Methods of Data collections

Introduction
• The task of data collection begins after a research problem has
been defined and research design/ plan chalked out
• Various methods of collecting data are employed by social scientist.
• Data collection is a process by which the researcher collects the
information needed to answer the research problem.
• In collecting the researcher must decide:
üWhich data to collect
üHow to collect the data
üWho will collect the data
üWhen the collect the data
 Types of Data
• The researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary
and secondary
1. Primary Data :The primary data are those which are collected
afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character.
2. Secondary Data: The secondary data, on the other hand, are those
which have already been collected by someone else and which have
already been passed through the statistical process.
 Collection of Primary Data
• There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive researches.
• In descriptive research we obtain primary data either through
observation or through direct communication with respondents in
one form or another or through personal interviews.
 Collection of Secondary Data
• They are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
• Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data.
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data, because
the data available may be sometimes unsuitable.
 Methods of collecting Primary Data
1. Observation Method:
– Observation method is a method under which the data from the
field is collected with the help of observation by the observer or
by personally going to the field.
– In the words of P.V. Young “ Observation may be defined as
systematic viewing, coupled with consideration of seen
phenomena”.
– The observation method is the most commonly used method
specially in studies relating to behavioral sciences.
– Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated
research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
 Advantages of Observation Method
• The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated,
if observation is done accurately.

• Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is

currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour
or future intentions or attitudes.

• Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to

respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation
on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or
the questionnaire method.
 Disadvantages of Observation
Method
However, observation method has various limitations.
• Firstly, it is an expensive method.
• Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
• Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely
accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.
 Types of Observation
Structured vs Unstructured Observation:
• When the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the
units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information,
standardized conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent
data of observation, then the observation is called as structured
observation.
• But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to
be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate in
descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational
procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.
 Types of Observation Contd…
Participant and non-participant Observation:
• When the observer is a member of the group which he is observing then
it is participant observation.
• There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) The
researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group.
• (ii) The researcher can even gather information which could not easily
be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion.
• (iii) The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by
informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.
• But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the
observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he participates
emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not solved; and it
may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience
 Types of Observation Contd…
• But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through participation what others
feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant
observation.
• (When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence
may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation
is described as disguised observation.)
 Types of Observation Contd…
Controlled and Uncontrolled Observation:
• Sometimes we talk of controlled and uncontrolled observation.
• If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as
uncontrolled observation,
• but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged
plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed
controlled observation.
• In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision
instruments. The major aim of this type of observation is to get a
spontaneous picture of life and persons. It has a tendency to supply
naturalness and completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient time
for observing it.
• But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision)
instruments as aids to accuracy and standardization. Such observation
has a tendency to supply formalized data upon which generalizations
can be built with some degree of assurance.
 Interview Method
• The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method
can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through
telephone interviews.
• This is a oral verbal communication where interviewer asks questions
to respondent.
• There are mainly two types of interview methods: Personal and
Telephonic.
 Personal Interviews
• Personal interview method requires a person known as the
interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact
to the other person or persons.
• At times the interviewee may also ask certain questions and the
interviewer responds to these, but usually the interviewer
initiates the interview and collects the information.
• This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal
investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation.
• In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has
to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people
from whom data have to be collected. This method is
particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
 Personal Interviews Contd…
• But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact
directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive scope of
enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique may not be used.
• In such cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under
which the interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are
supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and
the information, obtained is recorded.
• Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government to
carry on investigations make use of this method
 Types of Personal interview
1. Structured Interview:
• The method of collecting information through personal interviews is
usually carried out in a structured way. As such we call the
interviews as structured interviews.
• Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions
and of highly standardized techniques of recording.
• Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid
procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order
prescribed.
 Types of Personal interview
2. Unstructured Interview:
• The unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of
approach to questioning.
• Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined
questions and standardized techniques of recording information.
I
• In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much
greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary
questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the
situation so requires.
• He may even change the sequence of questions.
• He has relatively greater freedom while recording the responses
to include some aspects and exclude others. But this sort of
flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with
another and the analysis of unstructured responses becomes
much more difficult and time-consuming than that of the
structured responses obtained in case of structured interviews.
• Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and
greater skill on the part of the interviewer.
 Advantages of Personal Interview
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of
the respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost
perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to
restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured
interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal
answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this
method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no
difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very
low.
 Advantages of Personal Interview Contd…
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer
the questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If
so desired, group discussions may also be held.
(viii) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or
educational level of the person interviewed and as such
misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
(ix) The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the
respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of
great value in interpreting results.
 Disadvantages of Personal Interview
• Expensive method
• Respondent may give bias information
• Some executive people are not approachable so data collected may
be inadequate.
• Takes more time when samples are more
• Systematic error may be occurred
• Supervisor has to do complex work of selecting, training and
supervising the field staff.
 Telephonic Interview
• This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself.
• It is not a very widely used method.
• But plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.
 The Merits of Telephonic Method
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per
response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing
method; the non-response is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. No field staff is required.
9. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
 The Demerits of Telephonic Method
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview
period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost
considerations.
4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers
are required to various questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to
handle.
 Some other types of interviews

1. Focused Inteview: Attention is focused on the given experience of the

respondent and its possible effects.
2. Group Interviews: A group of 6 to 8 peoples are interviewed.
3. Qualitative and quantitative interviews:Divided in the basis of subject
matter i.e. whether qualitative or quantitative
4. Individual Interviews: Interviewer meets a single person and interviews
him.
5.Selection Interviews: Done for the selection of people for certain jobs.
 Questionnarie Method
• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of
big enquiries.
• It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and
public organisations and even by governments.
• In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post or mail) to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a
definite order on a form or set of forms.
• The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read
and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space
meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.
• The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
• The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to
respondents is most extensively employed in various economic and
business surveys.
 Merits of Questionnaries
• There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely
spread geographically.
• It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in
respondents’ own words.
• Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
• Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
• Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made
more dependable and reliable.
 Demerits of Questionnaries
• Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to
no-response is often indeterminate.
• It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
• The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
• There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending
the approach once questionnaires have been despatched.
• There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of
replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is
difficult.
• It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
• This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
 Main aspects of a questionnaire
• Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a survey
operation.
• Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set
up, then the survey is bound to fail.
• This fact requires us to study the main aspects of a questionnaire
• the general form,
• question sequence and
• question formulation and wording.
 Main aspects of a questionnaire Contd..
General Form:
• So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be
structured or unstructured questionnaire.
• Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite,
concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly
the same wording and in the same order to all respondents. Resort is taken to this
sort of standardisation to ensure that all respondents reply to the same set of
questions. The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or
‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not
constructed during questioning. a highly structured questionnaire is one in which
all questions and answers are specified and comments in the respondent’s own
words are held to the minimum.
• When those above characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it can be
termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire. More specifically, we can
say that in an unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a
general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact question
formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies are to be taken down
in the respondent’s own words to the extent possible; in some situations tape
recorders may be used to achieve this goal.
 Main aspects of a questionnaire Contd..
Question sequence:
• In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies
received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing
the questionnaire.
• A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual
questions being misunderstood.
• The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that
the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the
respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning.
• The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to
influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation.
• The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest.
• The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions
in a questionnaire:
1. questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;
2. questions of a personal character;
3. questions related to personal wealth, etc
 Main aspects of a questionnaire Contd..
Question formulation and wording:
• With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note
that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding
can do irreparable harm to a survey.
• In general, all questions should meet the following standards—
(a) should be easily understood;
(b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;
(c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the
respondent’s way of thinking. (For instance, instead of asking. “How
many razor blades do you use annually?” The more realistic question
would be to ask, “How many razor blades did you use last week?”
 Main aspects of a questionnaire Contd..
Question formulation and wording: (contd...)
• Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about two principal forms, viz.,
multiple choice question and the open-end question.
• In the former the respondent selects one of the alternative possible answers put to
him, whereas in the latter he has to supply the answer in his own words.
• The question with only two possible answers (usually ‘Yes’ or ‘No’) can be taken
as a special case of the multiple choice question, or can be named as a ‘closed
question.’
• There are some advantages and disadvantages of each possible form of question.
• Multiple choice or closed questions have the advantages of easy handling, simple
to answer, quick and relatively inexpensive to analyse.
• Open-ended questions which are designed to permit a free response from the
respondent rather than one limited to certain stated alternatives are considered
appropriate.
• Getting the replies in respondent’s own words is, thus, the major advantage of
open-ended questions. But one should not forget that, from an analytical point of
view, open-ended questions are more difficult to handle, raising problems of
interpretation, comparability and interviewer bias.
 Main aspects of a questionnaire Contd..
Question formulation and wording: (contd...)
• In practice, one rarely comes across a case when one questionnaire relies on one form
of questions alone.
• The various forms complement each other. As such questions of different forms are
included in one single questionnaire. For instance, multiple-choice questions constitute
the basis of a structured questionnaire, particularly in a mail survey.
• But even there, various open-ended questions are generally inserted to provide a more
complete picture of the respondent’s feelings and attitudes.
• Researcher must pay proper attention to the wordings of questions since reliable and
meaningful returns depend on it to a large extent.
• Since words are likely to affect responses, they should be properly chosen.
• Simple words, which are familiar to all respondents should be employed. Words with
ambiguous meanings must be avoided.
• Similarly, danger words, catch-words or words with emotional connotations should be
avoided. Caution must also be exercised in the use of phrases which reflect upon the
prestige of the respondent.
• Question wording, in no case, should bias the answer.
• In fact, question wording and formulation is an art and can only be learnt by practice.
 Essentials of a good questionnaire
• To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively short and simple i.e.,
the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum.
• Questions should proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more
difficult questions.
• Personal and intimate questions should be left to the end.
• Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations
should be avoided in a questionnaire.
• Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no answers), multiple choice
(alternative answers listed) or open-ended.
• The latter type of questions are often difficult to analyse and hence should be
avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible.
• There should be some control questions in the questionnaire which indicate the
reliability of the respondent.
• Questions affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided.
• Adequate space for answers should be provided in the questionnaire to help
editing and tabulation. There should always be provision for indications of
uncertainty, e.g., “do not know,” “no preference” and so on.
 Collection of Data through Schedules
• This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data
through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that
schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in
by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
• These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to
them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are
listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the
proforma.
• In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents
and enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various
questions in the said schedules.
• Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also
r e m o v e t h e d i ff i c u l t i e s w h i c h a n y r e s p o n d e n t m a y f e e l i n
understanding the implications of a particular question or the
definition or concept of difficult terms.
Collection of Data through Schedules Contd..
• This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or
assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be
very carefully selected.
• The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature
and scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that
they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the
schedule.
• Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross
examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest,
sincere, hardworking and should have patience and perseverance.
• This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can
lead to fairly reliable results.
• It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations
conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organisations.
Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.
 Difference between Questionnaries and
Schedules
Questionnarie Schedules

• The questionnaire is generally sent • The schedule is generally filled

through mail to informants to be out by the research worker or the
answered as specified in a enumerator, who can interpret
c o v e r i n g l e t t e r, n o f u r t h e r questions when necessary.
assistance from the sender.
• It is a cheaper method. • Costly requires field workers
• Non response is high • Non response is low
• It is not confirmed that expected • Here the identity of thr peson is
respondent have filled the answer. known.
• Very slow method • Information is collected well in
time
• No personal contact • Direct personal contact.
 Difference between Questionnaries and
Schedules

Questionnarie Schedules

• Question can be used when the • Information can be collected

from the illeterate also.
respondent is educative and
cooperative.
• Wider distribution of the sample is • Difficulty for wider area.
possible.
• Incomplete and wrong information
• Relatively more complete and
is more. correct.
• Physical appearence of the • Not necessary in schedule
method.
questionnaries should attractive.

• Observation method can not use. • It is possible to use obseravtion

at the time of filling schedule by
the enumerator.
 Other methods of Data Collection

• Warranty cards:
– Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers
of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products.
– The information sought is printed in the form of questions on the
‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the
product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back
to the dealer.
• Distributor or store audits:
– Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as
manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals.
– Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesmen and use such
information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing
pattern and so on.
– The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by
observation.
 Other methods of Data Collection Contd..
• Pantry Audits:
– Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of
goods at the consumer level.
– In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types,
quantities and prices of commodities consumed.
– Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of
consumer’s pantry.
– The usual objective in a pantry audit is to find out what types of
consumers buy certain products and certain brands, the assumption being
that the contents of the pantry accurately portray consumer’s preferences.
• Consumer panels:
– An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as
‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an
understanding to maintain detailed daily records of their consumption
and the same is made available to investigator on demands.
– In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers
who are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time.
Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection
• Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important
factor affecting the choice of a particular method. The method selected should
be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by the
researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already
available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available primary
data) are to be collected.
• Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines
to a large extent the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds
at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to select a
comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as
some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and
the researcher has to act within this limitation.
• Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding
a particular method of data collection. Some methods take relatively more
time, whereas with others the data can be collected in a comparatively shorter
duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection
of the method by which the data are to be collected.
• Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be
considered at the time of selecting the method of collection of data.
 Collection of Secondary Data
• Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer
to the data which have already been collected and analysed by
someone else.
• When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into
various sources from where he can obtain them.
• In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are
usually associated with the collection of original data.
• Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.
 Sources of Secondary Data
Usually published data are available in:
(a) various publications of the central, state are local governments.
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies
and their subsidiary organisations.
(c) technical and trade journals.
(d) books, magazines and newspapers.
(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business
and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.
(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in
different fields; and
(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of
published information.
The sources of unpublished data are many;
• they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research
workers, trade associations, labour bureaus and other public/private
individuals and organisations