3 and a uniform, integer

knot vector.
Computer Graphics 69

Uniform B – splines have periodic blending functions shifted version of

previous function :
Bk,d (u) = Bk+1 , d (u + ∆u) = Bk+2 , d (u + 2∆u)
Cubic Periodic B – spline : Periodic splines are particularly useful for
generating certain closed Curves. If any three consecutive control points are
identical, the curve passes through that coordinate position.
The boundary condition for periodic cubic B – spline with four consecutive
control points labeled P 0 , P1 , P2 , P3 are.
1
P(0) = (P0 + 4P1 + P2 )
6
1
P(1) = (P1 + 4P2 + P3 )
6
1
P‟(0) = (P2 – P0 )
2
1
P‟(1) = (P3 – P1 )
2
Matrix formulation for periodic cubic polynomial is :-
P0

P (u) = [u 3 u2 u 1] . MB . P1
P2
P3

where B – spline Matrix is

1 0 -3 1
MB = 1 3 -6 3 0
6 -3 3 0 0
1 0 0 0
Open Uniform B – spline : This class of B – spline is a cross between uniform
B – spline and non uniform B – spline. For open uniform B – spline or
simply open B – spline, the Knot spacing is uniform except at the ends where
Knot values are repeated d – times.
For eg.: [0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3] for d = 2 and n = 3
[0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2] for d = 4 and n = 4
70

Non uniform B – splines : With non uniform B – spline, we can choose

multiple Knot values and unequal spacing between the Knot values.
For eg.: [0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 4]
[0, 2, 2, 3, 3, 6]
Non uniform B – spline provides increased flexibility in controlling a curve
shape.
We can obtain the blending function for a non uniform B – spline using
methods similar to those discussed for uniform and open B – spline.
B – spline Surfaces : Cartesian product of B – spline blending function in the
form
n1 n2
P(u, v) = ∑ ∑ P K1, K2 B K1, d1 (u) B K2, d2 (v)
K1 =0 K2=0
Where vector values for P k1 , k2 specify position of the (n1 +1) by (n2 + 1)
control points.

Q. 3 What is Hermite Interpolation?

Ans. A hermite spline is an interpolating piecewise cubic polynomial with a
specified tangent at each control point. Hermite splines can be adjusted
locally because each curve section is only dependent on its end point
constraints. If P(u) represents a parametric cubic point function for the curve
section between control points P k and Pk+1 .
Boundary conditions that define this Hermite curve section are :

P(0) = Pk
P(1) = Pk+1 _ _ _ (1)
P‟(0) = DPk
P‟(1) = DPk+1
With DPk and DPk+1 specifying values for the parametric derivatives (slope of
the curve) at control points P k and Pk+1 respectively.
Vector equivalent equation :
P(u) = au 3 + bu2 + cu + d 0≤u≤1 _ _ _ (2)
Where x component of P is x(u) = a xu3 + bxu2 + cxu + dx and similarly for y
and z components. The Matrix is
Computer Graphics 71

a
P(u) = [u 3 u2 u 1] b _ _ _ (3)
c
d
Derivative of the point function as :
a
P‟(u) = [3u 2 2u 1 0] b _ _ _ (4)
C PK
d P(u) = [x(u), y(u), z(u)]

PK+1
Fig.(1) Parametric point function P(u) for a Hermite curve section between
control point P k and Pk+1.

Now we express the hermite boundary condition in matrix form.

Pk 0 0 0 1 a
Pk+1 = 1 1 1 1 b _ _ _ (5)
DPk 0 0 1 0 c
DPk+1 3 2 1 0 d

Solving this equation for the polynomial coefficients : -

a 0 0 0 1 -1 Pk Pk
b = 1 1 1 1 Pk+1 =MH Pk+1 _ _ _ (6)
c 0 0 1 0 DPk DPk
d 3 2 1 0 DPk+1 DPk+1

Where MH, the Hermite Matrix is the inverse of the boundary constraint
Matrix.
72

Equation (3) can thus be written in terms of boundary condition as :

Pk
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] MH Pk+1
DPk
DPk+1

Now we obtain the blending function by carrying out Matrix Multiplication :

P(u) = Pk (2u3 – 3u2 + 1) + Pk+1 (-2u3 +3u2) + DPk (u3 – 2u2 + u) + DPk+1 (u3 – u2)
= Pk H0 (u) + Pk+1 H1 (u) +DPk H2 (u) +DPk+1 H3 (u)
Hk(u) are refered to as blending function for K = 0, 1, 2, 3.

Q.4 Differentiate between Hermite Curve and B - spline Curve?

Ans.:
S.No. Hermite Curve B – spline Curve

1. This spline is interpolation This is a class of

spline with a specified tangent approximating spline.
at each control point.

2. It does not require any input It requires many I/P values

values for curve slope or other like Knot vector, range of
geometric information, in Parameter u etc.
addition to control point
coordinates.

Q.5 Explain Zero Order, First Order, and Second Order Continuity in Curve
Blending?
Ans.: To ensure a smooth transition form one section of a piecewise curve to the
next. We can suppose various continuity conditions, at the connection point.
Each section of a spline is described with a set of parametric coordinate
function of the form :
Computer Graphics 73

x = x (u), y = y (u), z = z (u), u1 ≤ u ≤ u2 _ _ _ (1)

P2 P2

P3
P0 P3 P0
Convex Hall
P1 P1
Fig.(1) convex hull shapes for two sets of control points.
Parametric Continuity : We set parametric continuity by matching the
parametric derivative of adjoining section at their common boundary.
Zero – Order Parametric Continuity : Described as C0 continuity means
simply that curves meet. That is the values of x, y, z evaluated at u2 for first
curve section is equal to values of x, y, z evaluated at u1 for the next curve
section.
First – Order Parametric Continuity : Refered as C1 continuity means that the
first Parametric derivatives (tangent lines) of the coordinate functions in
eq.(1) for two successive curve sections are equal at their joining point.
Second - Order Parametric Continuity : Described as C2 continuity means
that both first and second parametric derivatives of the two curve sections are
the same at the intersection.
With second order continuity, the rates of change of the tangent vector for
connecting sections are equal at their intersection. Thus the tangent line
transitions smoothly from one section of the curve to the Next like in Fig.(2).

Fig.(2) : Showing second order continuity.

With First order continuity, the change of tangent vectors for two sections can
be quite different, so that the general shape of the two adjacent section can
change abruptly.
74

Applications :
(1) First order continuity is often sufficient for digitizing drawings and
some design applications.
(2) Second order continuity is useful for setting up animation paths for
camera motion and for many precision CAD Requirements.
Geometric Continuity Conditions : An alternate method for joining two
successive curve sections is to specify conditions for geometric continuity. In
this case, we only require parametric derivatives of the two sections to be
proportional to each other at their common boundaries instead of equal to
each other.
Zero Order Continuity : Described as G0 continuity, is same as zero order
parametric continuity. That is two curve section must have the same
coordinate position at the boundary point.
First Order Geometric Continuity: - Described as G1 continuity means those
parametric first derivatives are proportional at the intersection of two
successive sections.
Suppose if we denote the parametric position on the curve as P(u) the
direction of the tangent vector P‟(u), but not necessarily its magnitude will be
same of two successive curve sections at their joining point under G1
Continuity.
Second Order Geometric Continuity : Described as G2 continuity means that
both the first and second parametric derivative of the two curve sections are
proportional at their boundary under G2 continuity, curative of two curve
section will match at the joining position.
A curve generated with geometric continuity conditions is similar to one
generated with parametric continuity but with slight difference in curve
shape.

□□□
Computer Graphics 75

Chapter-7

Image Processing

Q.1 What is Image Processing? What are the operations of Image Processing?
Ans.: Image Processing is any form of signal, processing for which Input is an
Image such as photographs or frames of video, the output of Image
processing can be either an Image or a set of characteristics or parameters
related to the Image. Most Image processing techniques in values treating the
image as 2–d signal and applying standard signal processing technique to it.
Image processing usually refers to digital Image processing but optical and
analog image Processing are also possible.
Operations of Image Processing :
(1) Geometric Transformation (Such as enlargement, reduction and
rotation)
(2) Color Correction (Such as brightness and contrast adjustment
quantization or conversion of different color)
(3) Digital compositing or optical compositing (combination of two or
more Images)
(4) Interpolation and recovery of full image from a draw image format.
(5) Image editing
(6) Image registration
(7) Image stabilization
(8) Image segmentation
(9) Extending dynamic range by combining differently exposed Images.

Q.2 What are the Applications of Image Processing?

Ans.: The applications of Image Processing are :
76

(1) Computer vision : This is a science and technique of machine that can
see computer vision is concern with the theory for building artificial
system that obtains information form Images.
This include system for :
(i) Controlling Process (e.g. : Industrial Robot)
(ii) Detecting Events (for like Counting People)
(iii) Organizing Information
(iv) Modeling Objects or Environment (Medical Image Analyses)
(v) Interaction (as the Input to a Device for Computer Human
Interaction)
(2) Face Detection : This Computer technology that determines the
location and sizes of human faces in arbitrary digital Images. It detects
facial features and ignores everything else like trees buildings.
(3) Feature Detection : This refers to methods that air at comforting,
abstracting of image Information and making decision at every Image
point whether an image feature of a given type at that point or not.
(4) Land Departure Warning System : This mechanism is designed to
warn a driver when vehicle begins to move out of its lane.
(5) Medical Image Processing : This refers to techniques and process used
to create Images of human body for clinical purposes like entropy
radiology.
(6) Microscope Image Processing : This is the broad term that covers to
use the digital image processing technique to process analyze and
Present Images obtained from microscope like in drug testing and
metallurgical processes.
(7) Morphological Image Processing : Theoretical model for digital
images built upon lattice theory and topology also uses Image
Processing Technique.
(8) Remote sensing : This is a small or large scale acquisition of
information of an object or phenomenon by the use of either recording
or real time sensing device that is not physical but way of air craft,
space craft & satellites.
(9) Photo Manipulation
Computer Graphics 77

Q.3 What is Image Enhancement? What are different Image Enhancement

techniques?
Ans.: Image enhancement refers to sharpening of Image features such as edges,
boundaries or contrast to make a graphic display more useful for display and
analysis. The enhancement process doesn‟t increase the inherent information
content in the data but it does increase the dynamic range of the chosen
features show that they can be detected easily. Image enhancement includes
grey level and contrast manipulation, noise reduction, as christening,
sharpening, filtering, interpolation and magnification, pseudo coloring and
so on.
The greatest difficulty in Image enhancement is quantifying the criteria for
enhancement.
Image Enhancement Technique

Point Operation Spatial Operation Transformation Pseudo coding

Information
(i) Contrast Stretching (i) Noise Smoothing (i) Linear Filtering (i) False Coloring
(ii) Noise Clipping (ii) Median Filtering (ii) Root Filtering (ii)Pseudo Coloring
(iii) Window Slicing (iii) Unsharp Masking (iii) Homographic
Filtering
(iv) Histogram Modeling (iv) Low Pass, High
Pass Band Pass Filter
(v) Zooming

(1) Point Operation : These operation are zero order Memory operations
where a given grey level UE [0, L] is mapped into a grey level VE [0, L]
according to Transformation.
(a) Contrast Stretching : Low contrast Images occur often due to
poor or non uniform lightening conditions or due to non –
sincerity or small dynamic range of the Image sensor.
Contrast stretching Transformations are applied slope of the
transformation is chosen greater than unity in the region of
stretch.
78

v
1
for >1 a=
3
2
for >1 b= L
3
for >1 c=L
u
a b c
For dark region stretch > 1 for mid region > 1 and for
brighter region >1

(b) Noise Clipping : A special case of contrast stretching is called

clipping. This is useful for noise reduction when the Input
signal is known to lie in the range (a, b). Threshold is a special
case of clipping were a = b= t and the output becomes binary.
For e.g. : A binary image such as a printed page doesn‟t give
binary o/p when scanned doesn‟t output because of sensor
noise background illusion variation.

v v v
Threshold

Threshold u Image Histogram u u

Computer Graphics 79

Digital Negative : A negative Image can be obtained by reverse

scaling of the grey levels according to the transformation v = t – u
v
L
L-u

L u
(c) Window Slicing (Intensity Level Slices) :
without background condition
v
L a≤u≤b
V = L
0 otherwise
a b u
without Background condition
v
L a≤u≤b
V =
u otherwise
u
These transformation permit segmentation of certain grey level
regions from the rest of the image. This technique is useful
when different features of an image are contained in different
grey levels.
Bit extraction (It is a minor part of point operation) : Suppose
each image pixel is uniformly quantized to b bits. It is desired to
extract the nth most significant bit and display it then apply the
transformation. This transformation is useful in determine the
no of visually significant bit in an Image.
(d) Histogram Modeling : The histogram of an Image represents
the relative frequency of occurrence of the various grey levels in
the Image histogram modeling Technique modify an image so
that its histogram has a desired shape. This is useful in
80

stretching the low contrast level of Images with narrow

histogram. Histogram modeling has been found to be a
powerful technique for image enhancement.
(i) Histogram Equalization : In this goal is to obtain
uniform histogram for the out put Image.
(ii) Histogram Modification (measures frequency basically)
: A generalization of procedure is taken the output grey
level v is first transformed non linearly by F(u) and the
output is uniformly quantized. The histogram is
equalization function.
u
f(u) = ∑ Pu (xi,)
xi=0
Pu is the probability at a point.
(iii) Histogram Specification : Suppose the random variable
is greater then Zero with probability density Pu(u) is to
be transform to v ≥ 0 such that it has a specified
probability density P v(v).
(2) Spatial Operations : Many image enhancement techniques are based
on special operation performed on local neighborhood of input pixels
often the image is convolved with the finite response filter called
spatial Mask.
(a) Noise Smoothening : Here each pixel is replaced by a weighted
average of its neighborhood pixel.
v(m, n) = ∑ a(k, l) y(m-k, n-l) (k, l) w
y (m, n) & v (m, n) are input & out put image respectively.
a (k, l) are filter weight.
w = chosen window
Spatial averaging is used for noise smoothening low pass
filtering & sub sampling of Images.
The observed Image is given as
y (m, n) = u (m, n) + n (m, n)
denotes noise ratio which has mean value 0.
Directional Smoothening : To protect the edge from blurring
while smooth using a directional averaging filter can be useful
v (m, n, o).
Computer Graphics 81

(b) Median Filtering : Here the input pixel is obtained by the

median of the pixel contained in the video around the pixel.
V(m, n) = median {y(m-k, n-l), (k, l) w}
Where w is suitable window.
The Algorithm of median filtering requires arranging the pixel
values in the window in increasing & decreasing order &
picking the middle value. Generally the window size is chosen
so that nw is added. If nw is even then. The median is taken as
the average of two values in the meddle.
The median filter has the following properties :
(i) It is the non linear filter thus for 2-sequences x(m) & y(m)
median {x(m) + y(m)} ≠ median {x(m)} + median {y(m)}
(ii) It is useful for removing isolated line of pixels while
preserving spatial resolution.
(iii) Its performance is poor when the number of noise pixels
in the window is greater than or ½ the number of pixels
in the window.
(c) Un sharp Masking Technique : This is used commonly in the
printing industry for cry penning the edges
V (m, n) = u (m, n) + λ g (m, n)
Where λ > 0 & g (m, n) is suitable defined gradient at (m, n) a
commonly used gradient fn is the discrete lap lace formula.
(d) Low Pass, High Pass Band Pass Filter : Earlier it was
mentioned spatial avenging operation is a low Pass filter.

hHP(m, n) = m, n – h LP m, n

hHP denotes high pass filter h LP denotes low Pass filter such a filter
can be implemented by simply subtracting the low Pass filter output
form its Input. Low Pass filter are useful for Noise smoothening &
interpolation. High Pass filter are useful in extracting edges & in
sharpening Images Band pass filters are useful in enhancement of
edges & other high Pass image characteristics in presence of noise.

□□□
82

Multiple Choice Questions

1) The smallest addressable screen element. Is called?

A. Pixel
B. Graph
C. voltage level
D. color information

2) Pixel on the graphics dis play represents?

A. mathematical point
B. a region which theoretically can contain an infinite number of points
C. voltage values
D. picture

3) The process of determining the appropriate pixels for representing picture or

graphics object is known as?
A. rasterization
B. animation
C. both a and b
D. representation

4) The relations hip among the data and objects which are stored in the database called
application database, and referred by the?
A. Application programs
B. application model
C. graphics display
D. both a and b

5) Selective or part e rasing of screen is not possible in?

A. raster scan display
B. vector scan display
C. DVST
D. both a and b
Computer Graphics 83

6) display processor is also called a?

A. graphics controller
B. display coprocessor
C. both a and b
D. out put device for graphics

7) Graphics software acts as a very powe rful tool to create?

A. Images
B. animated pictures
C. both a and b
D. system interface

8) The purpose of display processor is __from the graphics routine task?

A. to free the CPU
B. To free the secondary memory
C. to free the main memory
D. Both a & c

9) random-scan monitors typically offer __color choices?

A. Only a few
B. wide range
C. just 1 or 2
D. moderate range of

10) RGB system needs __of storage for the frame buffer?
A. 100 megabytes
B. 10 megabytes
C. 3 megabytes
D. 2 Gb

11) The SRGP package provides the __to wide the variety of display devices?
A. interface
B. connection
C. link
D. way

12) Length of shift register in bits is equal to __?

A. one word
84

B. A single scan lines

C. number of scan lines
D. One bit

13) Display controller is not re quired for __?

A. display system with only frame buffer
B. Display system with display controller
C. both a and b
D. display system with color

14) The basic principle of Bresenham`s line algorithm is__?

A. to select the optimum raster locations to represent a straight line
B. to select either Δx or Δy, whichever is larger, is chosen as one raster unit
C. we find on which side of the line the midpoint lies
D. both a and b

15) The midpoint circle drawing algorithm also uses the __of the circle to generate?
A. two-way symmetry
B. four-way symmetry
C. eight-way symmetry
D. both a & b

16) a polygon in which the line segment joining any 2 points within the polygon lies
completely inside the polygon is called__?
A. convex polygon
B. concave polygon
C. both a and b
D. both a and b

17) A polygon in which the line segment joining any 2 points within the polygon may
not lie completely inside the polygon is called __?
A. convex polygon
B. concave polygon
C. both a and b
D. Hexagon
Computer Graphics 85

18) Rectangular patte rns are sometimes referred as__?

A. tiling patterns
B. Filling patterns
C. coloring patterns
D. both a and b

19) Replicating pixels is one of the methods of__?

A. Thick primitives
B. Thin primitives
C. stylish primitives
D. both a and b

20) Line produced by moving pen is __ at the end points than the line produced by the
pixel replication?
A. thin
B. straight
C. thicker
D. both a and b

21) The process of selecting and vie wing the picture with different views is called__?
A. Windowing
B. clipping
C. projecting
D. both a and b

22) The process which divides each element of the picture into its visible and invisible
portions, allowing the invisible portion to be discarded is called__?
A. clipping
B. Windowing
C. both a and b
D. Projecting

23) The region against which an object is to be clipped is called__?

A. clip window or clipping window
B. Drawing window
C. image window
D. both b and c
86

24) The region code 0000 represents the__?

A. viewing window
B. left clipping window
C. right clipping window
D. bottom clipping window

25) A method used to test lines for total clipping is equivalent to the__?
A. logical XOR operator
B. logical OR operator
C. logical AND operator
D. both a and b

26) A process of changing the position of an object in a straight line path from one
coordinate location to another is called__?
A. Translation
B. rotation
C. motion
D. both b and c

27) Data hazards occur when__?

A. Greater performance loss
B. Pipeline changes the order of read/write accesses to operands
C. some functional unit is not fully pipelined
D. machine size is limited

28) A two dimensional rotation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a?

A. circular path in the x- y plane
B. straight path in the x-y plane
C. diagonals path in the x-y plane
D. upward in the x-y plane

29) A scaling transformation changes the__of an object?

A. size
B. location
C. shape
D. both a and b

30) In two dimensional viewing we have?

 Computer Graphics 87

A. 3D window and 2D viewport

B. 3D window and 3D viewport
C. 2D window and 2D viewport
D. 2D window and 2D viewport

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A B A A C B C A A C A C A A C
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B A A C A A A A C A C A A A
88

Case study

1.) Implement the polyline function using the DDA algorithm, given any number (n) of
input points.
2.) How much time is used up scanning across each row of pixels for the duration of
screen refresh on a raster system with a resolution of 1290 by 1024 and a refresh rate
of 60 frames per second?
3.) Implement a procedure to perform a one-point perspective projection of an object.
4.) Implement a procedure to perform a one-point perspective projection of an object.
Computer Graphics 89

Glossary

2D Graphics

Displayed representation of a scene or an object along two axes of reference: height and width (x and
y).

3D Graphics

Displayed representation of a scene or an object that appears to have three axes of reference: height,
width, and depth (x, y, and z).

3D Pipeline

The process of 3D graphics can be divided into three-stages: tessellation, geometry, and rendering. In
the tessellation stage, a described model of an object is created, and the object is then converted to a
set of polygons. The geometry stage includes transformation, lighting, and setup. The rendering stage,
which is critical for 3D image quality, creates a two dimensional display from the polygons created in
the geometry stage.

Anti-aliasing

Anti-aliasing is sub pixel interpolation, a technique that makes edges appear to have better resolution.

Bitmap
A Bitmap is a pixel by pixel image.

Blending

Blending is the combining of two or more objects by adding them on a pixel-by-pixel basis.

Depth Cueing

Depth cueing is the lowering of intensity as objects move away from the viewpoint.

Dithering
Dithering is a technique for archiving 24-bit quality in 8 or 16-bit frame buffers. Dithering uses two
colors to create the appearance of a third, giving a smooth appearance to an otherwise abrupt
transition.
90

Flat Shading

The flat shading method is also called constant shading. For rendering, it assigns a uniform color
throughout an entire polygon. This shading results in the lowest quality, an object surface with a
faceted appearance and a visible underlying geometry that looks 'blocky'.

Hidden Surface Removal

Hidden Surface Removal or visible surface determination entails displaying only those surfaces that
are visible to a viewer because objects are a collection of surfaces or solids.

Interpolation
Interpolation is a mathematical way of regenerating missing or needed information. For example, an
image needs to be scaled up by a factor of two, from 100 pixels to 200 pixels. The missing pixels are
generated by interpolating between the two pixels that are on either side of the pixel that needs to be
generated. After all of the 'missing' pixels have been interpolated, 200 pixels exist where only 100
existed before, and the image is twice as big as it used to be.

Lighting
There are many techniques for creating realistic graphical effects to simulate a real-life 3-D object on
a 2-D display. One technique is lighting. Lighting creates a real-world environment by means of
rendering the different grades of darkness and brightness of an object's appearance to make the object
look solid.

Line Buffer

A line buffer is a memory buffer used to hold one line of video. If the horizontal resolution of the
screen is 640 pixels and RGB is used as the color space, the line buffer would have to be 640
locations long by 3 bytes wide. This amounts to one location for each pixel and each color plane. Line
buffers are typically used in filtering algorithms.

Projection

The process of reducing three dimensions to two dimensions for display is called Projection. It is the
mapping of the visible part of a three dimensional object onto a two dimension screen.

Rasterization

Translating an image into pixels.

Rendering
Computer Graphics 91

The process of creating life-like images on a screen using mathematical models and formulas to add
shading, color, and lamination to a 2D or 3D wireframe.

Transformation
Change of coordinates; a series of mathematical operations that act on output primitives and
geometric attributes to convert them from modeling coordinates to device coordinates.

Z-buffer

A part of off-screen memory that holds the distance from the viewpoint for each pixel, the Z-value.
When objects are rendered into a 2D frame buffer, the rendering engine must remove hidden surfaces.

Z-buffering

A process of removing hidden surfaces using the depth value stored in the Z-buffer. Before bringing
in a new frame, the rendering engine clears the buffer, setting all Z-values to 'infinity'. When
rendering objects, the engine assigns a Z-value to each pixel: the closer the pixel to the viewer, the
smaller the Z value. When a new pixel is rendered, its depth is compared with the stored depth in the
Z-buffer. The new pixel is written into the frame buffer only if its depth value is less than the stored
one.

Z-sorting

A process of removing hidden surfaces by sorting polygons in back-to-front order prior to rendering.
Thus, when the polygons are rendered, the forward-most surfaces are rendered last. The rendering
results are correct unless objects are close to or intersect each other. The advantage is not requiring
memory for storing depth values. The disadvantage is the cost in more CPU cycles and limitations
when objects penetrate each other.

Filtering

This is a broad word which can mean the removal of coffee grinds from the coffee. However,
within the narrow usage of this book, a filtering operation is the same as a convolution
operation (see "convolution"). Anti-aliasing is usually done by filtering.

flat projection

A method of projecting a 3D scene onto a 2D image such that the resulting object sizes are
not dependent on their position. Flat projection can be useful when a constant scale is needed
throughout an image, such as in some mechanical drawings.

Frame
92

One complete video image. When interlacing is used, a frame is composed of two fields,
each containing only half the scan lines.

GIF

A file format for storing images. GIF stands for Graphics Interchange format, and is owned
by Compuserve, Inc.

key frame

A selected frame of an animation at which all the scene state is defined. In the key frame
animation method, the scene state at key frames is interpolated to create the scene state at the
in-between frames.

key frame animation

An animation control method that works by specifying the complete scene state at selected,
or key, frames. The scene state for the remaining frames is inte rpolated from the state at the
key frames.

Raster Scan

The name for the pattern the electron beam sweeps out on a CRT face. The image is made of
closely spaced scan lines, or horizontal sweeps.

Refresh Rate

The rate at which parts of the image on a CRT are re-painted, or refreshed. The horizontal
refresh rate is the rate at which individual scan lines are drawn. The vertical refresh rate is the
rate at which fields are drawn in interlaced mode, or whole frames are drawn in non-
interlaced mode.

Refresh Rate, Horizontal

The rate at which scan lines are drawn when the image on a CRT is re-drawn, or refreshed.

Refresh Rate, Vertical

The rate at which fields are re-drawn on a CRT when in interlaced mode, or the rate at which
the whole image is re-drawn when in non- interlaced mode.

Scan Line
Computer Graphics 93

One line in a raster scan. Also used to mean one horizontal row of pixels.
94

BACHELOR OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

(Part III ) EXAMINATION
(Faculty of Science)
(Three – Year Scheme of 10+2+3 Pattern)
PAPER 311
COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND IMAGE
PROCESSING
Year - 2011

Time allowed : Three Hour M. Marks : 50

Answers of all the questions (objectives as well as descriptive) are to be given in the
main answer-book only. Answers of objective type questions must be given in
sequential order. Similarly all the parts of one questions of descriptive part should
be answered at one place in the answer book. One complete questions should not be
answered at different places in the answer book.
No supplementary answer-book will be given to any candidate, hence the
candidates should write their answers precisely.

Objective : Part-I
Maximum Marks: 20

It contains 40 multiple choice questions with four choice and student will have to
pick the correct one (each carrying 1/2 mark)

1. Sub-dividing the total and determining the number of sub-pixels inside the area
boundary is called:
(a) Pixel Phasing
(b) Pixel Weighting
(c) Filtering
(d) Super Sampling ( )

2. The region against which an object is to be clipped is called:

(a) Clipping
(b) Clip Window
(c) View Port
Computer Graphics 95

(d) All of the above ( )

3. DAC is:
(a) Direct Access Code
(b) Digital Align Code
(c) Direct Area Clipping
(d) Digital to Analog converter ( )

4. In Cohen-Sutherland line clipping, every line end-point in a picture is assigned a

four digit binary code, called:
(a) Front point
(b) End point
(c) Region code
(d) All of the above ( )

5. In Raster scan displays picture definition is stored in a memory area called:

(a) Refresh buffer (b) Picture element
(c) Pixels (d) None of the above ( )

6. Polygon-Clipping algorithms include the:

(a) Sutherland-Hodgeman method
(b) Liang-Barsky method
(c) Weiler-Atherton method
(d) All of the above ( )

7. Oblique projection is:

(a) An orthographic projection
(b) A perspective projection
(c) a parallel projection
(d) an axonometric projection ( )

8. Two-dimensional viewing transformation is referred as:

(a) Window to view port transformation
(b) Windowing transformation
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above ( )

9. Typical Raster functions often provided in graphic packages are:

(a) Copy
(b) Read
(c) Write
(d) All of the above ( )

10. The convolution operation in anti-aliasing is known as:

(a) Half-toning (b) Filtering
96

(c) Shielding (d) None of the above ( )

11. In LCDs picture definition are stored in a refresh buffer, and the screen is refreshed
at the rate of:
(a) 50 Frames per second
(b) 60 Frames per second
(c) 70 Frames per second
(d) 80 Frames per second ( )

12. Lower persistence phosphors require:

(a) lower refresh rate (b) high refresh rat e
(c) any rate
(d) Specific rate of maintain a smooth picture ( )

13. In Wailer-Atherton algorithm for polygon clipping the subject polygon is:
(a) Clipping window
(b) Polygon to be clipped
(c) Any to the above
(d) None of the above ( )

14. In which LCD displays transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations
and to prevent charges from leaking out of the liquid crystal cells;
(a) Passive matrix LCD
(b) Active Matrix LCD
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above ( )

15. The process of extracting a portion of a database or a picture:

(a) Clipping
(b) Database querying
(c) Dithering
(d) None of the above ( )

16. Line clipping can also be carried out for:

(a) Concave
(b) Polygon clipping windows
(c) Clipping window
(d) All of the above ( )

17. Conceptually drawing a line from any position P to a distant point outside the
coordinate extents of the object and counting the number of edge crossing along the
lines:
(a) Odd-even rule
(b) Odd priority rule
(c) Even-of rule
Computer Graphics 97

(d) All of the above ( )

18. Shadow Mask method are used in:

(a) Raster Scan monitors
(b) Random scan monitors
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None to the above ( )

19. 45 degree rotation about y axis will move a vector on x axis to:
(a) xz-plane
(b) xy-plane
(c) yz - plane
(d) z-axis ( )

20. Active Edge lists are used in:

(a) Seed Fill Area Filling
(b) Scan Line Area Filling
(c) Sutherland-Cohen Algorithm
(d) Cyrus-Beck Clipping Algorithm ( )

21. A random scan (Vector) system stores point plotting instruction in the:
(a) View list
(b) Display list
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above ( )

22. The result of mid-point division algorithm is to perform:

(a) Breadth First Search
(b) Depth First Search
(c) Logarithmic Search
(d) Best First Search ( )

23. Panning on the screen is achieved by:

(a) Translation
(b) Only translation
(c) Scaling translation and back scaling
(d) Translation, scaling and back translating ( )

24. Which one is an orthographic projection?

(a) Cavalier
(b) Cabinet
(c) Isometric
(d) None of the above ( )
98

25. In computer graphics Dragging can be achieved through the following

transformations:
(a) Mirror Reflection
(b) Rotation
(c) Scaling
(d) Translation ( )

26. Foreshortening factors are associated with:

(a) Orthographic projection (b) Cabinet projection
(c) Cavalier projection (d) Axonometric projection ( )

27. The set of points such that the sum of the distances from fixed positions the same for
all points, is called:
(a) Mid-point circle
(b) Ellipse
(c) Line function
(d) All of the above ( )

28. GKS is called as:

(a) Geometric Kernel System
(b) Graphical Kernel Shell
(c) Graphical Kernel System
(d) None of the above ( )

29. An image scanner can be used for:

(a) Text material
(b) Engineering drawing
(c) Pictures
(d) All of the above ( )

30. Which of the following algorithm follows "Error Term"?

(a) Brakeman's Line Drawing Algorithm
(b) Bresenham's Circle Drawing Algorithm
(c) DDA Line Algorithm
(d) Mid-point Circle Drawing Algorithm ( )

31. Interlacing in raster scanning eliminates:

(a) Only the horizontal retrace (b) Only the vertical retrace
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above ( )

32. Beam penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used with:
(a) Random scan monitors
(b) Raster scan monitors
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above ( )
Computer Graphics 99

33. A video sequence is usually capered by a video recorder at the rate of:
(a) 1 Frame/sec.
(b) 2 frames/sec
(c) 25 frame/sec.
(d) 100 frames/sec. ( )

34. Translation operation can resulting:

(a) Panning
(b) Zooming
(c) Interlacing
(d) Viewing ( )

35. The transformation that distorts the shape of the object such that the shape appears as
if the object were composed of internal layer is:
(a) Scaling (b) Shearing
(c) Rotation (d) Reflection ( )

36. The meaning of the PNG is:

(a) Portable Network Graphics
(b) Printable Network Graphics
(c) Passive Node Graphics
(d) Pannable Network Graphics ( )

37. CRT is known as:

(a) Cathode Ray Tude
(b) Cathode Raw Tude
(c) Cathode Ray Terminal
(d) None of the above ( )

38. Which of the following algorithms has the usage of parametric line equation?
(a) Z-buffer algorithm (b) Painter's Algorithm
(c) Sutherland-Cohen Algorithm (d) Cyrus-Beck Algorithm ( )

39. Which of the following is/are considering as graphical input device?

(a) Scanner
(b) OCR
(c) MICR
(d) All of the above ( )

40. The intensity distribution of the spot on the screen of CRT follows:
(a) Poisson distribution
(b) Gaussian distribution
(c) Any of the above
(d) None of the above ( )
100

DESCRIPTIVE PART – II

Year – 2011
Time allowed : 2 Hours Maximum Marks : 30
Attempt any four questions out of the six. All questions carry 7½ marks each.

1. (a) Explain Bresenham's circle drawing algorithm.

(b) Give the advantages and disadvantages of the DDA and Bresnham's
algorithm.

2. (a) What do you mean by Aliasing? How can we remove it ?

(b) Differentiate between Random and Raster displays in detail.

3. What is Raster Graphic Algorithm? Describe the granulized Brenham's line

algorithm. Also give a suitable example.

4. What is two-dimensional clipping? Explain depth sorting method for visible surface
detection method.

5. (a) Explain shadow mask method in detail.

(b) What do you mean by Flickering? Explain.

6. Write short notes on any three:

(a) Applications of computer graphics;
(b) Thresholding
(c) Parallel Projections;
(d) Graphics software
(e) Digital image processing
Computer Graphics 101

Computer Graphics and

Image Processing
Paper – 311
OBJECTIVE PART – I

Year – 2010
Time : 1 Hr. M. M. : 20

The question paper contains 40 multiple choice questions with four choices and students will
have to pick the correct one (each carrying ½ mark).

1. Oblique projection with an angle of 450 to the horizontal plane is called as :

(a) Cabinet projection (b) Isometric projection
(c) Cavalier projection (d) None of the above ( )

2. The perspective anomaly in which the object behind the centre of projection is
projected
(a) Perspective foreshortening
(b) Vanishing view
(c) View confusion
(d) Topological distortion ( )

3. The entire graph of the function: f(x) = x2 + kx –x +9 is strictly above the –axis if and
only if :
(a) -3 <k <5 (b) -3 <k <2
(c) -3 <k <7 (d) -5 <k <7 ( )

4. Raster scan systems display a picture from a definition in a :

(a) Display file program (b) Frame buffer
(c) Display controller (d) None of the above ( )

5. Back face removal is an example of :

(a) Object space method (b) Image space method
(c) Heuristic method (d) Both (a) and (b) ( )

6. Hue of a color is related to its :

(a) Luminance (b) Saturation
(c) Incandescence (d) Wavelength ( )

7. The best suited hidden surface algorithm to deal with non-polygonal non-planar
surface patches is:
102

(a) Painter’s algo (b) Z-buffer algo

(c) Ray Tracing (d) Scan- line algo ( )

8. A view graph is :
(a) An oversized slide designed for presentation on an O.H.P.
(b) Designed and created by exposing film to the output of the graphics system.
(c) A hard copy chart
(d) None of the above ( )

9. The best hidden surface removal algorithm is :

(a) Painters (b) Depth buffer
(c) Area subdivision (d) Depends on application ( )

10. The basic elements a picture in volume graphics is:

(a) pixel (b) volsel
(c) voxel (d) none of the above ( )

11. The point at which a set of projected parallel lines appear to converge in called as a :-
(a) Convergence point (b) Vanishing point
(c) Point of illusion (d) Point of delusion ( )

12. A circle of scaled in only one-dimension becomes a/an :

(a) Parabola (b) Hyperbola
(c) Ellipse (d) Remains a circle ( )

13. If the eccentricity of a conic is less than one then it is a :

(a) Circle (b) Parabola
(c) Ellipse (d) Hyperbola ( )

14. Which of the following device has a relative origin ?

(a) Joystick (b) Track ball
(c) Mouse (d) None of the above ( )

15. Back face removal is an example of :

(a) Object space method (b) Image space method
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Raster scan ( )

16. When the computer is not able to maintain operations and display, bright spot occurs
on the screen? This is called :
(a) Dropping out (b) Snowing
(c) Flickering (d) Blanking ( )

17. Which display device is best suited for CAD systems ?

(a) A CRT with Raster scan monitor
(b) A CRT with vector refresh monitor
Computer Graphics 103

(c) Plasma panel display

(d) Led display ( )

18. All the following hidden surface algorithm employ image space approach except :
(a) Depth buffer method (b) Back face removal
(c) Scan line method (d) Depth sort method ( )

19. x = at2 , y=2 at is the parametric equation of a :

(a) Circle (b) Hyperbola
(c) Parabola (d) Ellipse ( )

20. Pixel phasing is a technique for :

(a) Shading (b) Anti-aliasing
(c) Computer object model (d) None of the above ( )

21. COM stands for :

(a) Component object model (b) Control method model
(c) Computer object model (d) None of the above ( )

22. ADO stands for :

(a) Active and Data Object (b) Active data object
(c) Access data object (d) Active digital organization ( )

23. The process by which one object acquires the properties of another object is :
(a) Polymorphism (b) Inheritance
(c) Encapsulation (d) All of the above ( )

24. Protocol is set of …….and ………….that governs data communication.

(a) Rules, common protocol (b) Rules, model
(c) Rules, common language (d) Rules, common model ( )

25. A TV broadcast in an example of :

(a) Half duplex (b) Duplex
(c) Half simplex (d) Simplex ( )

26. The …………….. layer lies between the transport and application layer.
(a) Data link (b) Physical
(c) Network (d) Session ( )

27. To provide comfort to computer user, the graphics screen must be refreshed at the
rate of ………………
(a) 5 frames / sec (b) 20 frames / sec
(c) 90 frames / sec (d) 200 f/s ( )

28. Dragging in computer graphics can be achieved

104

(a) Translation (b) Rotation

(c) Scaling (d) Modelling ( )

29. 45 degree volution about y-axis will move a vector on x-axis to:
(a) xz-plane (b) xy-plane
(c) yz-plane (d) z-axis ( )

30. Seed fill algorithms using a stack use the principle of :

(a) Last in first out (b) F.I.F.O
(c) F.I.L.O (d) None of the above ( )

31. A multimedia PC get booted through :

(a) RAM (b) ROM
(c) Cache (d) DVD ( )

32. The format for storing digital audio is multimedia application :

(a) JPEG (b) TIFF
(c) WAV (d) BMP ( )

33. Data mining consist of:

(a) Extraction of data
(b) Comparison of database
(c) Arranging the data
(d) All of the above ( )
34. Which of the following class of statements usually produce no object code when
compiled ?
(a) Assignment (b) Declaration
(c) Unreachable (d) Control ( )

35. Val is a well known :

(a) Real time language (b) Object oriented language
(c) Command language (d) Data flow language ( )

36. The period of time betweenan allocation and its subsequent disposal is called :
(a) Scope (b) Binding
(c) Lifetime (d) Longevity ( )

37. Heap allocation is required for languages that :

(a) Support recursion (b) Support dynamic data structure
(c) Use dynamic scope rules (d) None of the above ( )

38. Assuming that one allows 256 depth value levels to be used how much memory
would a 512 x 512 pixel display require to store the z-buffer :
(a) 5l2 k (b) 256 k
(c) 1024 k (d) 128 k ( )
Computer Graphics 105

39. A surface appearing block ;

(a) Reflects all the incident colors
(b) Reflects all the incident colors expect block
(c) Reflects only block and absorbs the rest
(d) Reflects none ( )

40. E-R modelling technique is a :

(a) Top-down approach (b) Bottom up approach
(c) Left-right approach (d) None of the above ( )

Ans wer key:

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (a) 30. (a)
31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (d) 36. (c) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (c)
106

DESCRIPTIVE PART – II

Year – 2010
Time allowed : 2 Hours Maximum Marks : 30
Attempt any four questions out of the six. All questions carry 7½ marks each.

Prob.1 (a) What is gray scale? Write the applications of Raster scan displays.
(a) What is homogenous coordinate system?

Prob. 2 (a) Write the line drawing algorithm. What is graphical data?
(b)What are the elements of digital image processing system? What is image
enhancement?

Prob. 3 (a) What is stereo imaging? Write area fill algorithm.

(b) What is depth sorting method? Write a note on convolutions.

Prob. 4 (a) Explain the terms ‘scaling’ and translation in the context of 3-D
transformation.
(b) Write Sutheriand-Cohen sub-division algorithm.

Prob. 5 (a) What is LCD technology? What do you mean by visual quantization?
(b) How is a digital image captured and stored? What is parallel projection?

Prob. 6 Write short notes on the following:

(a) Inverse transformation
(b) Graphics softwares (GKS, PHIGS)
(c) Look-up tables.
Computer Graphics 107

Computer Graphics and

Image Processing
Paper – 311
OBJECTIVE PART – I

Year – 2009
Time : 1 Hr. M. M. : 20

The question paper contains 40 multiple choice questions with four choices and students will
have to pick the correct one (each carrying ½ mark).
l. Pixel is:
(a) The smallest addressable point on the screen
(b) An input device
(c) A memory block p
(d) A deals structure ( )

2. Resolution is defined as:

(a) The number of pixels in the horizontal direction >< the number of pixels in the
vertical direction .
(b) The number of Pixel in the vertical direction >< the number of pixels in the
horizontal direction .
(c) The number of pixels in the horizontal direction + the number of pixels in the
vertical direction
(d) The number of pixels in the vertical direction -the number of pixels in the
horizontal direction
( )
3. Aspect ratio is :
(a) The ratio of image’s width to its height.
(b) The ratio of window to view port height .
(c) The ratio of image’s intensity levels .
(d) The ratio of image’s height to its width. ( )

4. World co-ordinate system is :

(a) The co-ordinate system in which the image is defined
(b) The co-ordinate system in which the object is defined
(c) The co-ordinate system in which the surfaces are defined
(d) The co-ordinate system in which transfer motors are performed ( )

5. Frame buffer is :
(a) The memory area in which the image being displayed is stored
108

(b) The device which controls the refresh rate

(c) The device used to displaying the colors of an image
(d) The memory area in which the graphics package is stored ( )

6. Aliasing means :
(a) Rendering effect (b) Shading effect
(c) Staircase effect (d) Cueing effect ( )

7. A 512 >< 512 raster requires ......... bits in a bit plane.

(a) 212 (b) 218
(c) 210 (d) 28 ( )

8. The look up table technique ........ the number of intensity levels.

(a) Decreases (b) Increases
(c) Removes (d) Gives no effect on ( )

9. A simple 3-bit plane frame buffer can have ........ number color combinations.
(a) 8 (b) 16
(c) 24 (d) 3 ( )

10. RGB stands for :

(a) Resolution Global Bright (b) Resolution of Green and Blue
(c) Red-Green-Blue (d) None of the above ( )

11. In a 3 -bit plane buffer 011 represents ................ color.

(a) Red (b) Cyan
(c) Black (d) Green ( )

12. lf blue is represented by 1001 then yellow is represented as:

(a) 001 (b) 010
(c) 101 (d) 011 ( )

13. A 24-bit plane color frame buffer with three 10-bit wide color look up table can have
............ number of colors.
(a) 224 (b) 28
48
(c) 2 (d) 230 ( )

14. DAC stands for ........... .

(a) Direct Accessing Code (b) Digitally Activated Compression
(c) Direct Area Clipping (d) Digital to Analog Converter ( )

15. ........ acts as anode in CRT.

(a) The phosphorous coating (b) Thee glass panel
(c) The deflectors (d) None of the above ( )
Computer Graphics 109

16. The slope of the line joining the points (l, 2) and (3, 4) is :
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3 ( )

17. Bresenhamn’s circle generation algorithm will take reflections of ....... .

(a) Two octets (b) One octet ·
(c) Three octets (d) None of the above ( )

18. In Bresenhamn’s circle generation algorithm, if (x, y) is the current pixel position
then y-value of the next pixel position is :
(a) y or y + l (b) y alone
(c) y + 1 or y - 1 (d) y or y—1 ( )

19. Run length coding is used for :

(a) Image smoothening (b) Image compression
(c) Image coloring (d) Image dithering ( )

20. The property that adjacent pixels on a scan line are likely to have the same
characteristics is called:
(a) Spatial coherence (b) Area coherence
(c) Scan line coherence (d) Pixel coherence ( )

21. The technique of using a minimum number of intensity levels to obtain increased
visual resolution is called:
(a) Dithering (b) Half toning
(c) Depth cueing (d) Rendering ( )

22. If XL, XR, YB, YT represent the four parameters of x-left, x-right, y—bottom and y-
top of a clipping window and (x, y) is a point such that y > yT then (x, y) lies:
(a) Inside the Window
(b) Outside the Window
(c) On the boundary of the Window
(d) None of the above ( )

23. The Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm decides the entire region into ...............
number of sub-regions.
(a) 4 (b) 8
(c) 9 (d) 10 ( )

24. ................ number of bits are used for representing eac h subregion of Cohen-
Sutherland line clipping algorithm :
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4 ( )
110

25. lf bits are zeros and two bits are ones in a code of subregion in Cohen-Sutherland line
clipping algorithm then the subregion is :
(a) Comer region (b) Middle region
(c) Central region (d) None of the above ( )

26. In the Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm, if codes of the two points P and Q
are 0101 and 0001 then the line segment joining the points P and Q will be the
clipping window:
(a) Totally outside (b) Partially outside
(c) Totally inside (d) None of the above ( )

27. 1f XL, .XR, YB, YT represent the four parameters of x- left, x—right, y—bottom and y-
top of a clipping window and (x, y) is a point inside the window such that x > XL and
x > XL and YB < y < YT , then the code of the point (x, y) in Cohen—Sutherland
algorithm :
(a) 1100 (b) 1000
(c) 1110 (d) 0000 ( )

28. Suppose (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) .......... (xn , yn ) are n vertices of a closed polygon and (x ,y) is
a point such that x is less than the minimum of { x1 , x2 .............. xn } then the point (x,
y) lies ......... the polygon.
(a) inside (b) outside
(c) on (d) as vertex of ( )

29. Suppose (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ) .......... (xn , yn ) are n vertices of a closed polygon and (x, y)
is a point such that y is less than the minimum of {y1 , y2 .......... yn } then the point (x,
y) lies .................. the polygon.
(a) inside (b) outside
(c) on (d) as vertex of ( )

30. ln a polygon inside test, if the winding number of a point is zero, then the point lies
........... the polygon.
(a) inside (b) outside
(c) on (d) as vertex of ( )

31. The even-odd method of polygon inside test fails for :

(a) Self intersecting polygons (b) Convex polygons
(c) Concave polygons (d) Similar polygons ( )

32. z-buffer algorithm is used for ............ .

(a) Frame buffer removal (b) Hidden line removal
(c) Rendering (d) Animation ( )

33. The blending functions of Bezier curves are :

(a) Splines (b) Berstien polynomials
Computer Graphics 111

(c) Lagrangian polynomial (d) Newton polynomials ( )

34. The equivalent representation of a two-dimensional point (x, y) in the homogeneous

co-ordinate system is :
(a) (x,y,1) (b) (x,y,0)
(c) (x/w; y/w) (d) (x, y, x—y) ( )

35. If (x, y, w), w ¢ 0 is a point in a homogeneous co-ordinate system then its equivalent
in two-dimensional system is:
(a) (my. 1) (b) (x,y,0)
(c) (x/w, y/w) (d) (x,y, x—y) ( )

36. The two dimensional matrix transformation for scaling with a units along x-axis and
b-units along y-axis is:
a 0 0 a 0 0
(a) 0 b 0 (b) 0 b 0
0 0 1 a b 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
(c) 0 1 0 (d) 0 1 0 ( )
a b 1 b a 1

37. The two-dimension at matrix transformation for reflection o f a point with respect to
x-axis is :
1 0 0 1 0 0
(a) 0 1 0 (b) 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
(c) 1 0 0 (d) 0 1 0 ( )
0 0 1 0 0 1

38. Perspective projection is characterized by the :

(a) View plane alone
(b) Direction of the projection and the view plane
(c) Centre of projection and view plane
(d) Center of projection alone ( )

39. Oblique projection is :

(a) An orthographic projection
(b) A perspective projection
(c) A parallel projection
(c) Axonometric projection ( )
112

40. The three-dimensional matrix transformation for relation with an angle 0 with respect
to y-axis in the positive direction is :
cos 0 sin 0 cos 0 sin 0
sin 0 cos 0 sin 0 cos 0
(a) (b)
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 cos sin 0 cos sin 0 0
0 sin cos 0 sin cos 0 0
(c) (d) ( )
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Ans wer Key:
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (b) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (a) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (a)
Computer Graphics 113

DESCRIPTIVE PART – II

Year – 2009

Time allowed : 2 Hours Maximum Marks : 30

Attempt any four questions out of the six. All questions carry 7½ marks each.

Prob. 1 (a) Discuss the terms lookup table and aspect ratio in detail.
(b) Explain the RGB color model in brief.

Prob. 2 (a) Discuses the terms: Pixel, Frame Buffer, bit plane and dpi.
(b) What is the rate of a 1024 x 1024 frame buffer with an average access rate per
pixel of 200 nanoseconds on a simple color display?

Prob. 2 Write and discuss the line drawing algorithms. Which one is best? Why?

Prob. 3 (a) How many geometrical transformation are there? Write their names. Discus s one
of them in brief.
(b) Derive the transformation that rotates an object point 0 o a about the origin. Write
the matrix representation for the rotation.

Prob. 4 (a) Explain the term windows and viewport in detail.

(b) Write the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm.

Prob. 5 (a) Explain the scaling and translation in the context of three dimensional
transformations.
(b) Define the tilting as a rotation about the x-axis followed by the rotation about y-
axis. Find the tilting matrix for the same.

Prob. 6 (a) Define digital image processing. Write and explain the difference between DIP
and computer graphics.
(b) How can you store and capture a digital image? Discuss.
114

Computer Graphics and

Image Processing
Paper – 311
OBJECTIVE PART – I

Year – 2008
Time : 1 Hr. M. M. : 20

The question paper contains 40 multiple choice questions with four choices and students will
have to pick the correct one (each carrying ½ mark).

l. Shadow-mask methods are used in :

(a) Raster-scan monitors (b) Random-scan monitors
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above ( )

2. In LCD’s picture definition are stored in a refresh buffer, and the screen is refreshed
at the rate of:
(a) 50 frames per second (b) 60 frames per second
(c) 70 frames per second (d) 80 frames per second ( )

3. In which LCD displays transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations
and to prevent charges from leaking out of the liquid crystal cells:
(a) Passive Matrix LCD (b) Active Matrix LCD
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above ( )

4. The region against which an object is to be clipped is called :

(a) Clipping (b) Clip window
(c) View port (d) All of the above ( )

5. In raster-scan displays picture definition is stored in a memory area called:

(a) Refresh buffer (b) Picture element
(c) Pixels (d) None of the above ( )

6. Typical raster functions often provided on graphic packages are;

(a) Copy (b) Read
(c) Write (d) All of the above ()

7. I f a user wants to recolor an area that is not defined within a single color boundary,
then the algorithm is used :
(a) Boundary fill algorithm
Computer Graphics 115

(b) Recursive boundary till algorithm

(c) Flood till algorithm A
(d) All of the above ( )

8. Subdividing the total area and determining the number of sub pixels inside the area
boundary is called:
(a) Pixel phasing (b) Pixel weighting
(c) Filtering (d) Super sampling ( )

9. To generate a rotation, we have to specify :

(a) A rotation angle (b) Rotation point
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above ( )

10. Two-Dimensional viewing transformation is referred as :

(a) Window to view port transformation
(b) Windowing transformation
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above ( )

11. In Cohen-Sutherland line clipping, every line end point in a picture is assigned a four
digit binary code, called:
(a) Front point (b) End point
(c) Region point (d) All of the above ( )

12. Line clipping can also be carried out for:

(a) Concave (b) Polygon clipping window
(c) Clipping window (d) All of the above ( )

13. Polygon-clipping algorithms include the:

(a) Sutherland-Hodgeman method
(b) Liang-Barsky method
(c) Weiler-Atherton method
(d) Both (a) and (c) ( )

14. Graphics software includes:

(a) PHIGS (b) GKS
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above ( )

15. CGI refers as :

(a) Common Graphics Interface
(b) Computer Graphics Interface
(c) Computer Graphics Interconnection
(d) None of the above ( )

16. A random scan (vector) system stores point plotting instructions in the :
116

(a) View list (b) Display list

(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above ( )

17. The set of points such that the sum of the distances from two fixed positions is the
same for all points, is called :
(a) Midpoint circle (b) Ellipse
(c) Line function (d) All of the above ( )

18. Conceptually drawing a line from any position P to a distant point outside the
coordinate extents of the object and counting the number of edge crossing along the
lines:
(a) Odd-even rule (b) Odd priority rule
(c) Even-odd rule (d) All of the above ( )

19. Lookup table contains :

(a) 1000 entries (b) 255 entries
(c) 256 entries (d) None ( )

20. DDA is defined as :

(a) Digital different algorithm (b) Digital difference analyzer I
(c) Digital diierential analyzer (d) None of the above ( )

21. Which one is an orthographic projection :

(a) Cavalier (b) Cabinet
(c) lsometric (d) None of the above ( )

22. Lower persistence phosphors requires :

(a) Lower refresh rate
(b) High refresh rate
(c) Any rate
(d) Specific rate to maintain a smooth picture ( )

23. Beam penetration method for displaying color pictures has been used with :
(a) Random scan monitors (b) Raster scan monitors
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above ( )

24. ln Weiler-Atherton algorithm for polygon clipping the subject polygon is:
(a) Clipping window (b) Polygon to be clipped
(c) Any of the above (d) None of the above ( )

25. Dragging in computer graphics can be achieved through the following transformation
:
(a) Translation (b) Rotation
(c) Scaling (d) Mirror retlection ( )
Computer Graphics 117

26. An image scanner can be used for storing :

(a) Textmaterial (b) Engineering drawing
(c) Pictures (d) All of the above ( )

27. Bresenhamn’s circle drawing algorithm involves :

(a) Solving equation of the circle A
(b) Calling a look up table to get points corresponding to a particular value of radius
(c) Completion of location of individual pixel on each part of the circle
(d) Only integer calculations ( )

l 28. lnterlacing in raster scanning eliminates :

(a) Only the horizontal retrace (b) Only the vertical retrace
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above ( )

29. Translation operation can result in :

(a) Panning (b) Zooming
(c) lnterlacing (d) Viewing ( )

30. A homogeneous coordinate system corresponding to N d imensional coordinate

system provides :
(a) N dimensions (b) N+1 dimension `
(c) N+2 dimension (d) None of the above ( )

31. The electron beam in CRT can be cancelled with :

(a) Electric field (b) Magnetic field
(c) Any of the above. (d) None of the above ( )

32 The intensity distribution of the spot on the screen of CRT follows :

(a) Poisson distribution (b) Gaussian distribution 1
(c) All of the above (d) None of the above ( )

33. The transformation that distorts the shape of the object such that the shape appears as
if the object were composed of internal layer is : X
(a) Scaling (b) Shearing .
(c) Rotation (d) Reflection ( )

34. Foreshortening factors are associated with :

(a) Orthographic projection (b) Cabinet projection
(c) Cavalier projection (d) Axonometric projection ( )

35. Active Edge lists are used in :

(a) Seed Fill Area Filling (b) Scan Line Area Filling
(c) Sutherland Cohen Algorithm (d) Cyrus-Beck Clipping Algorithm ( )

36. GKS stands for :

118

(a) Graphical Kernel System (b) Graphical Kernel Shell

(c) Geometric Kernel System (d) None of the above ( )

37. The meaning of the PNG is :

(a) Portable Network Graphics
(b) Printable Network Graphics
(c) Passive Node Graphics
(d) Pannable Network Graphics ( )

38. A video sequence is usually captured by a video recorder at the rate of :

(a) l frame/sec (b) 2 frames/sec
(c) 25 frames/sec (d) 100 names/sec ( )

39. Which of the following algorithms has the usage of parametric line equation:
(a) Z-buffer Algorithm
(b) Painter’s Algorithm
(c) Sutherland Cohen Algorithm
(d) Cyrus-Beck Algorithm ( )

40. Which of the following algorithm follows ‘Error Term’ :

(a) Bresenhamn’s Line Drawing Algorithm
(b) Bresenhamn’s Circle Drawing Algorithm
(c) DDA Line Algorithm
(d) Mid-point Circle Drawing Algorithm ( )

Ans wer Key:

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (c)
Computer Graphics 119

DESCRIPTIVE PART – II

Year – 2008

Time allowed : 2 Hours Maximum Marks : 30

Attempt any four questions out of the six. All questions carry 7½ marks each.

Prob. 1 (a) Explain the midpoint ellipse drawing algorithm.

(b) Explain the HSV color model.

Prob. 2 (a) What is the concept of ‘Flickering’? Explain it.

(b) Define image processing. What are the application areas of digital image
processing?

Prob. 3 (a) Describe the generalized Bresenhamn’s line algorithm. Also give a suitable
example.

Prob. 4 What do you mean by clipping operations? Explain different types of clipping
operation algorithms. Also give a suitable example.

Prob. 5 (a) Explain Two-Dimensional viewing function.

(b) Define the concept of antialiasing in detail.
120

Computer Graphics and

Image Processing
Paper – 311
OBJECTIVE PART – I

Year – 2007
Time : 1 Hr. M. M. : 20

The question pape r contains 40 multiple choice questions with four choices and
students will have to pick the correct one (each carrying ½ mark).

1. Raster scan display means that the screen is scanned :

(a) Top to bottom and right to left
(b) Left to right and top to bottom
(c) Bottom to top and left to right
(d) Bottom to top and right to left ( )

2. To provide comfort to the computer user, the graphics screen must be refreshed at the
rate of :
(a) 5 Eames per second (b) 20 Eames per second
(c) 50 Eames per second (d) 200 Eames per second ( )

3. An image scanner can be used for storing :

(a) Text material (b) Engineering drawing
(c) Pictures (d) All of the above ( )

4. One of the following applications is not directly linked with multimedia :

(a) Advertising (b) Games development
(c) CBT (d) Accounting ( )

5. Dragging in computer graphics can be achieved through following transformations :

(a) Translation (b) Rotation
(c) Scaling (d) Mirror reflection ( )

6. ln 2D graphics [420] represent a point :

(a) Lying at infinity (b) (4,2)
(c) (4, 2) and also (2, l) (d) Invalid representation ( )

7. A rectangle has been drawn on the screen. lt is desired to carry out a zoom- in-process
to double the size of the rectangle. This process would involve :
Computer Graphics 121

(a) Only scaling

(b) Scaling and translation
(c) Scaling and rotation
(d) Translation, scaling and translation back ( )

8. Which of the following pairs has similar functions ?

(a) Track ball and light pen (b) Digitizing tablet and mouse
(c) Mouse and light pen (d) Light pen and digitizing tablet ( )

9. The scanline Seed till algorithm :

(a) Can work for figures with holes
(b) Cannot work for figures with holes
(c) Can work only for figures with straight edges
(d) Cannot work for concave figure ( )

l0. 45 degree rotation about y-axis will move a vector on x-axis to :

(a) xz-plane (b) XY·plane
(c) yz-plane (d) z-axis ( )

11. Which of the following attributes is important for presenting text in multimedia
document:
(a) Font (b) Character format
(c) Colour (d) All the three mentioned. above ( )

l2. The dot product of two vector is l2. lf one of the vector is 3l, the other ? vector is 2 I
(a) 4J (b) 4I + 4J +4K
(c) 4K (d) 2J + 2 K (
)

13. Bresenhamn’s circle drawing algorithm involves

(a) Solving equation of the circle
(b) Calling a look up table to get points corresponding to a particular value of radius
(c) Computation of location of individual pixel on each part of the circle
(d) Only integer calculation ( )
14. Panning on the screen is achieved by :
(a) Translation
(b) Back Scaling ,
(c) Scaling translation and back scaling
(d) Translation, scaling and back translation ( )

15. Seed fill algorithms, using a stack use the principle of :

(a) Last in first out (b) First in first out
(c) First in last out (d) Last in last out ( )

16. The result of midpoint subdivision algorithm is to perform :

122

(a) Breadth first search (b) Depth first search

(c) Logarithmic search (d) Best first search ( )

17. The end points of a given line are (0, 0) and (6, 8). The slope and y intercept are
computed as :
(a) 3, 3 (b) 0, 3
(c) 3, 0 (d) 3,-3 ( )

18. Interlacing in raster scanning eliminates :

(a) Only the horizontal retrace
(b) Only the vertical retrace
(c) Both horizontal and vertical retrace
(d) None of the above ( )

19. The principal vanishing points for the standard probative transformation are :
(a) Three (b) Two
(c) One (d) None of the above 4 ( )

20. If the window parameters- are X wmin = 1, X wmin = 3 and the viewport parameters X Vmin
= O, X Vmin = 1, the scale SX is :
(a) 1 (b) 1/2
(c) 2 (d) 1/4 ( )

21. A homogeneous coordinate system corresponding to N-dimensional ― coordinate

system provides:
(a) N-dimensions (b) N + 1 dimensions
(c) N + 2 dimensions (d) None of the above ( )
22. The following matrix : ,
1 a 0
b 1 0
0 0 1
defines a transformation called :
(a) Translation (b) Rotation
(c) Scaling (d) Shearing ( )

23. Display resolution of a typical monitor would be around :

(a) 10 dpi (b) 60 dpi
(c) 200 dpi (d) 300 dpi ( )

24. Which one of the following transmits digital information to computer :

(a) Joystick (b) Mouse
(c) Graphics tablet (d) None of the above ( )
Computer Graphics 123

25. An object is viewed by using perspective transformation equations. Then the

maximum number of principal vanishing points possible are :
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) Infinite ( )

26. One of the following is not related to multimedia :

(a) FoxPro (b) Authorware
(c) Director (d) Animatorpro ( )

27. A multimedia PC get booted through :

(a) ROM (b) RAM
(c) Cache (d) CD-ROM ( )

28. Translation operations can result in :

(a) Panning (b) Zooming s
(c) lnterlacing (d) Viewing ( )

29. A video sequence is usually captured by a video recorder at the rate of :

(a) 1 frame/sec (b) 2 frames/sec
(c) 25 frames/sec (d) 100 frames/sec ( )

30. ln 3D graphics the homogeneous coordinates (0, 5, 0, 0) :

(a) Are not allowed
(b) Represent a point x = 0, y = 5, z = 0 C
(c) Represent a point in y-axis at infinity 5
(d) Represent a point on x-axis or z-axis at infinity ( )

31. For carrying out Sutherland-Cohen clipping the end point codes of 4 line are given
below. Find out which one will be totally invisible from the clipping window :
(a) 0000, 0000 (b) 0l00, 1000
(c) 000l, 1000 (d) 0ll0, 1010 ( )

32. Hypermedia :
(a) ls another media like graphics, text etc
(b) Provides link between two media .
(c) Is a facility to permit two media to be played together
(d) Is another name for multimedia ( )

33. AutoCAD is :
(a) An abbreviation for automatic calculation and drawing
(b) A standard software for drawing and building machine parts
(c) A software to generate scenarios
(d) Used to provide shading effects in drawings ( )

34. The quality of a picture produced by a laser printer would depend on :

124

(a) Its resolution

(b) Size of picture file
(c) Its internal memory
(d) Resolution of the monitor where it is displayed before it is sent for printing ( )

35. The scope of a Cubic Benzier curve at the shut ofthe curve is controlled by :
(a) First control point (b) First 2 control points
(c) First 3 control points (d) All 4 control points ( )

36. The format for storing digital audio in multimedia application is : ( )

(a) JPEG (b) TIFF
(c) WAV (d) BMP ( )

37. The cross product of two vector :

(a) Lies in the same plane as the vectors
(b) Has a smaller magnitude than either of the vector
(c) Has a large magnitude than either of the vector
(d) Is perpendicular to a plane containing the vector ( )
38. Data mining consists of :
(a) Extraction of data (b) Comparison of database
(c) Arranging the data (d) All ofthe above ( )

39. The use of look up tables in display monitor is to :

(a) Increase the resolution of the picture on the screen
(b) Increase the range of colour shades
(c) Provides a variety of color palettes but number of available colours remain same
(d) Store the colour information of the pictures ( )

40. To store good quality sound the audio signal in a multimedia PC is sampled at the rate
of :
(a) 44.l Hz (b) 4.4l kHz
(c) 44kHz (d) 4.4l MHz ( )

Ans wer Key:

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (c) 25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (d) 40. (a)
Computer Graphics 125

DESCRIPTIVE PART – II

Year – 2007
Time allowed : 2 Hours Maximum Marks : 30
Attempt any four questions out of the six. All questions carry 7½ marks each.

Prob. 1 Describe briefly Bresenhamn’s circle drawing algorithm.

Prob. 2 What are the various input devices used for graphics? Explain Scan Line Seed Fill
Algorithm.

Prob. 3 (a) Discuss the merits and demerits of various clipping algorithms.
(b) Distinguish between windows and viewport.

Prob. 4 Write short notes on the following:

(a) Liquid crystal display
(b) Homogeneous coordinate system.

Prob. 5 (a) Explain the back face removal method.

(b) What are orthographic projections? When do we need them?

Prob. 6 (a) Define ‘Flickering’. What is its solution?

(b) Discuss the HSV colour model.
126

Computer Graphics and

Image Processing
Paper – 311
OBJECTIVE PART – I

Year – 2006
Time : 1 Hr. M. M. : 20

The question paper contains 40 multiple choice questions with four choices and students will
have to pick the correct one (each carrying ½ mark).

1. What is full form of the acronym GKS ?

(a) Graphical Kernel System (b) Graphical Korn Shell
(c) Geometric Kemal System (d) None of the above ( )

2. Digital zoom operation of a digital camera is :

(a) Increasing resolution of image after capture
(b) Same as the zoom operation performed in an image editing utility on computer
(c) Used to bring farther objects closer before image capture
(d) None of the above ( )

3. Which of the following is not a type of logical input device ?

(a) Locator (b) Stroke
(c) Tablet (d) Pick ( )

4. How many principal vanishing points are possible ?

(a) Two (b) Three
(c) Four (d) Infinite ( )

5. In Surtherland Cohen Algorithm for clipping, an end point lying outside the left
margin of the window has the following code
(a) 00l0 (b) 1001
(c) 1000 (d) 0001 ( )

6. Which of the following projections are oblique in nature ?

(a) Trimetric (b) Orthographic
(c) Cavalier (d) Three-point ( )

7. In an inkjet printer, colour printing is possible through generation of colour by :

(a) Four colour cartridges
Computer Graphics 127

(b) Seven colour cartridges

(c) Spraying liquid droplets of different colours andeshades on the paper
(d) A device which mixes different colours inside the printer to produce the desired
shade ( )

8. During a projection, if the projectors appear to be converting at some distance from

the plane of projection, then it is :
(a) Perspective projection (b) Parallel projection .
(c) Oblique projection (d) All of the above ( )

9. Foreshortening factors are associated with :

(a) Orthographic projection (b) Cabinet projection r
(c) Cavalier projection (d) Axonometric projection ( )

l0 Which of the following is not a Hidden Surface Removal or Visible Surface

Detection Algorithm
(a) Floating Horizon Algorithm
(b) Warnock’s Algorithm
(c) Area Subdivision Algorithm
(d) Active Edge List Algorithm ( )

11. The homogenous coordinate equivalent to 12, 31 is :

(a) [23l] (b) [4621]
(c) {12 18 6} (d) All of the above ( )

12. Which of the following display devices support ‘selective erasing’ ?

(a) DVST (b) Random Scan
(c) Raster Scan (d) None of the above ( )

13. In computer animation, each frame is called ;

(a) Still (b) Pixmap
(c) Key frame (d) Image ( )

I4. In which type of parallel projections, the foreshortening factors are all different ? .
(a) Axonometric (b) Trimetric
(c) Isometric (d) Diametric ( )

15. The conduction operation in antialiasing is also called as :

(a) Filtering (b) Pre-sampling
(c) Aliasing (d) None of the above ( )

16. In cavalier oblique projection, the angle between the oblique projector and the plane
of projection is :
(a) 63.43° (b) 30° 1
(c) 45° V A (6) 60° - ( )
128

17. What does ‘K’ in the CMYK colour model stand for ?
(a) Krimson
(b) Black P
(c) Kohen
(d) 'Ihere isnosiiclimodelasCMYK ( )

18. If a line is drawn by using DDA, brightness will be uniform only in case of : t — §
(a) Horizontal lines (b) Vertical lines t
(c) inclined-lines with slopes (d) All of the above ( )

19. Flat panel displays have one of the following advantages :

(a) Reduced weight (b) Reduced volume
(c) Better display (d) All of the above ( )

20. Which of the following term is not associated with computer graphics ?
(a) Locator (b) Stroke e
(c) Pick (d) Roll-over ( )

21. PNG stands for:

(a) Portable Network Graphics (b) Printable Network Graphics
(c) Passive Node Graphics (d) Pannable Network Graphics ( )

22. Image aspect ratio in windows is :

(a) 4 : 3 (b) 1 : l
(c) 3 : 4 (d) None of the above ( )

23. Which of the following is not an image file format ?

(a) TIFF (b) PSD
(c) lCO (d) 1MG ( )

24. Seed Fill Algorithm, using a stack, use the principle of :

(a) Last in first out (b) First in first out
(c) First in last out (d) Last in last out ( )

25. A 14 inch monitor implies :

(a) The screen is »l4 inches wide _ .
(b) The screen is 14 inches high
(c) A circle of 14 inches diameter is available for display
(d) The diagonal across the screen in 14 inches ( )

26. Resolution of an image scarmer is measured in :

(a) ppi (b) dpi
Computer Graphics 129

(c) H3 (d) Magapixel ( )

27. The process of determining the portion of a primitive lying within a region is called :
(a) Back Face Removal (b) Visible Surface Detection
(c) Clipping (d) Area Filling ( )

28. How many bits per pixel are generally required for ‘true colour’ system :
(a) 32 bits (b) 24 bits
(c) l6 bits (d) 8 bits ( )

29. Jaggies or stair-casing are an instance of a phenomenon, known as :

(a) Filtering (b) Sampling
(c) Thresholding (d) Anti-aliasing ( )

30. In mid-point ellipse algorithm, the basic equation that is used to identify . whether a
point (x, y) is outside, or inside or on the boundary of ellipse is; A
X2 y2
ta x’+y’ =r;..... oi g+;g·‘ e
x2` y2 _ A ’
. (c) ’;? ij? = 0 (d) None ofthe above ` g ( ) .

31. The means of accomplishing changes in orientation, size and shape that alter the
coordinate description of objects :
(a) Translation (b) Transformation
(c) Projection (d) Objection ( )

32. Active Edge Lists are used in :

(a) Seed Fill Area Filling
(b) Scan Line Area Filling
(c) Sutherland Cohen Clipping Algorithm
(d) Cyrus-Beck Clipping Algorithm ( )

33. Cyrus-Beck clipping algorithm is also suitable for :

(a) Polygonal Clipping (b) Rectangular Clipping .
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Hidden Face Removal ( )

34. Which ofthe following algorithm has the usage of pamnetric line equation?
(a) Painter’s Algorithm (b) Z-Buffer Algorithm
(c) Sutherland OohenAlgorithm (d) Cyrus-Beck Algorithm ( )

35. Which of the following is not a colour model ‘?

(a) ClE (b) XYZ
(c) CMYKW (d) RGB ( )

36. Creatinganenlargedviewofaportionoftliesceneintiteirnageiscalled:
130

(a) Zooming in (b) Zooming out 9

3 · (¤)B<>th(¤) and Cb) (<i>P¤¤¤i¤g U ( )

37. ‘Error Term’ is associated with

(a) DDALine DrawingAlgorithm r
(b) Bresenhamn’s Line Drawing Algorithm
(c) Bresenhaum’s Circle Drawing Algorithm
(d) Mid—point Circle Drawing Algorithm ( )

38. ‘Dead Pixels’ are associated with :

(a) Plasma Panel Displays (b) Liquid Crystal Displays
(c) Electroluminescent Displays (d) Raster Scan Displays ( )

39. Which of the following criteria must be fulfilled by a line drawing algorithm ‘?
(a) Line should appear as a straight line
(b) It should start and end accurately
(c) Line should have constant brightness .
(d) All of the above ( )

Ans wer Key:

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (d) 40. (a)
Computer Graphics 131

DESCRIPTIVE PART – II

Year – 2006
Time allowed : 2 Hours Maximum Marks : 30
Attempt any four questions out of the six. All questions carry 7½ marks each.

Prob. 1 (a) Define ‘Flickering’. What is its solution?

(b) Delineate the various application areas of computer graphics?
(c) Define ‘Bit Depth’.

Prob. 2 Describe the generalized Bresenbamn’s line drawing algorithm in detail. Give
example.
(Hint: General Bresenhamn’s line drawing Algorithm is different from DDA)

Prob. 3 Discuss the Cyrus-Beck Algorithm for clipping lines in a non-rectangular clipping
window.
(Hint: Consider the clipping window to be polygonal)

Prob. 4 Write the transformation matrix for the following 2 – dimensional transformations in
homogeneous coordinate system:
(a) Reflection about y = - x axis.
(b) Rotation by 0o in counterclockwise direction.
(c) Moving an object 2.5 units right and 4 units down.
(d) Move an object 3 unit left and reflect about the x axis.
(e) Simultaneous shearing.

Prob. 5 (a) How is an orthographic projection different from axonometric projection?

(b) Discuss the mid-point ellipse drawing algorithm in detail.

Prob. 6 (a) Explain how the light (and its path) is changed in context of liquid crystal
displays.
(b) How can a digital image be captured? List out four file formats to store
digital image.
(c) Discuss the HSV colour model.
132

Bibliography

1. J. Foley, A. Van Dam, S. Feiner, J. Hughes: Computer Graphics- Principles and

Practice, Pearson
2. Hearn and Baker: Computer Graphics, PHI.

3 Computer Graphics by Pradeep K. Bhatia

4 Computer Graphics: Principles & Practice In C Foley

5 Computer graphics: Francis S. Hill

Best sites for computer graphics:-

1. http://www.cgsociety.org/
2. http://forums.cgsociety.org/
3. http://www.maacindia.com/
4. http://cg.tutsplus.com/
5. http://programmedlessons.org/VectorLessons/index.html