Lesson 1 : Nature of Materials

Tuesday, 23 August 2022 6:18 PM

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Material Science
- Investigating the relationship that exist between the structures and properties of materials.
- Study materials and create new materials.

Materials Engineering
- property correlations, designing or engineering the structure
of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.
-use materials and create new process

Materials Development
- Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production—virtually every
segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials.
- Early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development (Stone Age, Bronze
Age, Iron
Age).

1. Stone Age (beginning life-3000BC)

- using naturally occurring materials

2. Bronze Age (3000BC- 1200BC)- Copper and Tin alloy

- Ability to modify materials by refining (using heat), chemical modifications (alloying)and mechanical
deformation (cold working)

3. Iron Age (1200 BC – Present)

- technology enables Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th century Ability to heat treat at high
temperature, control microstructure at different length scale and ability to
design specific microstructures

4. Plastic Age (1940 – Present)

- Discovery of polymers, and the ability to synthesize and process polymers.

5. Silicon Age (1950 - Present)

- Commercialization of silicon technology leads to the information age
- Ability to control alloying accurately, ability to make thin films.

6. Future
• Nanotechnology - Synthesis and characterizations of nanomaterials and nanostructure
• Biotechnology - biomimetics and biomaterials
• Energy/Environmental - Next generation energy conversion
• Information Technology - Materials informatics

Four Components of Materials Science

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The Materials Selection Process
1. Pick Application -> Determine required properties
2. Properties -> Identify candidate materials
3. Material >- Identify required processing

TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Materials are classified as:

1. Metallic- exhibit electrical and thermal conductivity

2. Non-metallic- wood, stone, brick, cement, resins (plastics), rubber, leather, ceramics and so forth

Metals
- combinations of metallic element
- Quite strong, yet deformable which account for their extensive use
- forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals
- Not transparent to visible lights
- have a crystalline structure in which the atoms are arranged
- strong and ductile and maintain good strength
Ferrous-include steel, cast iron, wrought iron, malleable cast iron and iron-base metal
- Non-ferrous include all other metals and their combination

Ceramics
- compounds between the non-metallic and non-metallic elements chemically bounded
- Most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides
- Composed of clay minerals, cement, and glass
- Can be crystalline and non-crystalline
- light weight, high strength and hardness, good heat and wear resistance, reduces friction and insulative
properties

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 properties
- insulative to the passage of electricity and heat and are more resistant to high temperature and harsh
environment
- Hard but not brittle

Polymers
- plastics and rubber materials
- Low density and may be extremely flexible
- Polymeric material is non-crystalline
- Organic compounds based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements
- The strength and ductility of materials vary greatly
- materials are good insulator and are used for electrical insulation
- natural polymers exist, such as cellulose
- synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene
- Synthetic polymer materials have formed the basis for a burgeoning polymer industry

Composite Materials
- Mixture of two or more materials
- Consists of selective filler or reinforcing material
- Plywood is a commonly encountered composite material

Semiconductor Materials
- Solid or liquid material which is able to conduct electricity
at room temperature more readily than an insulator but less easily than a metal
- Have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical conductors and insulator
- At low temperatures, pure semiconductors behave like insulator
- conductivity roughly in the range of 103 to 10−8siemens per centimeter
- Silicon is used to create most semiconductors commercially

Biomaterial
- Employed in components into the human body for replacement
does not produce toxic substances and compatible with body tissues

Biomaterials are used in:

• Joint replacements
• Bone plates
• Bone cement
• Artificial ligaments and tendons
• Dental implants for tooth fixation
• Blood vessel prostheses
• Heart valves
• Skin repair devices (artificial tissue)
• Cochlear replacements
• Contact lenses
• Breast implants

Nanoengineered Materials
- which a single unit is sized (in at least one dimension) between 1 and 1000 nanometers (10−9 meter) but is
usually 1—100 nm.
- example of a material of this type is the carbon nanotube

ENGINEERING MATERIAL COMPOSITION

Atomic Structure
- atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, which is encircled by moving
electrons.
- Electrons and protons are electrically charged
- Each chemical element is characterized by the number of protons in the nucleus, or the atomic number
(Z).
- atomic mass (A) of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons
within the nucleus
- atomic mass unit (amu) may be used for computations of atomic weight.
atomic weight of an element or the molecular weight of a compound may be specified on the basis of

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 - atomic weight of an element or the molecular weight of a compound may be specified on the basis of
amu per atom (molecule) or mass per mole of material
- mole of a substance there are 6.023 x 1023 atoms

CHEMICAL BONDING

Primary Interatomic Bonds

1. Ionic Bonds
- both metallic and nonmetallic elements
- Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms
termed nondirectional; that is, the magnitude of the bond is equal in all directions around an ion

2. Covalent Bonding
- sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms
is directional; that is, it is between specific atoms and may exist only in the direction between one atom
and another that participates in the electron sharing

3. Metallic Bonding
- final primary bonding type, is found in metals and their alloys
- Metallic materials have one, two, or at most, three valence electrons
- valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more or less free to drift
throughout the entire metal
- High thermal and electrical conductivity
- Low melting and boiling point
- Malleable and ductile
- may be thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole, or forming a “sea of electrons” or an “electron
cloud”
- found in the periodic table for Group IA and IIA elements and, in fact, for all elemental metals

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SECONDARY BONDING OR VANDER WAALS BONDING

Secondary, van der Waals, or physical bonds

- weak in comparison to the primary or chemical ones; bonding energies are typically on the order of only
10 kJ/mol
- exists between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its presence may be obscured if any of the three
primary bonding types is present evidenced for the inert gases, which have stable electron structures
- in addition, between molecules in molecular structures that are covalently bonded.

- bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles

- an electric dipole exists whenever there is some separation of positive and negative portions of an atom
or molecule
- bonding results from the coulombic attraction between the positive end of one dipole and the negative
region of an adjacent one
- Dipole interactions occur between induced dipoles, between induced dipoles and polar molecules and
between polar molecules
- Hydrogen bonding, a special type of secondary bonding, is found to exist between some molecules that
have hydrogen

Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonds

- dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule that is normally electrically symmetric; that is,
the overall spatial distribution of the electrons is symmetric with respect to the positively charged nucleus.
- vibrational motion that can cause instantaneous and short-lived distortions of this electrical symmetry for
some of the atoms or
molecules, and the creation of small electric dipoles
- One of these dipoles can in turn produce a
displacement of the electron distribution of an adjacent molecule or atom, which induces the second
one also to become a dipole that is then weakly attracted or bonded to the first; this is one

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 one also to become a dipole that is then weakly attracted or bonded to the first; this is one
type of van der Waals bonding.

Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonds

- Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of
positively and negatively charged regions; such molecules are termed polar molecules.
can also induce dipoles in adjacent nonpolar molecules, and a bond will form as a result of attractive
forces between the two molecules

Permanent Dipole Bonds

- Van der Waals forces will also exist between adjacent polar molecules
- Associated bonding energies are significantly greater than for bonds involving induced dipoles.
- The strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond
the hydrogen end of the bond is essentially a positively charged bare proton that is unscreened by any
electrons

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