UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEM
1.Define operating system. List out Objective and various functions of operating system?
Ans: An operating system is a program that manages a computer’s hardware. It also provides a basis for application
programs and acts as an intermediary between the computer user and the computer hardware.
Objectives Of Operating System:
➢ Efficiency
➢ Hardware abstraction
➢ Convenience
➢ System resource management
Various Functions Of Operating System:
➢ Process Management
➢ Memory Management
➢ File Management
➢ Device Management
➢ Security and Protection
➢ User Interface
➢ Resource Allocation
➢ Error Detection and Handling
➢ Networking
2.Distinguish between the client-server and peer-to-peer models of distributed systems?
Ans: client-server model: The client-server paradigm is a network process communication structure that
connects service requestors, clients, and providers. A network or the Internet is used to connect the client
and the server.
peer-to-peer models: Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a type of network where each computer (called a "peer") can
act as both a client and a server, meaning they can share files, data, or resources directly with each other
without needing a central server.
S.No client-server model peer-to-peer model
1. More difficult to set up Easy to set up. More expensive to install
2. Can be implemented on a wide range of A variety of operating systems can be supported on
operating systems the client computers, but the server needs to run
3. More time consuming to maintain the software Less time consuming to maintain the software being
being used used. (as most of the maintenance is managed from
(as computers managed individually) the server)
4. Very low levels of security supported or none at High levels of security are supported, all of which are
all. controlled from the server.
5. Ideal for networks with less than 10 computers No limit to the number of computers that can be
supported by the network
6. Does not require a server Requires a server running a server operating system
7. Demands a moderate level of skill to administer Demands that the network administrator has a high
the network level of IT skills with a good working knowledge of a
server operating system
3.Discuss various approaches of designing an operating system?
Ans: Operating system design approaches encompass various architectural styles and implementation strategies.
Monolithic Kernels:
This approach features a single, large, and unified kernel that contains all the operating system's functions. It's simple to
implement and offers good performance but can be difficult to maintain and lacks modularity.
Layered Structures:
This approach organizes the OS into a series of layers, with each layer building upon the one below. It promotes modularity
and simplifies debugging but can introduce overhead between layers.
Microkernels:
These kernels provide only the core services (e.g., process management, memory management) while other services run
as user-level servers. Microkernels offer high flexibility and modularity but can introduce performance overhead.
Modular Designs:
This approach breaks the OS into smaller, independent modules, allowing for flexible configuration and customization. It
can be more complex to implement but offers good scalability and maintainability.
Virtualization:
This approach involves running multiple operating systems simultaneously on the same hardware, allowing for resource
sharing and isolation. It's useful for testing, development, and running legacy applications.
Client-Server Architectures:
This approach distributes OS services across a network of clients and servers, allowing for better resource utilization and
scalability.
Hybrid Models:
Many modern operating systems combine aspects of different approaches (e.g., a microkernel with user-level servers).
4. What are the various components of operating systems structure and explain with neat sketch?
And: An operating system is defined as a massive and complicated system that can only be divided into small sections.
These components should be well-defined parts of the system, with inputs, outputs, as well as functions well stated.
An operating system consists of the following components:
♦ Process management
♦ Files management
♦ Command Interpreter
♦ System calls
♦ Signals
♦ Network management
♦ Security management
♦ I/O device management
♦ Secondary storage management
♦ Main memory management
Process Management
The process management component of an operating system is generally used to monitor as well as handle various
processes that are executing on the operating system at the same time. Process management oversees all active processes
and ensures that they are all functioning well. It also makes use
of the memory allotted to them and turns them off as necessary.
File Management:
A file
is defined as a collection of connected data that represents
programmes, source forms, object forms, as well as data.
Numerical, alphabetical, or alphanumeric data files are all
supported. A file management system is designed to manage
group or individual files, including special office records and
documents, and has restricted features.
Command Interpreter System:
A command interpreter is defined as a component of a computer
operating system which is responsible for the interpretation as well as the execution of interactively entered or program-
generated commands. The command interpreter is known as the shell in various operating systems.
System calls:
System calls are essential functions provided by the operating system that allow applications to interact with the underlying
hardware. They provide a controlled interface for processes to request services such as input/output operations, file
management, memory allocation, and more. System calls act as a bridge between user-level programs and the kernel,
ensuring secure and controlled access to system resources.
Signals:
Signals are software interrupts used by the operating system to communicate with processes. They notify a process of
various events, such as errors, hardware exceptions, or requests from other processes. Signals enable processes to handle
asynchronous events and implement actions like termination, suspension, or specific custom behaviors. They play a crucial
role in process management, allowing for inter-process communication and control.
Network Management:
The procedure of administering as well as maintaining computer networks is known as network management`. It comprises
of the following -
• Management of performance
• Failure analysis
• Network provisioning *Quality of service assurance
Security Management:
It is vital to keep the processes separate from one another. Security management guarantees that the operating system
authorizes the use of operating files, memory, CPU, as well as other hardware resources. The security of peripheral devices
is maintained since no process can do its own I/O.
I/O Device Management:
In computer I/O, the operating system is responsible for
managing and controlling I/O processes and devices.
Because the functions and speeds of devices attached to
the computer (I/O devices) vary so considerably,
multiple ways for controlling them are required. These
methods make up the operating system's I/O subsystem,
which shields the rest of the system from the intricacies
of controlling I/O devices.
Secondary Storage Management:
While execution, programs assist in accessing data in main memory. The primary memory is insufficient to retain all of
the data and applications indefinitely. As a result, secondary storage serves as a backup for main memory. Assemblers as
well as compilers are saved on disc until they are fetched into memory and processed on the disc.
Main Memory Management:
To run programs, it must be mapped to absolute addresses and then loaded into memory. Several aspects influence
memory management strategy selection. Because each algorithm requires hardware support, memory management is
mostly determined by the system's hardware design. It ensures quick storage so that the CPU has direct access to it. It is
expensive and has limited storage space. Regardless, a program must be stored in main memory in order to be executed.
5.State and explain operating system services that provide functions that are helpful to the user?
Ans: Operating system (OS) services provide essential functionalities that directly benefit users by streamlining
their interaction with the computer and enabling efficient resource management. These services include
managing programs, controlling hardware, managing memory, and handling input/output devices, all while
ensuring a stable and secure environment.
Key OS Services And Their Impact On Users:
1. Program Execution and Resource Allocation:
The OS manages which programs can run and when, allocating CPU time, memory, and other resources to
each process. This prevents programs from interfering with each other and ensures smooth multitasking.
2. Input/Output (I/O) Management:
The OS manages communication between the user and peripherals like keyboards, mice, and printers. It
handles the translation of user input and the display of output, ensuring a seamless interaction between the user
and the hardware.
3. File Management:
The OS provides a structured way to organize and access files, allowing users to easily create, delete, modify,
and retrieve data. It also handles file system security and permissions.
4. Security and Stability:
The OS provides a secure environment by implementing security policies, access controls, and error detection
mechanisms. This protects the system from unauthorized access and prevents crashes caused by errors within
running programs.
5. User Interface:
The OS provides an interface (like a graphical user interface or command-line interface) that users interact
with. This interface allows users to interact with the system, launch applications, manage files, and configure
settings.
6. Memory Management:
The OS manages the computer's memory, allocating memory to different processes and optimizing memory
usage. This ensures that programs have the necessary memory to run and that the system doesn't run out of
memory.
7. Process Management:
The OS manages the execution of programs, including starting, stopping, and suspending processes. It also
handles communication between different processes, ensuring that they can interact with each other.
8. Device Management:
The OS manages input/output devices, such as printers, keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides drivers for
these devices, enabling them to interact with the system.
9. Networking:
The OS provides networking capabilities, allowing users to connect to networks and share resources over the
network.
10. Job Accounting:
The OS keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs or users,
which can be used for billing or resource allocation purposes.
6.Explain about the process control block?
Ans: A Process Control Block serves as a central repository of information for a process, encapsulating its
current state and operational parameters necessary for managing execution.
The PCB is critical in enabling the operating system to effectively manage processes, allowing for
multitasking, synchronization, and ensuring fair resource allocation among running tasks.
Structure Of Process Control Block
Key components: A typical PCB consists of various fields such as the process state, process ID, memory
management information, and more, each vital for the OS to effectively control the process.
Process state: The process state refers to the current status of the process, which could be new, ready, running,
waiting, or terminated. This status is essential for process scheduling.
Process ID: Every process is assigned a unique identifier known as the process ID (PID), which helps the OS
track and manage process-specific resources and states during execution.
Memory management information: This includes details about the memory allocated to a process, such as
pointers to the process's page tables and segment tables, essential for efficient memory utilization.
PCB Lifecycle
Creation of PCB:
The PCB is initialized as soon as a new process is created, encapsulating all necessary information for system
tracking and management from the outset.
Transition states:
Throughout its lifecycle, a process transitions among various states (new, ready, running, waiting, and
terminated), with the PCB reflecting these changes for effective scheduling and management.
Termination of process:
When a process completes its execution or is terminated, the PCB is removed from the system, freeing its
resources and marking the end of its lifecycle.
7&8.Define process. How many different states of process has? Explain when a process changes the
state diagram?
Ans: A process is a program in execution, characterized by its current activity and the resources allocated to
it by the operating system. A process can be in one of several states, transitioning between these states as it
executes. A process typically transitions through four or five states: New, Ready, Running, Wait/Block, and
Terminated. A state diagram visually represents these transitions.
Process States:
➢ New: The process is just being created and has not yet been assigned to a processor.
➢ Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned a processor for execution.
➢ Running: The process is currently being executed on a processor.
➢ Wait/Block: The process is waiting for a specific event to occur, such as I/O completion
or a signal.
➢ Terminated: The process has completed its execution and is no longer active.
Process Changes State:
A process changes state when it transitions from one activity to another, typically triggered by events such as:
➢ Process creation: The process moves from New to Ready.
➢ CPU allocation: The process moves from Ready to Running.
➢ Resource request: The process moves from Running to Wait/Block (e.g., when it needs
to wait for I/O).
➢ Event completion: The process moves from Wait/Block to Ready.
➢ Process termination: The process moves from Running to Terminated.
9. Define thread. What are the advantages of threads?
Ans: A thread refers to a sequence of instructions that can be executed independently within a program.
Threads allow for concurrent execution and enable multitasking in a single application. Threads share the
same memory space and resources of the process they belong to, allowing for efficient communication and
data sharing.
Advantages of using threads in an operating system:
Concurrency and Multitasking:
Threads allow a program to perform multiple tasks concurrently, improving responsiveness and efficiency,
especially for applications like web browsers that need to handle multiple operations (loading pages, playing
video, scrolling) simultaneously.
Reduced Overhead:
Threads are lighter than processes, requiring less memory and resources. Context switching between threads
is faster than switching between processes, reducing overhead and improving overall system responsiveness.
Improved Responsiveness:
Multithreading allows a program to remain responsive to user input even when performing long-running tasks
in the background, preventing the user interface from freezing.
Efficient Resource Sharing:
Threads within the same process share memory, data, and OS resources, making it easier to communicate and
share data between different parts of a program.
Parallelism:
On multiprocessor systems, multiple threads can
execute concurrently on different CPUs,
potentially leading to significant performance
gains compared to single-threaded programs.
