Edexcel GCSE (9-1)

History
Superpower relations and the Cold War, 1941-91
Series Editor: Angela Leonard Authors: Christopher Catherwood Nigel Kelly
 SO

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Timeline Chapter 3 The end of the Cold War,
Chapter 1 The origins of the Cold War, 1970-91 66
1941-58 3.1 Attempts to reduce tension between
1.1 Early tensions between East and West East and West, 1969-79 67

1.2 The development of the Cold War 3.2 Flashpoints in superpower relations,
1979-84 14
1.3 The Cold War intensifies
3.3 The collapse of Soviet control in
Recap page Eastern Europe, 1985-91 80
Writing Historically Recap page 87
Writing Historically 88
Chapter 2 Cold War crises, 1958-70
2.1 Berlin 1958-63: Increased tension and Writing analytical narrative 90
the impact of the Berlin Wall
Superpower relations and the Cold War,
2.2 The Cuban Missile Crisis 1941-91: Preparing for your exam Be
2.3 Czechoslovakia, 1968-69 Answers 99
Recap page Index 100
Writing Historically Acknowledgements 102
 The Challenge questions push you to go beyond just
What’s covered? understanding the information, and into evaluation and
This book covers the Period Study on Superpower analysis of what you've studied.
Relations and the Cold War, 1941-91. This unit makes
up 20% of your GCSE course, and will be examined in
Sources and Interpretations
Paper 2.
Although source work and interpretations do not appear
Period studies cover a specific period of time of in Paper 2, you'll still find interesting contemporary
around 50 years, and require you to know about and material throughout the books, showing what people
be able to analyse the events surrounding important from the period said, thought or created, helping you to
developments and issues that happened in this period. build your understanding of people in the past.
You need to understand how the different topics
covered fit into the overall narrative. This book also
A photograph of children watching as a supply plane arrives in Berlin during the
explains the different types of exam questions you Berlin Airlift.
will need to answer, and includes advice and example
answers to help you improve.

Features
As well as a clear, detailed explanation of the key
knowledge you will need, you will also find a number of
features in the book:
A recent account of the Paris Summit and U-2 incident
from the US Department of State Official History website.
Key terms Khrushchev had publicly committed himself
to the idea of “peaceful coexistence” with :
Where you see a word followed by an asterisk, like this: the United States... [Had] the United States
Hawks*, you will be able to find a Key Terms box on that q apologized, he would have continued
' Eisenhower, however, refused to issue a formal
the summit. f

page that explains what the word means. apology... . On May 11, Eisenhower finally
acknowledged his full awareness of the entire
program and of the Powers flight in particular.
Moreover, he explained that... such spy
Hawks* flights were a necessary element in maintaining
During the Cold War, those who supported going to national defense, and that he planned to es
continue them.
war were known as Hawks. Their counterparts, who
tried to find solutions to problems without going to
war, were known as Doves.

Extend your knowledge

Activities
These features contain useful additional information
Every few pages, you'll find a box containing some that adds depth to your knowledge, and to your
activities designed to help check and embed knowledge answers. The information is closely related to the
and get you to really think about what you've studied. key issues in the unit, and questions are sometimes
The activities start simple, but might get more
included, helping you to link the new details to the main
challenging as you work through them. content.

Summaries and Checkpoints Extend your knowledge i

President John F. Kennedy
At the end of each chunk of learning, the main points
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was one of the youngest
are summarised in a series of bullet points - great for men ever to be elected President of the United States,
embedding the core knowledge, and handy for revision. he took office aged just 43. Born in 1917, he came
from a very wealthy family. He fought in the Second
Checkpoints help you to check and reflect on your World War and served as a Senator before becoming
President. Many, like Khrushchev, saw Kennedy as
learning. The Strengthen section helps you to
an inexperienced youth, whose wealth gave him no
consolidate knowledge and understanding, and understanding of the real world. Events in Berlin and
check that you've grasped the basic ideas and skills. Cuba proved Khrushchev’s assumptions were wrong.
Exam-style questions and tips
The book also includes extra exam-style questions you WRITING
can use to practise. These appear in the chapters and HISTORICALLY |
are accompanied by a tip to help you get started on an
answer. At the end of most chapters is a spread dedicated to
helping you improve your writing skills. These include
simple techniques you can use in your writing to make
_ Explain two consequences of the Hungarian Uprising |
your answers Clearer, more precise and better focused
in 1956. 8 marks _
on the question you're answering.

The Writing Historically approach is based on the

_ Remember this question is about consequences, not Grammar for Writing pedagogy developed by a team at
| events. So don’t spend time saying what happened
_ during the uprising. Focus on explaining what
the University of Exeter and popular in many English
.happened asa result of the uprising. departments. Each spread uses examples from the
preceding chapter, so it’s relevant to what you've just
been studying.
Recap pages
At the end of each chapter, you'll find a page designed
to help you to consolidate and reflect on the chapter
Preparing for your exams
as a whole. Each recap page includes a recall quiz, ideal At the back of the book, you'll find a special section
for quickly checking your knowledge or for revision. dedicated to explaining and exemplifying the new
Recap pages also include activities designed to help you Edexcel GCSE History exams. Advice on the demands of
this paper, written by Angela Leonard, helps you prepare
summarise and analyse what you've learned, and also
reflect on how each chapter links to other parts of the for and approach the exam with confidence. Each
unit.
question type is explained through annotated sample
answers at two levels, showing clearly how answers can
be improved.
THINKING Pearson Progression Scale: This icon - &
HISTORICALLY
indicates the Step that a sample answer has = ge
These activities are designed to help you develop a been graded at on the Pearson Progression Cag?
better understanding of how history is constructed, Scale.
and are focused on the key areas of Evidence,
Interpretations, Cause & Consequence and Change &
This book is also available as an online ActiveBook,
Continuity. In the Period Study, you will come across an
activity on Cause & Consequence, as this is a key focus which can be licensed for your whole institution.
for this unit. There is also an ActiveLearn Digital Service available to
The Thinking Historically approach has been developed support delivery of this book, featuring a front-of-class
version of the book, lesson plans, worksheets, exam
in conjunction with Dr Arthur Chapman and the Institute
practice PowerPoints, assessments, notes on Thinking
of Education, UCL. It is based on research into the
Historically and Writing Historically, and more.
misconceptions that can hold students back in history.

THINKING
HISTORICALLY. Cause and Consequence
q
conceptual
map reference
ActiveLearn
Digital Service
The Thinking Historically conceptual map can be found
at: www.pearsonschools.co.uk/thinkinghistoricallygcse
 1959
1945 1947 Socialist revolution
First successful US Truman doctrine in Cuba overthrows
atomic bomb test President Batista
1947
Marshall plan | 1961
1945 announced Bay of Pigs
USA detonates
incident
atomic bombs over 1946
Japan | Churchill makes ‘Iron Curtain’
speech at Fulton, Missouri ) 1963
President Kennedy
1946 !
1949 _visits Berlin
Kennan’s ‘long’ telegram Formation of Federal
Republic of Germany

| 1963
1949
_Limited Test
NATO set up
_ Ban treaty
1939
Second 1943 1945 1948 © 1961
World War Tehran Yalta Berlin | Vienna
begins conference conference | Blockade summit summit

1941 1945 . 4 1962

Grand Alliance : _ | Potsdam conference _ Cuban
between Britain, USA oe . i Missile -
and Soviet Union | J : ; | Crisis
i © 1945
End of Second World War

1941 — 1946 1955

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| 1948 | Berlin Wall
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government in
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Hungarian
1949
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Communist government Democratic Republic
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. 1949
| Comecon set up

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Carter Ronald Reagan makes
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1967 1972 1984

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treaty | agreement Olympics Olympics INF treaty

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Nuclear Non- ; Helsinki Geneva} | Reykjavik | Fallof — ‘

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 The Soviet Union and the USA were allies in the fight against Hitler's
Germany, but once the Second World War was over and there was no common
enemy, the different political systems in the two countries made co-operation
almost impossible. The communist Soviet Union and capitalist USA simply
distrusted each other too much to remain on good terms. Instead they drifted
into a ‘cold’ war.
_ The Cold War was not an open military conflict, but it did have many of the
characteristics of traditional war. Military alliances were formed and huge
arsenals of conventional and nuclear weapons were developed. Fortunately,
those weapons were never used in any direct fighting. So the Cold War was
limited to a war of words, fought through diplomacy, propaganda and spying.
In the closing stages of the Second World War, the USA, Britain and other
allies had freed Western Europe from German occupation. The Soviet Red
Army had taken control of most of Eastern Europe. This led to Europe being
split in two, with a capitalist, democratic West and communist East.
In the years that followed, Stalin tried to win security for the Soviet Union
by consolidating his control over Eastern Europe and, if possible, extending
communism into Western Europe. At the same time, the USA gave support to
Western Europe and worked to undermine communism in Eastern Europe.

In this chapter you will find out:

* how ideological differences helped bring about the Cold War and how they
affected attempts to reach agreement on how Europe should be governed
how US / Soviet rivalry in the years 1947-49 led to the division of Europe
into ‘two camps’
how the development of the atomic bomb led to an arms race
how opposition to Soviet control led to an unsuccessful uprising in Hungary.
 Learning outcomes
* Know about the political outlooks of the communist Soviet Union and capitalist USA.
¢ Understand how, as allies during the Second World War, the Soviet Union, the USA and Britain formed plans for
the future government of Europe.
¢ Understand how the alliance turned to rivalry and distrust when the Second World War was over.

During the Second World War, the Soviet Union*, the

USA and Britain formed an alliance to fight against
Hitler and Nazi Germany. Britain’s prime minister, se aS eee pleOR
Winston Churchill, nicknamed this alliance‘The Grand June 1941 Hitler attacks
Alliance’. As soon as it became clear that Hitler would be the Soviet Union, which
defeated, tension and rivalry between the allies began allies with Britain and
to grow, gradually escalating into the Cold War. USA

November 1943
Tehran Conference
Soviet Union*
Short for Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (also February 1945 Yalta
shortened to USSR). The republics were Russia, Conference May 1945 VE Day
Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and
several smaller countries. In theory, all republics were July 1945 Potsdam
Conference August 1945 USA
partners in the Union but, in practice, it was ruled from
drops atom bombs
Moscow, the capital of Russia.
February 1946
March 1946 Churchill's
Kennan’s Long Telegram
‘Iron Curtain’ speech
Ideological differences between
East and West September 1946
Novikov telegram
The Soviet Union, Britain and the USA were ruled January 1947
according to very different ideologies*. Britain and the Communist government
USA were capitalist*. The Soviet Union was communist”. elected in Poland

February 1948
Communists seize
power in Czechoslovakia
Ideology*
A set of shared beliefs. In 1941, the USA and the May 1949 Communist
government elected in
Soviet Union had different ideologies concerning how
Hungary
a country should be governed and how its society
should work.
Capitalism*
Communism*
Capitalists believe everyone should be free to own
Communists believe that all property, including
property and businesses and make money. The USA's
homes and businesses, should belong to the state, to
economic ideology was capitalist. ensure that every member of society has a fair share.
Communism is based on the writings of Karl Marx and
was the political ideology of the Soviet Union.
1.1 Early tensions between East and West

Differences between leaders

Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin (the leaders of the Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945)
USA, Britain and the Soviet Union in 1941) are often President of the USA: 1933-45

referred to as ‘the Big Three’, since it was their beliefs He believed strongly in democracy
but compromised and formed an
and ambitions that dominated world politics from 1941 alliance with Stalin. After Japan
until Roosevelt's death in 1945. The suspicions that bombed Pearl Harbor in 1941,
Churchill and Roosevelt had about Stalin (and indeed the Roosevelt thought he would need
‘Soviet support against Japan. His
suspicions Stalin had about what Roosevelt and Churchill
desire for Soviet support explains
were trying to achieve) played a major role in shaping why he was not always as tough in
relations from 1941. The differences in the leaders’ negotiations with Stalin as
personal political beliefs reinforced these suspicions and Churchill would have liked.
Roosevelt believed any long-term
were a significant factor in the breakdown of relations as settlement would only be possible if
the Second World War drew to a close. the Soviet Union was accepted as a
superpower and partner
in peace.
Differences between nations
During the 1930s, both the USA and Britain had
been very critical of the methods used by Stalin to
industrialise the Soviet Union and the terrible cost in Winston Churchill (1874-1965)
Prime minister of Britain:
human lives that the reforms brought about. But Stalin 1940-45, 1951-55
was a strong opponent of German fascism and so it As a Conservative from an
suited the USA and Britain to work with the Soviet Union aristocratic family, Churchill had
very traditional values. He
to defeat Hitler. Once the war came to an end, however, it
believed strongly in the British
was Clear that relations between the three countries were Empire at a time when many others
likely to become strained. The ideological differences — including Franklin Roosevelt —
between them meant it was almost impossible to agree thought colonies should be allowed
freedom to rule themselves. His
on how post-war Europe should be governed. political attitudes made him
deeply suspicious of Stalin.
Soviet Union USA & Britain Throughout the time of The Grand
Alliance he saw his role as trying
Politics Single-party rule Free elections with to stop Soviet expansion.
a choice of parties
Social Classless society, Some people have
structure everyone is equal = more power than
others (because of
family background,
Joseph Stalin (1878-1953)
Leader of the Soviet Union:
wealth, education 1920s-1953

or achievements) Stalin strengthened one-party

rule in the Soviet Union and cut
Economy All property owned Private ownership back on people’s individual
by the state, not and a competitive rights. He was convinced that the
individuals workplace West wanted to destroy communism,
so the Soviet Union had to stand
Rights Rights of all Individual firm in any negotiations with the
workers more freedoms valued Western ‘superpower’, the USA, and
important than but limited by its close ally, Britain.
individual rights majority opinion

Figure 1.1 Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt.

 Defeating fascist Germany in Victory over Germany was a
the Second World War was a victory victory for communism. Our people
for our capitalist political system. To O made enormous sacrifices in the war
keep the peace in future we need to O and that gives us the right to introduce
support capitalism and democracy* and communism in Eastern Europe, and
prevent communism from spreading. eventually throughout the world. We will
People in European countries should make them into Soviet satellite states*,
have the same rights and freedoms as under our control. They will provide
Americans do. That way they will be MELA lie us with useful raw materials and help
more likely to support us and protect us from possible future
be our allies. attacks from the West.
Soviet Union

Figure 1.2 A summary of US and Soviet attitudes after the Second World War.

A new world order

The Second World War brought about a significant shift in world politics. The
‘old powers’, like Britain and France, were now less important than they had Democracy*
been. Two new ‘superpowers’, the Soviet Union and the USA had emerged. A political system in which a
Their military and economic strength were responsible for the defeat of nation’s leaders are chosen in
Germany but also created a situation that would make future relations very free elections. Both the USA
dificult. and the Soviet Union said they
believed in democracy, but Stalin
The Grand Alliance believed elections had to lead
The Grand Alliance was formed between the USA, the Soviet Union and Britain to a communist government,
to mastermind the defeat of Germany and Japan in the Second World War. as only The Communist Party
The alliance was formed when a force of four million German troops invaded represented the working people.
the Soviet Union in June 1941 — despite a non-aggression pact between
Satellite state*
Germany and the Soviet Union. It is important to remember that, although
the three countries had formed an alliance, there was no real change in how A nation that was once
they viewed each other. The USA and Britain, in particular, remained suspicious independent but is now under
of communism, and Stalin realised that the West would not want to take any the control of another. In the
actions that made the Soviet Union stronger in the long run. Cold War, ‘satellite states’ usually
describes nations under the
The leaders of The Grand Alliance nations met three times during the war: at political, economic and military
Tehran (1943), Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam (July 1945). control of the Soviet Union.

The significance of the Tehran, Yalta and

Potsdam conferences
Tehran, November 1943
The Grand Alliance first met in Tehran to plan a winning strategy to end the
War.

Agreements made at Tehran

¢ The USA and Britain would open a ‘second front’ by launching an attack
on Germany in Western Europe. This would ease pressure on the Eastern
Front, where the Soviets were suffering heavy losses. The Germans would
then have to withdraw troops from the Soviet Union to fight in the West.
¢ Stalin would declare war against Japan and supply Soviet troops to help
the USA with the war against Japan — but only once the war in Europe was
over.
11
 * The Big Three also discussed what would happen to Germany and the
countries east of Germany after the war. There was no formal agreement,
but it was agreed in principle that the aim of the war was to bring about
the unconditional surrender of Germany and that it should remain weak
after the war. It was also agreed that Poland should receive land from
Germany, but the Soviet Union could keep land it had seized from Poland
in 1939. This was very important to Stalin, whose ultimate aim was to
secure his western border after the war:
° There was a general agreement that an international body should be set
up to settle disputes through discussion and negotiation, rather than war.
This laid the ground for the future formation of the United Nations.
The Tehran conference had an important impact on international relations.
Stalin had arrived in Tehran concerned that the USA and Britain were
deliberately delaying a ‘second front’ against Germany so that the Soviet
Union could be further weakened by having to fight a fierce defensive war
in the East. So he was pleased with the agreement to open a ‘second front’
in the West. Churchill was less pleased because he had wanted to open the
‘second front’ in the Balkans, not in the West. However, Roosevelt sided with
Stalin on this.

So there was some tension between the USA and Britain — especially
as Roosevelt seemed at times to view British colonialism* as more of a
Colonialism* threat to world peace than the Soviet Union. It seemed that good relations
Economic, political and cultural between Roosevelt and Stalin might create a position where the Big Three
control of another country. was becoming the Big Two and, after 1945, the USA and the Soviet Union
would be the only global superpowers.
Reparations*
Payments in money or goods, after Yalta, February 1945
a war, from the losing country Two years after the Tehran Conference, the Big Three held a second meeting
to the victors. Reparations are to discuss winning the war and the government of post-war Europe at
compensation for loss of life Yalta in the Soviet Union. By then, the ‘second front’ had been launched in
and damage to land and the France and British and American-led forces were pushing the Germans back
|economy. towards Berlin. More importantly, the Soviets had defeated the Germans
in the Soviet Union and now had control of most of Central and Eastern
Europe. Stalin was determined to keep the territory he had won between the
Soviet border and Germany as a cushion against future German invasions.

Agreements made at Yalta

¢ After the war, Germany would be split into four zones. They would each
be controlled by a different power, the USA, Britain, France and the Soviet
Union. Germany would pay $20 billion in reparations*, half of which would
go to the Soviet Union. The Nazi Party would be banned and war criminals
prosecuted.
* A United Nations would be set up, with its first meeting on 25 April
1945. All nations could join, but the USA and France did not agree with
Stalin’s suggestion that all 16 Soviet republics should be given individual
membership. Instead, Russia, the Ukraine and Belarus were admitted.

12
 A photograph showing the Big Three — Winston Churchill, London Poles*
Franklin Roosevelt and Josef Stalin - at the Yalta
A group of politicians who left Poland after the
conference in February 1945.
German invasion in 1939 and formed a government-
; . | yi
in-exile, first in Paris and then in London.
Veto*
Forbid or refuse. Permanent members of the UN
Security Council can stop resolutions being passed
with a single ‘no’ vote, even if all the other members
think it should be passed.

¢ The United Nations had been created in the Treaty of

Stalin agreed to join in the war against Japan, three
San Francisco in June 1945. Eventually, 51 members
months after the defeat of Germany.
signed the treaty. The USA, the Soviet Union, France,
Stalin agreed that future governments of countries in Britain and China were made permanent members of
Eastern Europe would be decided in free elections. the United Nations Security Council, with the power
Poland proved to be the stumbling block at the to veto* resolutions.
conference. It was agreed that the borders of Poland The new personalities involved meant that relations
would be returned to their position in 1921 (which between the three leaders at Potsdam were very
would give the Soviet Union significant gains) different from the earlier conferences.
and that there would be free elections. However,
Compared to Roosevelt and Churchill, Truman and Attlee
Stalin expected those elections to bring about a
were new to diplomatic discussions. It was much harder
pro-communist government, whereas the British
for them to get their way with Stalin.
supported the non-communist London Poles*.
Truman was determined to take a ‘get tough’ approach
Roosevelt and Stalin were pleased to get agreement
with Stalin and deliberately delayed the date of the
on free elections and the United Nations, but the issue
conference until the atomic bomb was ready (see page 14).
of Poland was to prove a difficult one to solve in future
He thought this would give him an edge on discussions.
discussions.
As a newly-elected prime minister, Attlee’s main concern
was to return to Britain to take charge and he did not
Potsdam, July-August 1945 want the talks to drag on.
Although the conference at Potsdam, near Berlin, took place
Although the development of the atom bomb soured
only a few months after Yalta, a number of crucial events
relations and the defeat of Germany had taken away the
during that time influenced the mood of the conference.
need to work against a common enemy, the allies did
There was a change of personnel find some common ground.
¢ Roosevelt died in April 1945 and was replaced by Agreements made at Potsdam
Harry S. Truman. Germany would be divided into four zones,
¢ Winston Churchill and the Conservative Party lost the administered by the Soviet Union, the USA, Britain
1945 general election. and France, but the German economy would be run as
¢ The new Labour prime minister was Clement Attlee. a whole.
Other world events Berlin would also be divided into four zones,
¢ Germany had surrendered in May 1945. controlled by different countries, even though it was
* Scientists in the USA had developed an atomic bomb based well inside Soviet-controlled Germany.
(which they tested successfully the day after the The Soviet Union wanted Germany to pay heavy
conference began). reparations, but Truman was concerned that this would

13
make it harder for the German economy to recover. It
was agreed that each administering country should
take reparations from its own zone. As the Soviet Union 1 Create a table to summarise the Tehran, Yalta and
controlled the poorest zone, it was allowed to take a Potsdam conferences. Label the columns: Tehran,
quarter of the industrial equipment from the other zones. Yalta and Potsdam. Label the rows: ‘Date’, ‘Leaders
present’, ‘Key decisions’, ‘Impact of decisions on
Agreement was not reached over the government of relations between the Big Three’. Fill out the table
Eastern Europe. Truman objected to the control that in as much detail as you can.
the Soviet Union had over the countries it had liberated 2 Discuss in small groups which impact from your
from Nazi rule. He was beginning to see the Red Army as table had the most effect on relations between
an army of occupation. However, without risking further
the Big Three.
war, there was little Truman could do.
3 Write a paragraph explaining why you made this
Truman also objected to the arrangements for Poland and choice.
the borders that had previously been agreed. He wanted
to see a new government with less communist influence.

_ Explain two consequences of the decisions made

North Sea
Oo Baltic Sea _ by The Grand Alliance at the Yalta Conference in
Scecaoes |February 1945.

US-Soviet relations 1945-46:

the wartime alliance unravels
GERMANY Although the members of The Grand Alliance agreed
on many issues at the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam
5 r " a” ‘ conferences, by the end of Postdam, it was clear that there
CZECHOSLOVAKIA were now significant issues that they could not agree on.
\ A In particular, Stalin wanted control of Eastern Europe to
FRANCE
ensure the security of the Soviet Union. In his view, getting
control of Eastern Europe was a reasonable defensive
AUSTRIA measure. But Truman believed that Stalin was trying to
spread communism and looked upon Stalin's ambitions as
examples of communist aggression. In the years 1945-46,
Figure 1.3 The post-war division of Germany into four parts:
this bagic disagreement and mutual suspicion turned the
the Soviet, French, British and American sectors.
wartimeNalliance into peacetime hostility.

The impact of the atom bomb on

This question asks about ‘consequences’, so you will
_ need to think about what difference the decisions
US-Soviet relations
made to relations at that time. Don’t just give On 6 August 1945, the USA exploded an atom bomb
details of what happened, explain why the decision over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. A second was
was important. It was agreed that Germany should released over Nagasaki on 9 August. The blast at
be divided into four zones. How did that affect Hiroshima was equivalent to over 12,000 tons of the
_ international relations? (See pages 97-98 for TNT (explosive material) used in ordinary bombs. It is

|
examples of an average and high-scoring answer to estimated that over 120,000 Japanese civilians were
killed by the two bombs.
Some historians argue that the USA could have won
the war against Japan without using nuclear weapons.
They say the USA really used the bombs to establish This cartoon, ‘The Big Fourth’, by the British cartoonist
a stronger bargaining position with the Soviet Union. Philip Zec, was published in the Daily Mirror on 17 July 1945.
This is only an opinion, but it is certainly true that
knowing the USA could make atomic bombs made
Truman feel more confident and determined in the
negotiations at Potsdam. Also, the development of the
atomic bomb made the countries of Western Europe
OF FUTURE ‘ioft
feel more secure about placing themselves under
AGREEMEM ! i
American protection, rather than looking to reach ON wORLD
agreement with the Soviet Union.

But, if the Americans hoped that having the atomic

bomb would make it easier to persuade Stalin to allow
Eastern European countries more freedom, they were
wrong. Actually, Stalin now felt even more determined
to make the Soviet Union secure. His immediate aim
was to create a buffer zone of countries sympathetic
to communism between Germany and the Soviet
Union’s western borders. So, overall, the effect the
development of the atomic bomb had on US-Soviet
relations was completely opposite to what the
Americans had hoped for.

The USA's nuclear monopoly did not last. Soviet

scientists were already working on their own version of
the atom bomb and their first successful test was on
29 August 1949, just four years after the USA. By 1964,
Britain, France and China also had the atomic bomb. Rising tensions: the Kennan Long
The bomb dramatically increased Cold War tensions. telegram and the Novikov telegram
A war that used atomic weapons could kill millions of Both Truman and Stalin feared that the break-up of The
people and destroy the world many times over. But, Grand Alliance might lead to future conflict. They wanted
equally, the terrible consequences of using an atomic to know what their rivals were thinking and, in 1946,
bomb may have made both the USA and the Soviet Union both asked their embassies to report on attitudes in
more reluctant to go to war. Instead they entered an arms each other's countries. These reports came in the form of
race, in which each side tried to make sure their nuclear telegrams — a written message sent over a telegraph line.
weapons were more powerful than those of their rival.

Activities From the ‘Long Telegram’ sent from Moscow to Washington

by the US ambassador to the Soviet Union, George Kennan,
1 Look at Source B in a small group and discuss on 22 February 1946.
why the cartoon is called ‘The Big Fourth’. What is We have here a political force committed
‘The Big Fourth’? What does the shadow represent? fanatically to the belief that... it is desirable
and necessary that... our traditional way of
The cartoon was published in July 1945. If Zec had life be destroyed, the international authority
drawn it on 10 August, how might it have been of our state be broken, if Soviet power is to be
different? Describe the alternative cartoon in secure... But... the problem is within our power
to-solve... without... military conflict.
words or draw your own version.

15
 Soviet attitudes: George Kennan’s Long Telegram
George Kennan, America’s ambassador in Moscow, had lived and worked in
the Soviet Union as a diplomat. When he sent a telegram discussing US-
Soviet relations, his views were taken seriously by the American government.
While most telegrams were very short, Kennan’s telegram was more like a
letter, so his message became known as the Long Telegram.

It contained a message that worried the American government. He reported

that Stalin wanted to see the destruction of capitalism and that he felt the
world outside the Soviet Union was hostile and looking to destroy communism.
However, Kennan also believed that the Soviet Union was not suicidal, so if faced
with strong resistance, would back down. This was a really important message,
which played a key role in American policy towards the Soviet Union in the
coming years. The American government believed there should be a determined
policy of ‘containment’ to stop communism spreading.

US attitudes: the Novikov Telegram

Nikolai Novikov was a Soviet diplomat working in Washington. His telegram
to the government in Moscow (discovered recently in a Soviet archive) shows
that the Soviets thought equally poorly of the West: each side distrusted the
other.

Novikov's telegram said the USA wanted to use their massive military
power to dominate the world. He believed that, since Roosevelt's death, the
Americans no longer wanted to co-operate with the Soviet Union and the
American people would support their government if this led to war. Such a
view had a major impact in Moscow. If this was how the USA was thinking, it
was vital to develop as much protection as possible in Eastern Europe.

From a speech given by Winston

From the ‘Novikov Telegram’ sent from Washington to Moscow by Nikolai Novikov,
Churchill on 5 March 1946 at
Soviet Ambassador to the USA, on 27 September 1946.
Westminster College, Fulton,
US foreign policy has been characterized in the postwar period
Missouri. Here he describes the
by a desire for world domination. All these steps to preserve
Soviet Union's growing control over the great military potential are not an-end in itself, of
Eastern Europe. course. They are intended only to prepare conditions to win
From Stettin in the Baltic world domination in a new war being planned by the most warlike
to Trieste in the Adriatic, circles of American imperialism...
an iron curtain has descended
across the Continent.
syelanbiavol awakens, llatiayes dats) yelal A British point-of-view: Winston Churchill's ‘Iron Curtain’ speech
the capitals of the ancient In March 1946, Winston Churchill was no longer prime minister but he still
states of Central and Eastern had enormous influence. On a visit to Fulton, Missouri he gave a speech
Europe... all are subject in
one form or another, not only
that is now seen as a defining moment.in US-Soviet relations. In the speech
to Soviet influence but to a he made it plain that he thought the Soviet Union was a threat to freedom
very high and, in some cases, and world peace. He was provoked to make this speech by the fact that
increasing measure of control communist governments had recently been set up in Hungary, Poland,
from Moscow.
Romania and Bulgaria.

16
 1.1 Early tensions between East and West

Churchill was speaking in the USA and must have cleared his speech with
Truman first. So Stalin interpreted what Churchill said as reflecting American
beliefs too. The speech, along with the Novikov telegram, increased tension 1 What term does Churchill use
and mistrust, and led the Soviet Union to strengthen its forces and step up in his speech to describe the
a campaign of anti-Western propaganda. Whether he intended it or not, imaginary line between East
Churchill's speech intensified the growing hostility between East and West. and West in Europe?
2 With a partner re-read
Sources C, D and E. Try to
The creation of Soviet satellite states in summarise the message in
Eastern Europe each source into just one or
two sentences.
In 1944 and 1945, the Soviet Red Army freed many countries in Eastern
Set up a debate, with one
Europe from the Nazis as it advanced west towards Germany. When the war group representing the USA
was over, Stalin was reluctant to give up control of these countries as they and the other representing
were a useful buffer zone between the Soviet Union and Germany. He turned the Soviet Union. Argue that
them into satellite states with communist governments and little genuine the worsening of relations
independence from the Soviet Union. Truman saw this as evidence that after 1941 was not your fault,
the Soviet Union wanted to spread communism worldwide, and relations but was all down to ‘the other
between the USA and the Soviet Union became worse. side’. What will you say?

Source F
A photograph of Klement Gottwald speaking at a communist rally in Prague,
February 1948. After a coalition government collapsed, Gottwald became
president of a communist Czechoslovakia.
 Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia In 1944, Poles staged a
(sometimes called ‘the Baltic rebellion against German
States’) were conquered by the occupation known as the
Soviet Union in 1940. They were Warsaw Uprising. The Soviets
treated as part of the Soviet had promised to support
Union. them, but instead of helping,
the Red Army waited until
the uprising had been
crushed. Only then did they
invade Poland and put a
pro-Communist government
From 1919 to 1938,
in place. At first it included
Czechoslovakia was the only
some of the London Poles,
democracy in Eastern Europe.
but after supposedly free
After the war, a coalition
elections in 1947, they
government led by Benes
were forced to flee or face
tried to restore the pre-war
imprisonment.
democracy. Stalin saw this as
a threat to the secure buffer
zone he was trying to set up. In Hungary there were
Supported by the Soviet Union, elections in 1945. Some
communists staged a coup in communists were elected
February 1948. Benes and other but not enough to form
non-communists were removed a government. In the
from power and a pro-Soviet 1947 election voters were
communist government was intimidated in a campaign

a
set up under the leadership of supported by Moscow
Klement Gottwald. and a Communist Party
government was elected. By
1949 Hungary was a one-
party communist state.
Yugoslavia and Albania were
also satellite states, but
they were never occupied by In 1944 and 1945, the Soviet
the Red Army so had more Red Army took control of
independence than countries Bulgaria, Romania and
neighbouring the Soviet Union. eastern parts of Germany.
Countries under
Soviet influence
As in Poland, there were
free’ elections but, in reality,
[J Non-Soviet communist voters were intimidated.
countries All the elections brought in
communist governments.

Figure 1.4 How the countries of Eastern Europe became Soviet satellite states.

Major events 1941-46 7aaigust 1945 USA crepes

— July 1945] bombs on Japan

Potsdam conference
February 1946
June 1941 November 1943 May 1945 Kennan Long
o> Grand Alliance formed Tehran conference VE Day telegram

Mild

relations
US-Soviet

Freezing 1 eens ee
i ai

Figure 1.5 Declining relations between the USA and the Soviet Union, 1941-46.

18
| Write a narrative account analysing the key events | To score well on this type of question, your account
_ of the Soviet takeover of the satellite states in the | needs to link events together and explain how one
| period 1944-48. : leads to another in a logical and structured way.
You may use the following in your answer:
“+ the Warsaw Uprising
_¢ the communist takeover of Czechoslovakia. |
You must also use information of your own. 8 marks |

« Although they followed different ideologies, from 1941 to 1945 the USA, the Soviet Union and Britain were allies
against a common enemy, Nazi Germany.
In 1943, the Big Three began talks (at Tehran) about how to end the war and how to deal with Germany after the
war. Final agreement on the division of Germany into four zones of occupation came at Yalta in 1945.
Victory in Europe (VE) Day saw Allied victory over the Nazis and left the Soviet Red Army in control of what
became the satellite states: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia and the Soviet zone
of Germany.
e In August 1945, the USA exploded two atomic bombs over Japan and a new age in international relations,
dominated by these powerful new weapons, began.
¢ By 1946, the USA and the Soviet Union had lost trust in each other. Both were convinced that their countries’
ideologies were under threat because of the aggressive foreign policies of their rivals.

$1 How is ‘cold’ war different from conventional war?

$2 Which heads of state attended the Tehran and Potsdam conferences?
$3 What did the Allies plan for Germany at Yalta? Is this what finally happened?
S4 |n your own words, explain the differences between communism and capitalism.

C1 Describe how relations between the USA, Britain and the Soviet Union changed between Tehran and Potsdam. _
C2 How did the development and use of the atomic bomb affect East-West relations?
C3 What do the Long (Kennan) and Novikov telegrams show about mutual distrust between the Soviet Union and
the West?
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? Form a small group and discuss any questions
you are not sure about. Look for the answers in this section. Now rewrite your answers as a group.

19
Learning outcomes bh
* Understand how the USA used financial aid to fight communism in post-war Europe through the Marshall Plan.
¢ Understand how the Soviet Union and USA came close to open conflict during the Berlin Crisis.
* Know how Europe became more deeply divided with the formation of two new military alliances - NATO and the
Warsaw Pact. |

The impact of the Truman

Doctrine and Marshall Plan
Kennan’s Long Telegram (see page 15) had confirmed
Doctrine announced Truman’s worst fears. It said the Soviet Union intended
ol EEE EU Ne to spread communism throughout Europe. Truman’s |
Beem aries military advisers assured him that the Soviet Unionwas
aba hE LLLP! not strong enough to fight a successful war against the :
Co eo une West, but Truman knew that the Soviet Union might not
need to go to war to increase its territory and power.
After the Second World War, many European countries
were in ruins. Homes, factories and infrastructure
February 1948
like roads and railways had been destroyed. In these
Sees Nan ol economic conditions, communism looked very attractive
: Czechoslovakia : : :
June 1948 Berlin to poorer members of society because, in a communist
blockade is set up state, the wealth of the richest people would be
redistributed and shared by all. So Stalin did not need to
fight a war. He just needed to influence the discontented
people of Europe to support communism and help set
up communist governments.
January 1949 Comecon
actablished The Truman Doctrine - stating the US
April 1949 NATO position
formed The USA had hoped that wealthier European countries,
such as Britain, might be able to help rebuild Europe's
September 1949 shattered economies (and make communism look like a
Gcrober 1969.Cennian Orceliveninn or less attractive option). But, after six years of war, Britain was
Democratic Republic the Federal Republic of nearly bankrupt and aid to other countries was becoming
established Germany impossible. When the British government announced in
1947 that it could no longer provide military support to the
Greek government against communist guerrillas, President
Truman decided it was time to take action.

On 12 March 1947, President Truman delivered a speech

to the US Congress (see Source A on page 21). The speech
was officially given to announce an economic aid package
to Greece and Turkey. Truman announced that the US
would provide $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey
May 1955 Warsaw Pact and sent American civilian and military personnel to the
formed
region.

20
Extend your knowledge
| |
The Greek Civil War Isolationism*
During the Second World War, the German occupation Staying apart, not getting involved in the affairs of
of Greece was resisted by two separate groups in others. The USA followed a policy of isolationism after
Greece, a communist group and a pro-royalist group. the First World War. It was forced to abandon this policy
After the Germans left, the two groups fell out. The in 1941 when Japan bombed Pearl Harbour. However,
British restored the Greek monarchy and put down a in 1945, when the war ended, many Americans hoped
communist rebellion. When the communists renewed the country would return to isolationism.
their fight in 1946, the British tried to suppress them,
Containment*
but asked the USA to take over in 1947. The communists
were finally defeated in 1949 and fled to Albania. Limiting the spread of something. In US foreign
policy (during the Cold War), ‘containment’ meant
However, Truman also used the opportunity to make preventing the spread of communism outside a small
a clear statement of what he saw as the differences number of countries.
between democracy and communism. He spoke of two
alternative ways of life between which every nation The Marshall Plan - fighting communism
must choose. The first way, he said, offered majority with financial aid
rule and freedom from political oppression. The second
was for the will of the minority to be forced upon the
majority, which Truman said was what communism did.
Truman believed choosing democracy over communism A photograph of American and British officials watching
was like choosing good over evil. He said communism Caribbean sugar, sent under the Marshall Plan, being
unloaded at Woolwich Docks.
should not be allowed to grow and that the USA was
Mas fe f ¥, |
prepared to send troops and economic aid to those
countries trying to resist it.

These ideas became known as ‘the Truman Doctrine’

and signalled the beginnings of a new approach to
international relations for the USA. Before the Second
World War, the USA had followed a policy of isolationism*.
This policy was now abandoned. The USA was setting
itself up as the leader of the fight against communism
and isolationism was replaced with containment*.

From the Truman Doctrine speech delivered on 12 March

1947 to the US Congress. Immediately before this extract,
Truman described American-style democracy as majority
The USA had not suffered damage to its infrastructure
rule and freedom from political oppression.
and industry during the war in the same way as
The second way of life is based upon the
European countries had, so it was well placed to provide
will of a minority forcibly imposed upon the
majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, economic aid to Europe. Three months after Truman's
a controlled press and radio; fixed elections, speech, details were set out on how that aid would
and the suppression of personal freedoms. be provided in a speech by the US secretary of state,
I believe that our help should be primarily
George Marshall.
through economic and financial aid which is
essential to economic stability and orderly
political processes.
 The Marshall Plan was a practical outcome of the Truman Doctrine: providing
economic aid to help war-torn countries in order to stop communism from :
taking over in Western Europe. Between 1948 and 1952, the USA gave Silaii |
billion dollars of aid, in addition to $13 billion already given by the USA before |
the Marshall Plan went into action.

The economic impact of Marshall Aid in Western Europe was enormous,

although it took until the 1950s for the full effects to be seen. The British
foreign secretary, Ernest Bevin, called it ‘a lifeline to sinking men, giving
hope where there was none.

In the USA, there was much debate about whether to offer aid to the Soviet
Key Union and the satellite states. It was decided that it could be offered but (as
@ United Kingdom $3,297 million in Western Europe) countries would first have to agree to a thorough review
WB France $2,296 million
of their finances. However, the USA knew Stalin would not allow this so, in
®@ West Germany $1,448 million
@ Italy $1,204 million practice, Eastern European countries did not benefit from the Marshall Plan.
M@ Netherlands $1,128 million
@ Belgium & Luxembourg $777 million
™ Austria $468 million
f@ Denmark $385 million
Greece $376 million
From a speech made by US Secretary of State, George Marshall, on 5 June 1947.
© Other nations $1,352 million Marshall said Europe could not possibly meet its own needs for food and essential
products for the next three-four years and needed substantial help.
Figure 1.6 The money given to Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine but
European nations under the Marshall against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. Its purpose
Plan was shared out according to should be the revival of a working economy in the world so as to
population and how industrialised they permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which
were before the war. free institutions can exist...

Extend your knowledge »

Smaller-scale Marshall Aid
Marshall Aid was not just loans and grants to governments. It also
involved making direct grants to groups in need. So it included nets for
Norwegian fishermen, mules for Greek farmers and food for starving
people. One hungry boy who received free soup from the back of a lorry
in his schoolyard was called Helmut Kohl. He grew up to be the first
Chancellor of a reunited Germany after the Cold War.

‘Dollar imperialism’ - the Soviet response

President Truman saw his new policy as a defensive measure to contain
communism. Not surprisingly, Stalin did not see it like that at all. He
believed the Truman Doctrine showed that the USA was trying to
extend its influence in Europe. He also thought it was undermining
the international role of the United Nations by suggesting that it was
America’s job to protect the world. Stalin argued that the Marshall Plan
was a way of using economic might to divide Europe in two and establish
an American economic empire in Europe. The Soviets called this ‘dollar
imperialism’.

22
The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan had a huge Communist Parties of the satellite states of Bulgaria,
impact on international relations from 1947. Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland and Romania along
with Yugoslavia, France and Itaty. The strongest support
« Any lingering belief that there was still a Grand
for Cominform came from the Yugoslav communists
Alliance was gone, as the USA had now set itself up
under the leadership of Tito, so its headquarters were
in direct opposition to the communist Soviet Union —
established in Belgrade. However, growing tension
and invited other nations to join it.
between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union led to the
¢ Stalin's suspicions of the West were reinforced. He expulsion of Yugoslavia from Cominform in June 1948.
believed he now had evidence that the USA was The headquarters were then moved to Bucharest in
trying to crush the Soviet Union. Romania.
¢ The Marshall Plan successfully tied Western European
countries into supporting the USA. As Stalin rejected The new body gave Stalin a way of directing and
it (and set up his own economic plan, Comecon - see controlling the governments of the satellite states.
below), Europe was now divided into two economic He wanted to ensure that they not only followed
and political camps. communism, but also took orders from Moscow. The
satellite states were encouraged to concentrate on
¢ The history of Europe for the next 50 years became
trading with other Cominform members and all contact
one of intense rivalry and attempts to win diplomatic
with non-communist countries was discouraged. At
and political victories over political opponents.
Cominform’s first meeting it rejected the Marshall Plan
and began to spread propaganda accusing America of
being no different from Nazi Germany.
/

From a speech by the Soviet foreign minister, Andrey

Vyshinsky, given at the United Nations in September 1947.
Comecon, 1949
It is becoming more and more evident that the Stalin wanted communist states to keep their
implementation of the Marshall Plan will mean independence from capitalist governments and,did not
placing European countries under the economic want the US to become influential in Eastern Europe, so
and political control of the United States
he would not allow the satellite states to accept Marshall
and direct interference in those’countries.
Moreover, this plan is an attempt to split Aid. He also knew that he needed to offer a positive
Europe into two camps, and with the help of alternative if he was to keep the satellite nations under
Britain and France, to complete the formation his control.
of a group of countries hostile to the
interests of the democratic countries. He therefore created Comecon (the Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance) to provide aid in line with
communist principles. Comecon was established on
25 January 1949, two years after the Marshall Plan
The formation of Cominform was announced. Its members were the Soviet Union,
and Comecon Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania and
The Marshall Plan set Stalin an economic and political East Germany. Albania joined the following year.
challenge. He therefore created two new organisations Comecon was in direct competition with the Marshall
for the communist countries of Europe, Cominform and Plan and aimed to support economic development in
Comecon: its member states. At first Comecon’s main activities
were arranging trade and credit agreements between
Cominform, 1947 member countries. After 1953 the Soviet Union used
Cominform (the Communist Information Bureau) Comecon to try to organise industrial planning across
was a political organisation set up on Stalin’s orders all the satellite states. Each state had a Five Year Plan,
on 22 September 1947. It had nine members: the nationalised industry and collectivised agriculture. Trade
Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and the with the USA and Western Europe was discouraged

23
in favour of trade with the Soviet Union and other member states. So, for
example, Bulgaria's trade with other Comecon members increased from
around 10% in the 1930s to over 90% in 1951.

Stalin formed Cominform and Comecon in response to the threat he

believed the Marshall Plan posed to the Soviet Union. However, his actions
actually increased tension and played a significant part in the USA and
Western European countries creating a new military alliance, the North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), in April 1949.

The 1948 Berlin Crisis - testing the West

Europe was now divided into two distinct political and economic camps.
Soon there would also be two military camps, but first Stalin wanted to see
just how determined the West really was.

Germany divided
At Potsdam, The Grand Alliance agreed to divide Germany, and its capital
Berlin, into four separate occupation zones administered by the Soviet Union,
the USA, Britain and France. The division was meant to be temporary but
ended up lasting for many years. The Allied Control Commission (ACC) was the
central organisation for the four zones. There were soldiers on the streets and,
in Berlin, military checkpoints between zones.

Figure 1.7 Berlin and Germany in 1945, divided into four zones, and in 1948, after
the Western zones were joined together as Trizonia.

24
There were disagreements between the occupying powers.
Extend your knowledge
|
The three Western countries and the Soviet Union had
different ways of looking at Germany. The Soviets wanted German attitudes to the Soviets
to take as much material as possible back to help rebuild Stalin hoped that, after the war, a united Germany
the Soviet Union, whilst the Western countries wanted might become communist. But this was very unlikely.
to build up Germany's economy. In December 1947, talks Even in the Soviet zone, the Soviets were not popular.
between the foreign ministers of the occupying powers As the Red Army advanced into Germany at the
broke down and the Soviets stormed out. end of the Second World War, its soldiers carried
out brutal atrocities in revenge for what the Nazis
Uniting the Western zones had done in the Soviet Union. This created deep
With the Soviets no longer co-operating, the remaining resentment amongst many Germans.
allies (the USA, Britain and France) had to decide how
become known as the ‘Berlin blockade’. He wanted to show
to run their part of Germany. The British and Americans
the USA, Britain and France that a divided Germany would
had already combined their zones into ‘Bizonia’ in 1947
not work. The main section of Trizonia in western Germany
and, in March 1948, the French added theirs to create
would no longer be able to communicate with the capital
‘Trizonia’. Although this was never their intention, the
Berlin and the people of Berlin would soon run short of
result was that Germany and Berlin were now split
food. If the blockade was successful, Stalin would win a
into two parts, western Trizonia and eastern Soviet-
huge propaganda success at the expense of the West.
controlled Germany.
It might also mean that the Western powers would give
Then, in June 1948, the three Allies created a single up control of their zones in Berlin and allow the whole of
currency, the Deutschmark, to give Trizonia economic the capital to be controlled by the Soviet Union. This was
unity. The decision to introduce the Deutschmark took a direct challenge to Truman — Stalin knew he could not
place at an ACC meeting in Berlin. The Soviets were ignore the blockade because of his recent speech about
furious about the decision for two reasons: defending the world from communism (see page 21).
The West knew that an attempt to force supplies to Berlin
¢ The new single currency in Trizonia created a separate
along the closed land routes would be seen as a potential
economic unit from the East.
act of war and might lead to direct military confrontation.
* It acknowledged that there were in effect two
However, if they flew supplies into their zones in Berlin,
Germanys: West and East.
the only way they could be stopped was if Stalin had the
To Stalin, this was a further example of the West planes shot down. That would make him the aggressor and
‘ganging up’ on the Soviet Union. He saw the formation Truman doubted that Stalin was prepared to go that far.
of Trizonia as a means of developing the three zones
more effectively and deliberately forcing the Soviet Operation Vittles: the Berlin Airlift
zone into poverty. He was now even more determined
The Western Allies launched Operation Vittles, better
to stand firm and protect Soviet interests in Germany.
known as the Berlin Airlift. They flew food, coal and
He believed Germany should be one united country
other necessities, assembled in the Allied zones, along
and that it should follow communist ideology.
the air corridors. The pilots took a huge risk as they
could not be sure the Soviets would not shoot them
The Berlin blockade down.
Stalin knew that the Western-occupied zones of Berlin
The people of West Berlin and Western troops in the city
were vulnerable, as they were entirely surrounded by
joined forces to build a new runway at the old airport
Soviet-occupied territory. In addition, there were just two
Berlin-Tempelhof, and a whole new airport at Berlin-Tegel,
agreed land routes and two air routes or ‘corridors’ across so that supplies could be landed in the Western zones.
the Soviet zone of Germany to Western-occupied Berlin. Ordinary citizens helped to unload the planes and hand
In June 1948, Stalin decided to shut off the land routes out the essential supplies to all who needed them. The
across Soviet-controlled Germany into Berlin, in what has Americans were soon able to fly in at least 1,000 tonnes of

25
 supplies every day and the British achieved a similar rate. In the peak month of
Extend your knowledge B& flying, January 1949, no fewer than 170,000 tonnes of supplies were sent into
Operation Little Vittles Berlin by Western aircraft.
Whilst landing supplies at
Tempelhof airport, the American On 9 May 1949, nearly a year later, the Soviets gave in and lifted the blockade.
pilot Gail Halvorsen saw children The airlift had worked. Amazingly, there were no Allied casualties, military or
watching from the fence. He civilian. West Berlin had survived. Stalin’s attempt to win a propaganda victory
decided that on his next flight over Britain, France and the USA had backfired. The West had responded in a
peaceful way to what now looked like an unwise and aggressive act by Stalin. |
he would parachute-drop sweets |
to them. Soon other pilots did :
|
the same. Their actions were |

nicknamed ‘Operation Little

A photograph of children watching as a supply plane arrives in Berlin during the
|
)

Vittles’. Berlin Airlift.

:Activities
|1 List the practical steps the
: British and US armed forces
took to set up the Berlin
airlift. What
did citizens of Berlin do to
help the airlift succeed?
|2 Write a short paragraph
explaining why the USA was
so determined to keep the
Western zones of Berlin out
of Soviet hands. The formation of East and West Germany
| 3 Inasmall group, discuss what After the Berlin blockade, it was clear that the division of Germany would
the results might have been continue. The Western allies quickly moved to create a separate West
if: Germany.
a_ The Western Allies had
not launched the Berlin Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
Airlift. ¢ 23 May 1949: Just three days after the end of the blockade, the USA,
b Stalin had shot down the Britain and France permitted their zones to come together as a state
first planes flying supplies known as the Federal Republic of Germany.
to Berlin. * 14 August 1949: Germans in the new country were allowed to elect their
own parliament, called the Bundestag.
* 15 September 1949: the first democratically elected chancellor of the
Federal Republic, Konrad Adenauer took office.
* The Federal Republic’s new capital was Bonn. The new country was much
bigger than East Germany.
* The three Western-controlled zones of Berlin continued and became
known as West Berlin.

26
German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
Stalin responded by creating the German Democratic Republic in October
An extract from the NATO Charter.
1949. Only the communist bloc countries recognised it as a nation. The
Article 5 stated:
Federal Republic refused to recognise that Germany had been split in two
The Parties agree that an
until the 1970s. armed attack against one
or more of them in Europe
For the next 40 years, people would talk about West Germany and East or North America shall be
Germany but, for most of this time, each German regarded their own state considered an attack against
as the only real one. them all and consequently
they agree that, if such an
armed attack occurs, each of

The creation of two armed camps them... will assist the Party
or Parties so attacked by

NATO, 1949 taking such action as it deems

necessary, including the use
Stalin's threat to Berlin and the communist takeover in Czechoslovakia, which of armed force, to restore and
happened in the same year, persuaded the Western powers that they needed maintain the security of the
North Atlantic area.
a formal military alliance to protect themselves from the Soviet Union. They
also wanted to send Stalin a message about their determination to stand firm
against communism.

In April 1949, the USA, Britain, France and nine other Western countries
joined together in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The
members of NATO agreed that, if any member was attacked, all members
of NATO would come to its assistance. The British foreign secretary, Ernest
Bevin had played a major part in bringing about this alliance. He made a
speech in the British parliament in which he said that European countries
would welcome American involvement and called on other Western
European countries to reach out to the USA.

It was not inevitable that the USA would get involved directly in the defence
of Western Europe after the Second World War. The Truman Doctrine said the
USA would offer assistance, but the creation of a formal military alliance was
a major step beyond this. NATO resulted in an ongoing American military
presence in Europe throughout the Cold War, which has continued right up
to the present day.

The Warsaw Pact, 1955

When the German Federal Republic (West Germany) was allowed to join
NATO in May 1955, Stalin’s fears were increased. Now there was a real danger
ofan armed and powerful Germany on the borders of Soviet-controlled
Eastern Europe. Within a week of West Germany joining NATO, the Soviet
Union formed an equivalent communist defensive military alliance — the
Warsaw Pact. The members were the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania and the German Democratic Republic
(East Germany). These countries became known as the ‘Eastern bloc’.
Although the Warsaw Pact had many member states, the leadership was
entirely Soviet and the alliance was under the command of the Soviet Union.

27
There was now no doubt that Europe was, in reality, two
Europes. One was under the protection of the USA and
working to defeat communism. The other was led by the Remember that this question is not asking for a
Soviet Union and seeking to extend communist control. description of an event or policy. It is asking why that
The confrontation and hostility between these two event or policy was important. What difference did it
camps would drive international relations for the next make? Also, remember to focus on the second part of
35 years. each bullet point. So, for the second bullet point, focus
on the ‘future of Germany’. Don't waste time discussing,
for example, how the Berlin Blockade affected relations —
between the USA and the Soviet Union.
Explain two of the following:
_ © the importance of the Truman Doctrine for the Activity
development of the Cold War in the years 1947-55 Challenge a partner to see who can give the best one-
_« the importance of the Berlin Blockade for the minute speech about ‘How the Cold War developed,
future of Germany 1947-55’. As you listen to your partner's speech, list
|* the importance of the formation of NATO for relations any important events you think have been missed.
| _ between the USA and the Soviet Union. 16 marks — | What would you include in a short summary?

In the Truman Doctrine, Truman promised to defend democratic countries against communism.
George Marshall, the US secretary of state, promised massive aid to Europe, launching the Marshall Plan.
Western European countries welcomed the Marshall Plan, but Soviet-controlled countries were not allowed to
accept aid. Stalin set up Cominform and Comecon as rivals to the Marshall Plan.
West Berlin was blockaded by the Soviet Union, Britain and the USA organised a successful airlift to rescue the
city.
The USA agreed to keep their troops in Europe and, with Britain’s encouragement, the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO) was formed.
¢ The Western-controlled areas of Germany were merged to form Trizonia, which eventually became the Federal
Republic of Germany. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic.
* Stalin created a defensive military alliance for the communist countries of Eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact,
in May 1955.

S1 What was the Truman Docteine? ;

S2 What was the role of Comecon?
$3 Describe the events of the Berlin Airlift.

C1 How did the Marshall Plan support the ideas of the Truman Doctrine?
C2 Why did Stalin create Cominform and Comecon?
C3_In what way was the USA's signing of the NATO treaty a significant break with the past?
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? If you feel unsure, re-read the section then
try
again.

28
 Learning outcomes
e Understand how the arms race between the USA and Soviet Union increased international tension.
* Know about the events of the Hungarian Uprising when the people of Hungary attempted to break free of
Soviet rule.

Disagreements over how Germany should be governed

had helped divide Europe into two camps by 1949.
During the 1950s, tension was further increased as al, L7ZIU—

both the USA and the Soviet Union tried to win military November 1952 USA
supremacy. This resulted in an arms race that led to successfully tests
January 1953
each side having such powerful weapons that they could hydrogen bomb
Eisenhower takes office
destroy their rivals several times over. March 1953 Stalin dies
as US President

August 1953 The Soviet

The significance of the arms Union successfully tests

race: Soviet Union v. USA, hydrogen bomb

May 1955 German
1950-58 Federal Republic (West
Germany) joins NATO February 1956
Since developing the atomic bomb in 1945, the USA
Khrushchev, new
had felt secure knowing it was the only country in the leader of the Soviet
November 1956
world with such a powerful weapon. President Truman Union, makes speech
Hungarian Uprising
knew that the atomic bomb was an important counter to crushed criticising Stalin
the Soviet Union's much larger stocks of conventional* June 1957 USA
weapons. However, Stalin instructed his scientists to August 1957 Soviet launches first ICBM
work all-out to develop a Soviet atomic bomb and it Union tests first ICBM (inter-continental
was achieved by 1949. In response, the USA developed ballistic missile)
a hydrogen bomb in 1952. This was 1,000 times more June 1958 Imre Nagy,
powerful than the atomic bomb and restored the prime minister of
American advantage. One year later, the Soviet Union also Hungary, is executed
had a hydrogen bomb. In 1957, the USA developed the
ICBM (inter-continental ballistic missile), which could fire
a nuclear warhead at a target more than 4,500 kilometres
away. Just a few months later, the Soviet Union was
testing its first ICBMs.

Conventional*
Ordinary or normal. Conventional weapons are defined
by the International Committee of the Red Cross as any
weapons that are not nuclear, chemical or biological.

29
 1945 TT ie
USA develops | Soviet Union develops.
the atomic bomb | the atomic bomb

1952 1953
USA tests the Soviet Union tests the
hydrogen bomb hydrogen bomb

1957 1957
USAtests Soviet Union makes
‘inter-continental first successful ICBM
Figure 1.8 Reaction and counter- ballistic missile (ICBM) launch
reaction in the arms race.

A photograph of aUS atom bomb test in the Pacific, in 1951.

The arms race was making each side more powerful, but was it giving either
side an advantage? The development of nuclear weapons was typical of
what became known as ‘the arms race’. Both the USA and the Soviet Union
spent huge sums of money on building up large armies, navies, submarine
fleets and stocks of conventional and nuclear missiles. It was important
to try to stay ahead in the race and stop rivals becoming more powerful.
However, the weapons that were being developed were so powerful that,

30
from the early 1950s, both the USA and the Soviet Union
could have destroyed the world many times over.
A photograph of Nikita Khrushchev answering questions at
This led to a change in thinking about war. Previously, a press conference in Paris in 1960.
weapons and armed forces were developed to win wars.
Now they were being developed to try and stop the
other side from going to war at all. Since both sides
understood the risks involved in using nuclear weapons
they acted as a deterrent”.

Deterrent*
A force that prevents something from happening.
In the Cold War, many politicians believed in the
‘nuclear deterrent’. They thought a country would be
deterred’ from using nuclear weapons if there was a
danger that their enemy would reply with an equally
devastating nuclear attack.
The change of leadership made people on both sides
hopeful that tension between the Soviet Union and USA
New leaders for the USA and the Soviet
could be reduced and that a solution to the Cold War
Union arms race could be found. Two other factors contributed
From 1953, both the USA and the Soviet Union had to this hope:
new leaders. Dwight Eisenhower was elected president
of the USA in 1952 and took office in January 1953. His ¢ In 1950, there had been a war in Korea in which the
presidential campaign targeted communism and both USA and Soviet Union supported different sides. But,
he and his secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, were in July 1953, that war had come to an end.
strongly anti-communist. Eisenhower was determined to Both the USA and the Soviet Union were spending
block any attempt at communist expansion, but he was large sums on their armed forces. Both sides knew
also aware of the dangers posed by nuclear weapons. that reducing spending would be good for their
So he was open to Soviet proposals that there should economies.
be talks to improve the relationship between the two
superpowers. Extend your knowledge >»
Stalin’s death on 5 March 1953 led to a power struggle in The Korean War (1950-53)
the Soviet Union, as Stalin had not named a successor. At the end of the Second World War, Korea was split
It was not until 1956 that Nikita Khrushchev emerged as in two. The Soviet Union supported North Korea
the effective ruler of the country. At the Party Congress and the USA supported South Korea. In 1950, North
in that year, he openly criticised Stalin’s policies and Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations
suggested there should be peaceful co-existence with sent forces to support South Korea, led by the
the West. USA. Since the Soviet Union was supporting North
Korea, the two superpowers found themselves on
opposite sides. They weren't actually fighting each
other, but they became involved in bitter diplomatic
hostilities.

31
 This new optimism was fuelled by an agreement in 1955 on how Austria
should be governed and a summit meeting in Geneva in July 1955. The
meeting in Geneva failed to reach agreement over disarmament and the
future of Germany, but the atmosphere of co-operation at the meeting
reduced some of the tension between East and West.

Unfortunately, the better relations were only short-lived. In May 1955,

West Germany joined NATO and the Soviet response was to announce the
formation of the Warsaw Pact. So the Geneva meeting took place at a time
when suspicion was still growing overall.

The Hungarian Uprising, 1956

During 1956 the people of Hungary began to protest about their lack
of political freedoms and problems created by fuel shortages and poor
harvests. In October, there were riots in the capital, Budapest, and police
clashed with protesters. Soviet troops restored order, but Khrushchev
decided to replace Rakosi with Imre Nagy. He was a former prime minister
who believed that within a communist regime, there should still be personal
freedoms. Khrushchev hoped his appointment would end the protests.

Within days of his appointment Nagy announced a set of proposed reforms.

He reorganised the Hungarian government to include members of non-
communist parties, ending the one-party state in Hungary. He also authorised
the immediate release of many political prisoners and persuaded Khrushchev
to withdraw Soviet troops from Hungary. Khrushchev was prepared to accept
these reforms if they calmed the unrest in Hungary.

Extend your knowledge f&\

Prime Minister Imre Nagy
July Stalinist prime minister,
Imre Nagy became a communist
Rakosi, falls from power
during the First World War, October |n Budapest, protests
when he was a prisoner of war in against communist rule turn to
Russia. In 1944, Nagy joined the 24 October Khrushchev agrees riots
new communist government in Nagy can be new prime minister
Hungary as minister for agriculture.
His support for peasant farmers 28 October Soviet troops withdraw
from Budapest, government
(rather than the state) got him into
promises free elections and
trouble and he was expelled from
3 November Nagy announces freedom of speech
The Communist Party in 1949,
Hungary is leaving the Warsaw
After a public statement of loyalty
Pact 4 November Soviet troops return,
to the Soviet Union Nagy rejoined
after a bloody street battle Soviets
and even became prime minister
regain control
(1953-55), but was expelled again
in 1955.

ae
Khrushchev’s response to the uprising
However, on 1 November 1956, Nagy announced that Hungary would leave
the Warsaw Pact. Khrushchev could not allow this. If Hungary broke away
from the Warsaw Pact, other Eastern European countries might follow. Then
the whole strategy of achieving security for the Soviet Union by surrounding
it with pro-Communist governments would be under threat. Khrushchev
therefore ordered a Soviet invasion of Hungary. On 4 November, 1,000 tanks
rolled into Budapest. Supporters of Nagy put up a fight in what has become
known as the ‘Hungarian Uprising’ and begged the West for support (see
Source C), but no support came. The invading Soviet army acted with great
brutality and it is believed that up to 20,000 Hungarians were killed as the
Soviet forces re-established control. A new pro-Communist government was
set up under Janos Kadar.

Nagy and many of his supporters had believed that Khrushchev’s criticism
of Stalin would lead to a ‘softer’ approach with the satellite countries. But
they miscalculated. Khrushchev could not allow any threat to Soviet security.
Nagy and several members of his cabinet sought refuge in the Yugoslav
Embassy. Kadar, promised Nagy that he and his followers could have safe
passage out of the country, but when they left the embassy Soviet agents
kidnapped them. In July, 1958, the Hungarian Government announced that
Nagy had been tried and executed. Khrushchev described his death as ‘a
lesson to the leaders of all Socialist countries’.

From a transcript of Imre Nagy’s last-minute plea for support as Soviet tanks rolled
into Budapest on 4 November 1956.
This fight is the fight for freedom by the Hungarian people against
the Russian intervention, and it is possible that I shall only
be able to stay at my post for one or two hours. The whole world
will see how the Russian armed forces, contrary to all treaties
and conventions, are crushing the resistance of the Hungarian
people. I should like in these last moments to ask the leaders
of the revolution, if they can, to leave the country... [For]
today it is Hungary and tomorrow, or the day after tomorrow, it
will be the turn of other countries, because the imperialism of
Moscow does not know borders and is only trying to play for time.

Extend your knowledge

Polish protests
- In the summer of 1956, there were also protests against Soviet control in
Poland. Here, the Polish leader, Gomulka, was able to stave off an armed
invasion by persuading the Soviets that, while Poland wanted to make some
of its own decisions, the Poles were totally loyal to the Warsaw Pact and to
communism.
1.3 The Cold War intensifies
vue
wae
.

Source D <
A photograph of Hungarian rebels waving their national flag in Budapest,
Hungary. They are standing on top of a captured Soviet tank.
SS

International reaction to the Soviet

invasion of Hungary
When Nagy had proposed leaving the Warsaw Pact, he and his fellow
rebels expected support from the USA and other Western nations. Radio
Free Europe, a US government-funded radio station, regularly broadcast
messages urging the people of Eastern Europe to rise up against the
communist regime. Since the US had offered financial aid through the :
Marshall Plan, people in Eastern Europe assumed they would be ready to :
help in other ways.

Eisenhower was sympathetic to the Hungarians, and some NATO nations in

Europe did take in Hungarian refugees, but no military support was offered
to the Hungarians during the uprising. The US policy of containment meant
that while there might be a situation where the USA would take military
action to prevent the Soviet Union spreading communism beyond the
satellite states, it was not prepared to interfere in the affairs of an existing
communist country. A military attack on a Soviet satellite state could trigger
nuclear war. This would result in the destruction of both sides — a far worse
result than leaving rebels to fight the Soviets alone.

34
What was the impact of the Hungarian Uprising on Activities
international relations?
1 You area military adviser to
The Hungarian Uprising made Khrushchev's position in the Soviet Union
President Eisenhower. He asks
much more secure and gave him a stronger position in the Warsaw Pact.
for a summary of reasons
Members knew they must do as they were told. If they rebelled they could why he should support the
not expect military support from the USA. Khrushchev also became more Hungarian Uprising. What do
confident in dealing with the USA because he now knew they were unlikely you say?
to risk taking military action.
President Eisenhower says
In some ways, the failure of the Hungarian Uprising reflected badly on the he has received a report from
West. The USA and its allies had encouraged communist countries to stand another adviser with reasons
up to the Soviet Union, but were not prepared to back up their words with why the USA should not
military support. intervene in Hungary. What
do you think the report says?
Even though the USA did not take military action, it strongly opposed the
Soviet invasion of Hungary, and Khrushchev’s crackdown soured relations
between the two superpowers once more.

Friendlier relations at the Geneva Summit had looked like a thaw in the
Cold War, but it was short-lived and the events of the 1960s (covered in
Chapter 2) would make the Cold War even ‘colder’.

February 1948 Communist Major events 1947-56

takeover of Czechoslovakia
March 1953
June 1948 Berlin Blockade July 1955
June 1947
January 1953 | |Stalin dies November 1956
Eisenhower becomes Geneva Summit Hungarian
Marshall January 1949 Comecon
US President Uprising is put
Aid plan established
May 1955 down by Soviet
announced
April 1949 NATO formed Warsaw Pact formed Union

US-Soviet
relations

Freezing

Figure 1.9 Tensions between the USA and the Soviet Union, 1946-58.

35
* In the 1950s, the arms race between the USA and the Soviet Union accelerated, with a massive build-up of nuclear
arms on both sides. Both sides had enough weapons to destroy each other and the world several times over.
¢ In 1953, the election of Eisenhower and the death of Stalin seemed to reduce tension in the Cold War.
¢ When West Germany joined NATO, the Soviets set up the Warsaw Pact.
* Arebellion against Soviet domination of Hungary in 1956 was put down with armed force. The Hungarian
Uprising did serious damage to East-West relations.

$1 What new types of weapons were developed in the 1950s?

$2 What is meant by ‘deterrence’ in the Cold War?
$3 When did West Germany join NATO?

C1 Why did people think there might be an end to the Cold War after Stalin died?
C2 If both the USA and the Soviet Union already had the capability to destroy their rivals by 1950, why did they
keep creating new weapons?
C3 Why did Hungarians think their uprising would receive outside support?
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? If you're not sure you answered them well,
form a group with other students, discuss the answers and then record your conclusions. Your teacher can give
you some hints.

36
 ap: The origins of the ColdWar, 1941-58
pealdize =, = = 3
1 Which countries were members of The Grand Copy the table below, but give it ten rows. Pick ten
Alliance? events between 1941 and 1958 and complete the
2 What years were the conferences at Tehran, Yalta columns to show their impact on relations between
and Potsdam held? East and West. The first one is done for you.
3 Who were the leaders of The Grand Alliance up to
1945? Who were the new leaders in that year?
4 What was the Truman Doctrine?
5 Explain what a ‘satellite state’ is. Formation USA, the Soviet Improved
6 Which countries joined NATO? of The Grand Union and
Alliance Britain join to
7 Which countries joined the Warsaw Pact?
fight Hitler
8 In what year was West Germany created?
1 Write a short paragraph explaining why Britain,
9 What is an ICBM?
the Soviet Union and the USA were allies until
Who was leader of the Soviet Union during the
1945. Why was the alliance difficult? Why did it
Hungarian Uprising?
end in 1945?
2 Explain why Germany was divided into two parts,
including as many reasons as you can.

_ Explain two consequences of the Hungarian Uprising 3 With a partner discuss how far you agree with the
in 1956. 8 marks | following statement: ‘Relations between East and
West were far worse in 1958 than they were at the
end of the Second World War’.

|Remember this question is about consequences, not

events. So don’t spend time saying what happened
during the uprising. Focus on explaining what
happened as a result of the uprising.

37
Writing historically: building information
When you are asked to write an explanation or analysis, you need to provide as much detailed
information as possible.

By the end of this lesson you will understand how to:

¢ add clear and detailed information to your writing by using relative clauses and noun phrases in
apposition.

Relative clause: a clause which adds information or modifies a noun, linked with a relative
pronoun, for example: who, that, which, where, whose.
Noun in apposition: two noun phrases, positioned side-by-side, the second adding information to
the first, for example: [1] Budapest, [2] the capital of Hungary, was the scene of mass protests.

How can I add detail to my writing?

Look at a sentence from the response below to this exam-style question.
Explain two consequences of the decisions made by The Grand
Alliance at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. (8 marks)

This noun phrase is modified by this relative clause: it provides more information about the London
Poles.
1. How could you restructure the sentence above using two separate sentences?
2. Why do you think the writers chose to structure these sentences using a main clause and a relative
clause instead of writing them as two separate sentences?
Now look at these four sentences taken from the same response:
The Soviet Union and the USA failed to come to an agreement on how to govern Poland. Both
countries thought there should be free elections. Stalin thought elections should lead to a pro-
communist government. The US government supported the ‘London Poles’.
3. How effectively is this information expressed? Write a sentence or two explaining your answer.
4. How could you improve the written expression in the answer above, using relative pronouns?
a. Rewrite the sentences, using relative pronouns to link all the information in one sentence.
b. Now rewrite the sentence using relative pronouns to link the information in two sentences.
c. Which version do you prefer? Is the information most clearly and fluently expressed
in one, two
or four sentences? Write a sentence or two explaining your choice.

38
 How can I add detail to my writing in different ways? —
You can also add detail to a sentence using a noun phrase in apposition.
Compare these sentences:
The leaders of the Soviet Union and USA, who were
CL L OUP

This writer has used a relative clause to add information clearly and succinctly.
The leaders of the Soviet Union and USA, Stalin and Treiman, began t6 distrust each other.

_ This writer has used a noun phrase in apposition to add the same information clearly and succinctly.
5. How could you combine the information in these pairs of sentences using a noun phrase in
apposition?

Stalin was highly suspicious of Germany. He wanted Poland to form a buffer zone between
Germany and the Soviet Union's Western border.
Stalin wanted a Communist government in Poland. This was part of his plan to-make Poland
into a buffer zone protecting the Soviet Union.

Did you notice?

6. If you remove the relative clause or the noun phrase in apposition from the two sentences at
the top of the page, they both still make sense. They are also both separated from the rest of the
sentence with commas. Can you explain why? Write a sentence or two explaining your ideas.

Improving an answer
7. Look at an extract from another response to the exam question on the previous page.

The Yalta conference was held in February 1945. The conference led to an increase in suspicion
between Stalin and the USA. The increase in suspicion was due to failure to agree on how
Sle
Agha Poland should be governed. The superpowers did agree that there should be an election to choose
a new government for Poland. Stalin planned to influence the elections. He wanted a pro-Moscow
government to be elected, The USA supported free elections and wanted the London Poles to win
the elections.

a. Rewrite the information in the answer above, making it as clear and succinct as possible. You
could use:
e relative clauses

¢ nouns in apposition.

b. Look carefully at your response to question 7a. Are all your sentences easy to read and
, understand, or are some of them too long and confusing? If so, try rewriting them to make their
meaning as clear as possible.

939
 % Percestiere of the Geneva talks in 1955. International relations became ever
more tense and strained in the following years and 1958-70 was the most
» difficult period of the Cold War. Crises in Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia all
added to the tension between the USA and the Soviet Union.
6} Tension over control of Berlin and a mounting refugee crisis led Khrushchev
to order the building of the Berlin Wall, creating a physical barrier between
* the East and West sides of the city. When the Soviets based nuclear missiles
} on the island of Cuba, within striking distance of the US mainland, tension
ak between the Soviet Union and USA almost resulted in nuclear war. And
*; tension between the Soviet Union and the USA was also increased when the
:Soviet Union sent tanks into Czechoslovakia, to stop reforms that threatened
- Moscow's control of the country.
Te Node WERE SED EC SOT ae eT a

‘ Learning outcomes
*! When you have finished studying this chapter you will:
iss * know Cold War tensions increased as a result of three crises, in Berlin (late
1958-63), Cuba (1961) and Czechoslovakia (1968)
know about the building of the Berlin Wall
know about the Cuban Missile Crisis and how it was brought to an end
know how the Soviets crushed Czechoslovakian attempts to break away
from the Soviet Union
understand how the three crises changed US-Soviet relations.
 Learning outcomes , | iN
¢ Understand why there was a crisis in Berlin, 1958-61.
* Know how Khrushchev tried to deal with the refugee problem and how Kennedy reacted.
¢ Understand how the Berlin Crisis affected international relations.

were constantly monitored by the secret police. In 1953,

‘BerlinCrisis,1958-61 there were riots against the government and the Soviet
government sent an armed force to restore order.
November 1958
Khrushchev’s Berlin
Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that
Lugigaatem May 1999 Geneva many East Germans chose to leave home and move to
September 1959 Lara West Germany. They knew that the quality of life in West
Khrushchev visits USA Germany was much higher and it was easy to cross the
border. All they had to do was travel from East to West
September 1959 Camp May 1960 U-2 Crisis
Berlin. Once there, they could freely travel to other parts
David Summit May 1960 Paris Summit
of the country.

June 1961 Vienna By 1958, three million East Germans, over a sixth of the
Summit - Berlin August ice country’s population, had crossed to the West. Many
Ri caatuntrenewed Construction of Berlin of them were exactly the kind of people East Germany
Wall begins urgently needed to build its economy. Skilled workers,
such as engineers, technicians and teachers left,
knowing that they could earn much higher salaries in
West Germany.
June 1963 Kennedy
visits Berlin

350,000

The refugee problem in Berlin, 300,000

1958
250,000
In 1949, Germany had been divided into two: West
Germany was democratic and East Germany was 200,000
firmly under the control of the communist Soviet
Union. West Germany received Marshall Aid and 150,000
during the 1950s became a prosperous country where
100,000
most people enjoyed a high standard of living. East
Germany received far less aid from the Soviet Union
50,000
and the government's economic policies in the 1950s
were largely unsuccessful, so East Germans suffered 0 I
from a low standard of living and shortages of basic 1949 | 1951 | 1953 1955 LOD 19595196
MEO We)sy2 1954 1956 1958 1960
goods. The communist regime in East Germany was
increasingly unpopular. There were many restrictions Figure 2.1 Numbers of refugees crossing from East to West
on what ordinary citizens could say and do and they Germany, 1949-61.

41
The Soviet leader, Khrushchev, could not allow this
situation to continue. Not only was East Germany
losing valuable people, but communism was facing Extract from Nikita Khrushchev’s speech about Berlin, given
on 10 November 1958.
a propaganda disaster. In Berlin, people had a choice
between the communist East and the capitalist West.
They were making it clear that they preferred the West.
1 Berlin and thereby make it possible to
reate a normal situation in the capital of the
Khrushchev’s Berlin ultimatum rman Democratic Republic. The Soviet Union,
Khrushchev decided the answer was for the whole of r its part, would hand over te.the sovereign

Berlin to become part of the surrounding territory of

Berlin that are still exercised by Soviet
East Germany. lf the Americans, British and French left agencies. This, I think, would be the correct
Berlin, it would be much harder for East Germans to get thing to do.
into West Germany. But Khrushchev knew that Britain,
France and the USA would not agree to leave. They
would have to be forced.

So in November 1958, Khrushchev demanded that This is an extract from a note sent from the Soviet Foreign
Western countries should officially recognise East Ministry to the American Ambassador at Moscow. It was
titled ‘Regarding Berlin’ and sent on 27 November 1958. It
Germany as an independent country. Because they still
became known as the Berlin Ultimatum.
believed that Germany could be reunited they refused
If the statesmen responsible for the policy
Te

to do so.
of the Western powers are guided by feelings
of hatred for communism and the socialist
On 27 November, Khrushchev issued his Berlin
countries in their approach to-the Berlin
Ultimatum*. He demanded that: question as well as other international
problems, no good will come out of it.
¢ Berlin should be demilitarised and Western troops
withdrawn
¢ Berlin should became a free city*. The Berlin Ultimatum had a major impact on
international relations. The West was outraged by
The West had six months to make these changes or Khrushchev’s demands and saw his actions as another
Khrushchev would hand over control of all routes into example of the Soviet Union trying to spread
Berlin to the government of East Germany. communism. Khrushchev, however, saw his demands as
Khrushchev's threat to hand over control of transport essential action to stop the flood of skilled citizens from
to the East Berlin government was a clever move. If this East Germany.
happened, it would force the Western powers to talk
By 1958, both the USA and the Soviet Union had
to the East German authorities and so force them to
large numbers of nuclear weapons and neither side
acknowledge East Germany was a legitimate country. wanted this crisis to lead to war. Even the West German
Chancellor, Adenauer, who was fiercely opposed to
giving East Germany official recognition and believed
Ultimatum* West Germany was the only ‘real’ Germany, was not
prepared to go to war over the issue of Berlin. So
A final demand, often backed up with a threat to take
between 1959 and 1961, a series of talks were held to
action.
try to solve the ‘Berlin problem’.
Free city*
A city with its own independent government. Khrushchev
did not really mean to make Berlin independent — he
wanted it to be controlled by the Soviet Union.

42
 pee ae

2.1 Berlin 1958-63: Increased tension and the impact of the Berlin Wall

The summit meetings of

1959-61 Khrushchev in the USA

Geneva, May 1959 In 1959, Khrushchev made the first ever visit by a
The first summit meeting between the foreign ministers Soviet leader to the USA. He ate hot dogs, met ordinary
of the various countries was held in Geneva, in neutral people, visited Hollywood and seemed to enjoy himself.
Switzerland. Both sides put forward proposals for how However, after a meeting between Khrushchev and
Berlin should be governed, but no agreement was Eisenhower, the American president was not convinced
reached. President Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to that the Soviet policy on Berlin had actually changed.
the USA for further talks.
Paris, May 1960
Camp David, September 1959 As the various parties prepared for the Paris talks, the
Eisenhower and Khrushchev met face-to-face for the Soviet Union made an announcement that destroyed
first time at the presidential ranch. There was still no any chance of those talks being successful. On 1 May,
agreement about a way forward for Berlin but the they had shot down an American U-2 spy-plane as it flew
Soviets did agree to withdraw the Berlin Ultimatum. The over the Soviet Union. The Americans tried to claim it
meeting appeared to establish better relations between was a weather plane that had blown off-course, but the
the two leaders and it was agreed that further talks Soviets interrogated the pilot, Gary Powers, who admitted
_would be held in Paris the following summer. to being on a spying mission. Although President
Eisenhower was embarrassed by what had happened,
he refused to apologise, saying that spying operations
like this were unavoidable. Khrushchev walked out of the
meeting and it ended with no decisions being made.

A photograph of Soviet people looking at the remains of the U-2 spy-plane shot down over the Soviet Union in May 1960.
 After Vienna, Kennedy decided to increase spending on
American armed forces by over $2 billion to protect the
A recent account of the Paris Summit and U-2 incident USA if war broke out. It seemed that, if necessary, the
from the US Department of State Official History website. USA was prepared to fight over Berlin.
Khrushchev had publicly committed himself
to the idea of “peaceful coexistence” with
the United States... [Had] the United States
apologized, he would have continued the summit.
President Kennedy speaking to the American people after
Eisenhower, however, refused to issue a formal
apology... . On May 11, Eisenhower finally
his return from the Vienna Summit.in 1961.
acknowledged his full awareness of the entire We do not want to fight — but we_have fought
program and of the Powers flight in particular. before. And others in earlier times have made
Moreover, he explained that... such spy the same dangerous mistake of assuming that
flights were a necessary element in maintaining the West was too selfish and too soft and too
national defense, and that he planned to divided to resist invasions of freedom in other
continue them. lands... : We cannot and will nov permis vhe
Communists to drive us out of Berlin, either
gradually or by force...,.-Our pledge to that

| Extend your knowledge | iS city is essential to the morale and security

of Western Germany, to the unity of Western
US spy-planes Kurope, and to the faith of the envire free
World.
During the Cold War, the US Air Force (USAF) and the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) used U-2jet-engine
planes to fly spy missions over enemy countries. Many
flew over the Soviet Union, often from USAF bases in
:
Extend your knowledge
President John F. Kennedy
friendly nations such as Pakistan.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was one of the youngest
men ever to be elected President of the United States,
Vienna, June 1961 he took office aged just 43. Born in 1917, he came
In January 1961, John F. Kennedy became president of from a very wealthy family. He fought in the Second
the USA. Kennedy followed a policy of building up the World War and served as a Senator before becoming
USA's military forces, but at the same time trying to President. Many, like Khrushchev, saw Kennedy as
resolve difficulties with the Soviet Union through talks. an inexperienced youth, whose wealth gave him no.
understanding of the real world. Events in Berlin and
Khrushchev believed that as Kennedy was inexperienced
in foreign affairs, it would be possible to get the better of
Cuba proved Khrushchev’s assumptions were wrong.
him. He also knew that Kennedy's reputation had suffered
when an American invasion of Cuba at the ‘Bay of Pigs’ in
April 1961 failed (see page 50). So, at a new round of talks
held in Vienna in June 1961, Khrushchev took a tough Write a paragraph summarising the results of
stance and renewed the Berlin Ultimatum of 1958. each summit held between 1959 and 1961.
2 For each summit, highlight what went well and
Kennedy was extremely concerned by Khrushchev’s what went wrong. In a small group, discuss what
approach, but was determined not to appear weak made some summits more successful than
and not to give way over control of Berlin. He refused others and what would have made the talks more
to make any concessions and once again the meeting successful.
ended with no final decision on Berlin. The personal
3 ‘In reality, the summits were a complete waste of
relationship between Kennedy and Khrushchev became
time’. How far do you agree with this statement?
very strained.
Write a short paragraph to explain your answer.

44
 = Paras

1958-63: Increased tension and the impact

of the Berlin Wall

Building the Berlin Wall Impacts of the Berlin Wall

Khrushchev's tough line on Berlin had forced Britain, The impact in Berlin
France and the USA to get involved in talks about the The Berlin Wall cut through streets and even buildings.
city’s future. However, it had an unfortunate side-effect. While it was being built, many more people made
As tension between East and West grew, so more East escape attempts. One woman threw a mattress out of
Germans decided to cross to the West, just in case the window into West Berlin and then jumped onto it.
Khrushchev decided to close the border. On just one She landed on the mattress but later died of her injuries.
day in August 1961, for example, 40,000 East Germans The West Berlin fire service tried to help others ready to
crossed to the West. jump by catching them in blankets.
The East German leader, Walter Ulbricht, urged By the end of the summer, the wall was finished. Along
Khrushchev to close the border. So on the night of 12 the 27-mile section that cut through the centre of Berlin
August 1961, East German troops built a barbed wire there were (strictly speaking) two walls, one facing East,
fence around Berlin and between East and West Berlin. and the other West. They were separated by a zone
known as“no-man’s land’ packed with booby-traps,
This was only the beginning. Soon work on a concrete
barbed wire, minefields and car-barriers, all guarded
wall, which would stretch 165 kilometres, began. It
by hundreds of lookout towers, with machine-gun
seemed that discussions were over. Berlin and Germany
nests and powerful searchlights. Families, friends and
were to stay split in two and East Germany's refugee
neighbours were parted, often for years on end.
problem was solved.
Sg aa OT
Gee aces. Se ie 0 ee ie ae i

POMC Se
No-man’s land between East and West Berlin.
2.1 Berlin 1958-63: Increased tension and the impact of the Berlin Wall

In desperation, some people tried to cross the Wall. East

German border guards were instructed to shoot anyone
making the attempt and it is estimated that over 130
Look at Source E. Why do you think no one tried
people were killed. One of the saddest failed attempts to rescue Peter Fechter?
to cross the Berlin Wall came in August 1962, when two 2 Insmall groups, choose one of the following roles
building workers made a dash for it. One reached West and prepare a 30-second speech to convince the
Berlin, but the other, Peter Fechter, was shot. He fell rest of your class.
back into East Berlin and lay dying for 45 minutes. As a President Kennedy saying why Khrushchev
thousands of West Germans yelled ‘murderers’ across was wrong to build the Wall
the border, East German guards eventually took the b Khrushchev explaining why he was right to
body away. build the Wall.
3. Which of these views do you think the people of
Source F Berlin would have agreed with? Explain why you
The body of Peter Fechter is carried away by East German think this.
border guards after he was shot attempting to cross the
Berlin Wall into West Berlin in 1962.
Impact of the wall on the USA and Soviet Union
The building of the Berlin Wall had positive and negative
results for the USA and Soviet Union.

af
/ Negative outcomes || Positive outcomes -

“Soviet “Khrushchev had to The Wall stopped |

|Union | abandon plans to refugees leaving for |
| ‘unite Germany under theWestthrough
|Soviet control. _ East Berlin. |
| |The Wall showed that The Wall sent the |
| the Soviet Union had West a message that |
| _to‘lock’ people into | communismwould |
| East Germany to stop | survive in Berlin, and |
| them leaving. Given a that any attempt |
| |choice, they seemed to reunite Germany
| to prefer capitalism under Western |
| over communism. |control would fail.
|USA| The Soviet Union had -The Wall showed
| closed the border _that Khrushchev had
| without consulting been forced to accept
the USA. _Western control in
West Berlin, and that |
_| Those people who did not think he could
wanted to escape :
| _get away with bullying
from communism
Kennedy anymore.
"were no longer able
| to. West Berlin became
an emblem of
freedom and
defiance against
communism.

46
 'a oe | 2.1 Berlin 1958-63: Increased tension and the impact of the Berlin Wall

The positive results for Kennedy’s reputation were demonstrated when

he visited West Berlin in’ 1963. Thousands of West Berliners turned out to noes
see him. He was treated like a rock star or sporting hero — his route was From a speech given by Kennedy on
showered with flowers, rice and shredded paper and crowds chanted his 26 June-1985,1neispeech Was eiven
enact in a public square in Berlin.
Two thousand years ago the
West Berliners were celebrating their freedom in contrast to the restrictions proudest boast was ‘civis
of life in the East as well as the arrival of a famous visitor. During the visit, eee een ee oie ia
‘ CLULACIN oagay, in e€ wor
Ke nn edy praised the freedoms ofthe West euielCol ees them with em SS eee
communism in a famous speech in which he said, ‘Ich bin ein Berliner: (lama boast is ‘Ich bin ein
citizen of Berlin.) Berliner’ [I am a citizen of
Byenaalh lig |]

Source H = ae = se There are

A many people in
Z
ech, on 26 June 1963. the world who really don’t
John F. Kennedy giving the ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’ spe
: z bee pie s understand, or say they
a she - " don’t, what is the great
— be | issue between the free world
= and the Communist world. Let
them come to Berlin.

There are some who say that

Communism is the future. Let
them come to Berlin.

And there are some who say in

HKurope and elsewhere we can
work with the Communists. Let
them come to Berlin.

And there are even a few

who say that it is true that
Communism is an evil system,
but it permits us to make
economic progress. Lass’ sie
nach Berlin kommen. Let them
come to Berlin.

fe

‘Ich bin ein Berliner’

In Kennedy’s 1963 speech in

Berlin, he said ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’.
‘Berliner’ means ‘citizen of Berlin’
( but also ‘doughnut’ - so some
people have argued that Kennedy
literally said ‘| am a doughnut’!
The crowd in Berlin doesn’t seem
to have thought this, or cared if
that was what he said. They loved
Kennedy's message and the fact
that he tried to say it in German.

47
Impacts on international relations
Although the building of the Wall led to increased tension between the
Soviet Union and USA, there were also positive results.
|Write a narrative account
Bie tee nh Rieti
analysing the key events of the
_Negative outcomes Positive outcomes 4
i _ ‘Berlin Crisis’ in the years 1958-61.
|The two sides had been arguing Now Berlin was divided and the
about Germany since the Second borders between East and West _ You may use the following in your |
'World War. Numerous meetings and Germany were closed; there was less answer:
summits had failed to resolve the likelihood that the US and Soviet _¢ the Berlin Ultimatum, 1958
|issue. Now things were so bad that Union would go to war over Berlin. |* the construction of the Berlin
‘the Soviets had built a concrete wall The Americans complained bitterly Wall. |
dividing Germany. This reminded about the building of the Wall, but _ You must also use information of |
people of Churchill’s 1946 speech in as Kennedy said, a wall was better _ your own. 8 marks |
_which he spoke of an ‘Iron Curtain’ than war. |

|
| (see page 16).
So, in some ways, the building of
|The Berlin Wall became a powerful the Wall may have reduced tension
|
symbol of the differences between between the USA and the Soviet Remember that the key to scoring —
_East and West for almost 30 years, Union. well on this type of question is to
_untilit was taken down in 1989. create a coherent narrative that
links together events and explains
However, any improvement in relations was soon destroyed by events in
_ how one leads to the next ina
Cuba in 1962.
logical and structured way.

¢ Khrushchev was worried about East German citizens crossing into West Germany.
¢ Talks between the USA and the Soviet Union about Berlin broke down.
¢ Khrushchev decided to build the Berlin Wall.
¢ Kennedy visited West Berlin to show his support.
¢ The Berlin Wall now acted as a symbol of the division of Europe.

$1 What was Khrushchev’'s Berlin Ultimatum?

$2 Why did he issue this ultimatum?
$3 Why did the Paris Summit in 1960 fail?

C1 After the summit meetings of 1959-61, do you think Khrushchev would have thought Kennedy was a stronger
or weaker leader than he had previously thought?
C2 Berlin is thousands of kilometres from the USA, so why did Kennedy care what happened to it?
C3_In what way could the building of the Berlin Wall have helped relations between the USA and the
Soviet Union?
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? Form a small group and
discuss any questions
you are not sure about. Look for the answers in this section. Now rewrite your answers together
in your group.

48
 Learning outcomes
¢ Understand why Cuba became a threat to the USA.
* Know how Kennedy dealt with Khrushchev’s attempt to put nuclear missiles on Cuba.
e Understand how the crisis affected international relations.

The Cuban Revolution

In January 1959, a group of revolutionaries, led by Fidel Cuban Revolution and t he Cu ban Missile Crisis,
Castro and Che Guevara, toppled the pro-American 1959-63
government of Cuba. President Eisenhower was
January 1959 Castro
concerned about the revolution as there were very close becomes leader of Cuba May 1959 Cuban
links between Cuba and the USA. American businesses government
had invested heavily in Cuba and much of the land was nationalises foreign-
owned by Americans. Cuba’s oil refineries, electricity February 1960 Castro owned land in Cuba
and phone networks and railways were also controlled signs agreement with
by Americans and the USA was an important investor in Khrushchev
Cuba’s main export, sugar. The new leader of Cuba, Fidel January 1961 USA
Castro, was a nationalist who did not want his country’s breaks off diplomatic
August 1961 ‘Bay of relations with Cuba
economy to be under American control. This created
Pigs’ invasion
tension between the USA and Cuba, which grew into a
September 1961
crisis threatening world peace. Khrushchev offers
14 October 1962 U-2 weapons to Cuba
In the aftermath of the revolution, there were three
main areas of tension: spy-plane pictures show
Soviet missile silos
¢ The American government reluctantly recognised the
16 October 1962 June 1963 Telephone
new government, but refused to provide economic
Kennedy assembles ‘hotline’ set up
aid unless Cuba followed guidelines set out by the advisory group August 1963 Test Ban
International Monetary Fund. ExComm, beginning of treaty
¢ In May 1959, the Cuban government took over all ‘Thirteen Days’
land in Cuba owned by foreign nationals. It paid 22 October 1962
compensation to previous owners, but the US Kennedy appears on
government refused to recognise the scheme. Castro national television to
took the land anyway. announce blockade
¢ Castro had already begun appointing communists 28 October 1962
to his government when, in February 1960, he made Soviet Union agrees to
an agreement with the Soviet Union. Khrushchev remove nuclear missiles
agreed to buy Cuban sugar and provide economic aid. from Cuba
There was also a secret clause saying that Cuba would
receive arms from the Soviet Union.

49
2.2 The Cuban Missile Crisis

ee A ee i The USA hoped they would topple the Castro regime |

SourceA — : = —_and put anew US-friendly government in control ofthe |
Fidel Castro and Nikita Khrushchev meet at the United island. The attempted coup was a complete failure, for |
Nations in New York, in 1960. several reasons:
¢ The volunteers had little military experience. They |
received some training from the CIA, but they were no |
match for the battle-hardened Cuban revolutionary
army.
¢ The USA wanted to present the attack as a Cuban /
effort to get rid of Castro. As a result, they could not
send US ground forces or air strikes to support the
attack.
* Castro's government found out about the invasion
plans. There were 20,000 soldiers ready and waiting to
fight off 1,400 invaders.
¢ The USA and the exile army wrongly assumed that
most Cubans would support them. But many ordinary
Cubans felt happy with Castro and did not rush to
lend their support.
Castro showed wrecked aeroplanes and other evidence
of the Cuban victory to journalists from around the
The USA was extremely concerned that a pro-Soviet
world. The American involvement was undeniable and
regime was being established just 145 kilometres from
the defeat became a public humiliation for the USA.
the US mainland and decided to take action to try to
bring Cuba into line. In July 1960, Eisenhower reduced
the amount of sugar
the USA would buy from Cuba and Source OL sa RR << i Sea ee so a
ee = a ~~ NS eS Seana

in October banned all trade with the country. In January Anti-Castro fighters captured during the ‘Bay of Pigs’
1961, the USA broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba. operation.

The USA intervenes in Cuba: the

‘Bay of Pigs’ incident
President Kennedy (who took over from Eisenhower
in 1961) did not want a Communist ally so close to
American territory. He therefore gave his support to a
plan agreed by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and
Eisenhower before he was elected. The CIA suggested
that a group of Cuban exiles could be trained to launch
an invasion and overthrow Castro. Sending Cuban
exiles would make the attack look like a Cuban counter-
revolution, so the USA could claim not to have been
involved.

On 17 April 1961, an invasion force of around 1,400

Cuban exiles landed at the ‘Bay of Pigs’ in Cuba.

50
 oe

2.2 The Cuban Missile Crisis

Effects of the ‘Bay of Pigs’ incident on international Source C

relations
Extracts from a 1961 US government
The ‘Bay of Pigs’ was a humiliating and embarrassing failure for the United inquiry into the ‘Bay of Pigs’
States. The USA had previously accused the Soviet Union of trying to build operation.
an empire in Eastern Europe. Now it looked like the Americans were acting Scrutiny of the plans for the
in exactly the same way to restore American influence in an independent operation would have shown
country by supporting an armed uprising against its government. that Castro’s ability to fight
back and roll up internal
The Soviet Union was quick to point out that the people of Cuba were opposition needed to be taken
more seriously... . Why did
happy under the leadership of the pro-communist Castro and had shown
the United States contemplate
little support for the Cuban exiles’ attempt to restore the pro-American and pitting 1,500 soldiers,
corrupt Batista regime. Khrushchev said this was a clear indication of the however well-trained and
popularity of communism. armed, against an enemy
vastly superior in number
The ‘Bay of Pigs’ incident inevitably led to stronger relations between Cuba and arms. We can confidently
and the Soviet Union. After defeating the invasion, Castro declared himself assert that the CIA had
no evidence that Cubans in
to be a communist and asked Khrushchev to help him defend Cuba against
significant numbers would
any future attack from the USA. In September 1961, Khrushchev publicly join the invaders... . The
announced that he would provide arms to Cuba. project has lost all elements
of secrecy as for more than
President Kennedy was extremely concerned by this. Cuba would now have 3 months the American press
modern military equipment and training from Soviet experts. had been reporting on the
recruitment and training of
If the Soviet Union placed nuclear weapons on Cuba, the USA would be Cubans. The CIA’s name was
under direct threat. Kennedy warned Khrushchev that he could not allow the freely linked with these
activities. Denial was a
Soviet Union to use Cuba as a base to threaten the USA. Khrushchev assured
pathetic illusion.
him that he had no intention of doing so, but the Americans were soon to
discover that this was not the case.

USA

Figure 2.2 Soviet missile bases and airfields on Cuba in 1962.

51
2.2 The Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis

| 1 Why was the USA concerned On 14 October 1962, an America U-2 spy-plane took pictures of what seemed
about Castro’s take-over in to be launch pads for medium-range ballistic missiles, which could carry
Cuba? nuclear warheads capable of causing terrible damage to US cities. American
intelligence agencies informed President Kennedy that a fleet of Soviet ships
2 Explain the American thinking
was Sailing to Cuba, presumably carrying the missiles themselves.
behind the ‘Bay of Pigs’
invasion. Khrushchev had previously told Kennedy that he would not put nuclear
3 Broadcasters love to hear weapons on Cuba. Why did he now take this highly provocative step? There
‘soundbites’. In Source C, were several reasons.
‘Denial was a pathetic illusion’
is an excellent ‘soundbite’. ¢ In Europe, NATO had missiles based in Turkey, just a short distance from
Working with a partner: the Soviet Union. Khrushchev believed it was time for the USA to feel
what it was like to be under threat. It was also possible that Khrushchev’s
a__inas few words as
real aim was to have the missiles in Turkey removed.
possible explain what the
soundbite means The building of the Berlin Wall was portrayed by many Soviet critics as
a failure for Khrushchev. If he could outwit Kennedy over Cuba, it would
b summarise what the
restore his prestige.
report says went wrong
with the invasion. Khrushchev may also have wanted to put missiles in Cuba because he
feared another American attack. If the Americans overthrew Castro, this
would be seen as another defeat for communism.

Swen = St

This photo, taken on 23 October 1962 by an American U-2 sp y-plane, showed that further work had been
done on the missile launch site in Cuba since it was originally spotted on 14 October.

a /
wk
sng
ait

MISSILE ERECTOR i

52
The Soviet Union could have fired nuclear missiles at the USA from their own
territory, so siting missiles on Cuba did not make a great deal of practical
difference. But it made a huge political difference. As far as Kennedy was
concerned, the Soviet Union had to be stopped from siting nuclear missiles
on Cuba, for many reasons. The question was how could he take action
without triggering a full-blown war? Defense Secretary Robert McNamara
advised that the missiles could become operational in two weeks. There was
no time to waste.

There are elections to

the US Congress coming
up in November. If |don’t stand
up to Khrushchev, my Democratic
Party will do very badly

The American people

The negotiations over
will see nuclear missiles
Berlin will get even tougher
in Cuba as a huge blow
if Khrushchev thinks he
to our nation’s pride
can push me around

An extract from a statement made

by Dean Acheson, one of Kennedy's
advisers, at a meeting held on 17
October 1962 to discuss what action
the USA should take over Cuba.
We should proceed at once
with the necessary military
action and do no talking. The
Soviets will react someplace.
We must expect this, take the
consequences and manage the
Invade Cuba? Sink Soviet ships as Situations as they evolve. We
Bomb missile
they approach Cuba? should have no consultations
sites in Cuba? with Khrushchev, Castro or
our allies, though we should
alert our allies.
Figure 2.3 Kennedy's options at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

53
 The Thirteen Days, 16-28 October 1962
Activities
On 16 October, Kennedy called together an Executive Committee (ExComm
1 Khrushchev must have known
for short) to discuss how the USA should react. ExComm met every day for
| that the USA would object
thirteen days, during which the world faced the threat of nuclear war.
to Soviet nuclear missiles
being placed in Cuba. Suggest After several days of discussion, on 22 October, Kennedy decided not to
reasons why this did not stop launch an attack. Instead he set up a naval blockade around Cuba. No ships
him from doing so. would be allowed to pass through the blockade without US permission.
| 2 Look at Source E. Kennedy appeared on US television that evening to inform a shocked US
a Summarise Acheson’s
public about the missiles in Cuba. Many Americans expected the Soviet
point-of-view in one Union to ignore the blockade. Then the USA would have to sink their ships
sentence. and war would follow, Kennedy was aware of this and prepared 54 bombers,
each with four nuclear warheads, in case war broke out. The world held its
Acheson's position could
breath.
well have led to war. Does
that mean the USA was On 24 October, the Soviet ships reached the blockade - and turned around!
prepared to fight the Dean Rusk, the US Secretary of State, told Kennedy, ‘I think the other guy
Soviet Union? just blinked!’

From confrontation to agreement

The Soviet decision not to break through the naval blockade meant direct
confrontation had been avoided, but the Soviets still had missile sites in
Cuba and the USA still wanted them removed. The answer appeared to
come on 26 October, when Khrushchev sent Kennedy a telegram offering to
remove missiles from Cuba if the Americans agreed not to invade.

Before Kennedy could respond, another telegram arrived on 27 October,

saying Khrushchev would remove the missiles only if US missiles in Turkey
were also removed. On the same day an American U-2 plane was shot down
Hawks* over Cuba. The Hawks* in the USA demanded military action, but Kennedy
During the Cold War, those refused to take that route.
who supported going to war
Instead, he decided to ignore the second telegram and agreed to
were known as Hawks. Their
Khrushchev’s proposal to pledge not to invade Cuba, in return for
counterparts, who tried to find dismantling the missile sites. On 28 October, Khrushchev sent his
solutions to problems without agreement.
going to war, were known as
Doves. We now know that Kennedy's brother, Robert had met the Soviet
ambassador in Washington the day before and agreed to remove the Turkish
missiles. However, this part of the deal was kept secret.

54
The consequences of the Cuban Extend your knowledge
;
Missile Crisis Nuclear non-proliferation treaties - who signed?
The Cuban Missile Crisis made clear what could happen The USA and Soviet Union were the most important
if the Soviet Union or the USA continued to follow a countries to sign the treaties limiting the spread of
policy of brinkmanship*. Both Khrushchev and Kennedy nuclear weapons but they were not the only ones. The
had come under pressure to take action that could have UK and France also had nuclear weapons and signed
led to full-scale war. Fortunately, this had not happened up, as did many countries around the world that did
and both countries now wanted to make sure that future not have nuclear weapons. Some countries including
misunderstandings would not cause war to break out. Israel, Pakistan and India, either never signed the
Four important steps were taken: treaty or developed nuclear weapons regardless.

In June 1963, a direct communications line was set

In some ways the Cuban Missile Crisis actually led to the
up between Washington and Moscow. This became
known as the ‘hotline’.
world becoming a safer place. It also led to a change in
relations between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Kennedy
In August 1963, a Test Ban Treaty was signed by
had shown himself to be a strong leader, not only in
the United States, Soviet Union and Great Britain.
standing up to Khrushchev, but also in confronting the
The three states agreed to prohibit the testing of
Hawks in his own government. His popularity increased
nuclear weapons in outer Space, underwater or in the
significantly in the United States, particularly as the
atmosphere. This was an important step towards the
agreement over Turkey had not been made public. This
control of nuclear weapons.
increased popularity gave him more confidence in his
In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty was signed. As dealings with the Soviet Union.
the USA and Soviet Union began a ‘Space race’,
competing to explore Earth's orbit, the Moon and Khrushchev claimed that he had been the victor in the
beyond, the possibility of launching a military attack dispute, as he had guaranteed the security of Cuba (see
from Space was starting to look realistic. In this treaty, Source F). However, this was not the feeling in Moscow,
the USA and Soviet Union agreed not to use Space where the military felt that they had been forced into
for military purposes. The treaty specifically ruled out a humiliating withdrawal. The unpopularity was a
putting nuclear weapons into orbit. significant factor in Khrushchev's dismissal in 1964.
In 1968, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation* Treaty was
signed to stop the spread of nuclear weapons.
Countries that signed up to the treaty agreed not to An extract from Khrushchev’s memoirs, published in 1967.
share their nuclear technology with other countries. We sent the Americans a note saying that we
agreed to remove our missiles and bombers
on condition that President Kennedy gave us
assurances that there would be no invasion of
Brinkmanship* Cuba. Finally Kennedy gave in and agreed to
make a statement giving us such an assurance.
Pushing disagreements to the point where there is
It was a great victory for us — a spectacular
a risk of war. In 1956 a former US Secretary of State, success without having to fire a single shot.
John Foster Dulles, wrote, ‘If you are scared to go to
the brink, you are lost’.
Non-proliferation*
Stopping the spread of something, usually weapons
or armaments.

55
 2.2 The Cuban Missile Crisis

Source G
A cartoon published in the Wash ing ton Post on 1 November 1962.

a
For This T hin
@
“67
ev’ s Get A Lock

A 1962 Herblock Cartoon , © The Herb Block Founda

t lion
Extend your knowledge
Deadly nuclear power | Explain the importance of the
Researchers at Harvard University worked out that if the USA and Soviet _ ‘Bay of Pigs’ invasion for relations
Union had fired nuclear missiles at each other during the Cuba crisis, between the USA and the Soviet
then 100 million people would have been killed in the United States and | Union 8 marks —
another 100 million in the Soviet Union. That would have meant the death
of 53.6% of the population in the United States and 44.6% in the Soviet
Union.

Activities Note the question asks about

importance and also gives you
‘The Cuban Missile Crisis was won by President Kennedy’. With a
a context for that importance —
partner, discuss whether you agree with this statement.
relations between the USA and
Read Source F — does this source make you surprised that Khrushchev the Soviet Union. Don't just say
was sacked in 1964? what happened. Explain how the
Look at Source G. In your own words describe the cartoonist’s view of invasion affected relations. Did it
the Cuban Missile Crisis. Do you agree? make them better or worse?

e The pro-American government in Cuba was overthrown.

¢ The USA supported Cuban exiles trying to restore a pro-American government.
¢ Castro turned to the Soviet Union for support.
¢ Khrushchev decided to site nuclear missiles in Cuba.
e Kennedy set up a naval blockade resulting in a tense stand-off known as the ‘Thirteen Days’.

$1 What actions did Castro take which worried the USA?

S2 Briefly summarise the events of the ‘Thirteen Days’.
$3 What positive things happened as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis?

C1 If you were Kennedy, how would you counter the argument that supporting the ‘Bay of Pigs’ invasion was
foolish?
C2. Why didn’t the USA attack the Soviet ships, bringing missiles to Cuba?
C3 Why do you think the Cuban Missile Crisis is remembered as such as important event?
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? Re-read the section and then try answering the
questions again. If you're still not sure, discuss with your teacher.

5f
 Learning outcomes x
¢ Understand why Dubcek introduced reform in Czechoslovakia.
¢ Know about the Soviet reaction to the reforms.
¢ Understand the impact of the ‘Prague Spring’ on international relations.

The ‘Prague Spring’

The ‘Prague Spring’ and its impact, 1968-69. In 1968, Alexander Dubcek was elected as First Secretary
of the Czech Communist Party — in effect, the head of
January 1968 Dubcek
the Czech government. The Soviet leadership approved
becomes leader of
April 1968 ‘Prague of Dubcek and trusted him to make the government
Czech government
Spring’ reforms begin of Czechoslovakia more effective and less unpopular,
August 1968
while keeping the country completely loyal to the Soviet
September 1968 Union.
Soviet invasion of
Pravda newspaper
Czechoslovakia
publishes speech Dubcek was committed to the Warsaw Pact and a
setting out the devoted communist. He believed that communism
April 1969 Dubcek Brezhnev Doctrine was the right political path but should not make life
dismissed miserable. A communist government should offer
‘socialism* with a human face’. He thought citizens
should be able to enjoy life, express their views in public
and speak out against Communist Party decisions they
Opposition to Soviet control did not like, without fear of being punished by the
In 1948, Stalin had supported a coup in Czechoslovakia government.
which removed non-communists from power and
established a pro-Soviet communist government under
the leadership of the head of the Czech communist Socialism*
party, Klement Gottwald (see pages 17-18).
Communist countries sometimes refer to themselves
Life under communist rule was difficult for the Czech as ‘socialist’. For example, the Soviet Union was also
people. In effect, the country was ruled by the Soviet known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
Union, which used the secret police to maintain control.
The Czech economy was run for the benefit of the
The reforms Dubcek introduced from April became
Soviet Union and there were few consumer goods for
known as the ‘Prague Spring’, after the country’s capital.
the Czech people. There was no freedom of speech and
radio, newspapers and television were censored. On * Censorship was relaxed and criticism of government
Stalin’s orders, the Czech government carried out purges actions was allowed.
between 1949 and 1954 and the victims included not * Trade unions were given wider powers and
only democratic politicians, but also military leaders, government control of industry was reduced.
Catholics, Jews, people with wartime connections with
* More power was given to the Czech regional
the West and even high-ranking communists. Protests
governments.
against the low standard of living and lack of freedom
grew, with student demonstrations in 1966 showing how ¢ Trade with the West was increased.
unpopular the government was. * Czech people were given greater freedom to travel
abroad.

58
 The idea of having multi-party elections was
discussed, though Dubcek and other Communist
The Soviet reaction
leaders emphasised that this would not happen for Throughout the months after Dubcek became leader,
many years. Brezhnev remained in contact, urging him not to
endanger communism in Czechoslovakia by going too
Dubcek's reforms were met with great enthusiasm by far with his reforms. He also ordered Warsaw Pact troops
the Czech people, but they were much less popular to carry out manoeuvres in Czechoslovakia to threaten
in Moscow. Dubcek was careful to assure Moscow that Dubcek. When Dubcek invited Ceausescu of Romania
Czechoslovakia would remain in the Warsaw Pact and and Tito of Yugoslavia to Prague for talks, Brezhnev
was a loyal ally of the Soviet Union. decided to take action.

However, the Soviet leader, Brezhnev (who replaced On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded
Khrushchev in 1968), disapproved of many of the Czechoslovakia and ended the ‘Prague Spring’. There
measures Dubcek was proposing. If these measures was little opposition to the invasion. Brezhnev had
were introduced in Czechoslovakia, wouldn’t the other ordered the Czech army to remain in its barracks, just
Warsaw Pact countries want similar reforms? At this in case it tried to fight back. The Czech people could do
time, Romania was refusing to attend Warsaw Pact little against such a powerful force, though there were
meetings and the Yugoslavian leader, Tito, refused to individual acts of bravery, such as blocking roads or
accept control from Moscow. What if Moscow also lost attacking individual tanks. The invading forces were told
control of Czechoslovakia? that they had been invited to help restore law and order
by the Czech government. They were shocked by the
hostility they encountered.
Extend your knowledge
|
Yugoslavia
At the end of the Second World War, Yugoslavia was
Czech citizens inspect a captured Soviet tank in Prague in
liberated largely without Soviet help. Although its
August 1968.
leader, Josip Broz Tito was a communist, he did not
want to follow Moscow's leadership and in 1948,
Yugoslavia was expelled from Cominform. Tito was
famous for once writing an open letter to Stalin
telling him to stop sending people to kill Tito, or Tito
would have to send someone to kill Stalin.

Movement of
DP Warsaw Pact troops

Prague

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Figure 2.4 The Warsaw Pact troops that helped put down the
‘Prague Spring’ came from East Germany, Hungary and the
Soviet Union.

59
 The Brezhnev Doctrine
To many in the West, Brezhnev's actions looked like
A young journalist describes the moment when the Soviet
an aggressive attempt to dominate another European
troops arrived.
country. However, the Soviet Union justified the invasion
I remember very well the face of the first
Soviet soldier I saw. He was carrying a huge
as a necessity to protect the unity of the communist
machine gun, and looked like he’d just stepped movement in Europe. On 26 September 1968, the Soviet
out of a film about the battle of Stalingrad. paper, Pravda, set out what was to become known
He was very dirty, and his face was full of as the Brezhnev Doctrine*. Brezhnev said that the
sweat. It was absolutely ridiculous, absolutely
actions of any individual communist country affected
absurd. I tried eco: talle co num ibuieat) was
pointless, he wouldn’t speak to me. Even later all communist countries. So if one country’s actions
on, when I did manage to speak to some of the threaten other countries, then it was the duty of those
soldiers, it was useless. They were totally countries to take steps to stop those actions. What
indoctrinated. They believed they had prevented
he was really saying was that all communist countries
the outbreak of World War III or something.
would be prevented from introducing reforms to make
their country more liberal.

|
Extend your knowledge
Jan Palach Doctrine*
Palach was a 20-year-old university student when, on A belief or philosophy.
16 January 1969, he set himself on fire in Wenceslas
Square in Prague as a protest against the Soviet
occupation of his country. He died three days later.
The Brezhnev Doctrine, as explained in the Soviet
newspaper Pravda in September 1968.
Dubcek was arrested, sent to Moscow and ordered to
Every communist party is responsible not only
reverse his reforms. Then in 1969 he was dismissed to its own people, but also to... the entire
from office and replaced by Gustav Husak. Husak was a communist movement. Whoever forgets this is
hardliner loyal to Moscow and introduced a clampdown placing sole emphasis on the independence of
in which over a thousand Czechs were arrested. For their own—~communist party and shirking their
international obligations.
the next 20 years the country was firmly under Soviet-
approved communist rule.

1 In a small group, list as many reasons as you

can for why communism was unpopular in
Czechoslovakia before 1968.
2 Look at the list of measures Dubcek proposed in
the ‘Prague Spring’. Explain how each one might
make communism more popular.
3 Can you think of any reason why Brezhnev
sent Dubcek back to Prague in 1968, instead of
dismissing him straight away?

60
The impact of the ‘Prague Spring’ and the Soviet invasion
|The impact in The invasion ended the ‘Prague Spring’ The authorities soon put things back to ‘normal’,
Czechoslovakia... . 5 ve,
The impact on Yugoslavia and Romania condemned the Soviet invasion, straining relations between their
relations between — governments and Moscow. |
other communist ;
Panne: in The Communist Parties of Italy and France cut links to Moscow.

Europe... The governments of East Germany and Poland welcomed Brezhnev’s actions. They could feel
more secure that they would not be challenged by reformers in their own countries.

The suppression of the ‘Prague Spring’ led to greater Soviet control of the members of the
Warsaw Pact. This was reinforced by the Brezhnev Doctrine which emphasised that members _
of the Warsaw Pact were under the close control of the Soviet Union. |
The impact on The USA and other Western governments were outraged by the invasion and many of them |
relations between made strong protests to the Soviet Union.
the USA and the
|Soviet Union... There was an attempt to pass a formal resolution condemning the invasion in the United
Nations but this was vetoed by the Soviet Union.

The Soviet Union saw that while the USA might make protests, it would not take direct action
to oppose the Soviet Unionin Europe.
The impact on the At this time, the USA was involved in a costly war in North Vietnam and was also beginning to
USA's international adopt a policy of détente with the Soviet Union. Other countries saw that the USA was keen
reputation... to criticise the Soviet Union but much less prepared to take action.

Major events 1958-70

November May 1960 potoeer Bee September 1968

1958 U-2 Crisis Cuban Missile August 1968 BrenenoRon
August 1961 Grisis SoReLARngiCn rezhnev Doctrine
Berlin i Construction
. f Czechoslovakia
xs
Ultimatum : of Berlin June 1963 oS
; Wall begins Kennedy visits Berlin April 1968
‘Prague Spring’ begins

US-Soviet
tensions

Freezing

Figure 2.5 Rising and falling tensions between the USA and Soviet Union, 1958-70.

61
_ Explain two consequences of the election of This question asks about ‘consequences’ so think
Alexander Dubcek as First Secretary of the Czech |
about what difference the election of Dubcek made.
Communist Party in January 1968. 8 marks | |How did his election change things? —

Communist rule in Czechoslovakia became more unpopular.

Dubcek introduced reforms in the ‘Prague Spring’.
Brezhnev warned Dubcek not to go too far with his reforms.
When Dubcek did not halt his reforms, Brezhnev ordered tanks into Czechoslovakia.
The Brezhnev Doctrine was issued.

$2 Why did Brezhnev disapprove of the reforms?

$3 Why do you think the period of reforms is known as the ‘Prague Spring’?

C1 Can you think of any reasons why Dubcek did not reverse his reforms when he found out Brezhnev
did not
approve?
C2 Why did Brezhnev make a public declaration (the Brezhnev Doctrine) instead ofjust telling each satellite
country what he wanted?
C3 Do you think the events of the ‘Prague Spring’ increased or decreased support for communism in Europe?
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? Discuss any you are unsure about with a
partner then try rewriting your answers together.

62
 War crises, 1958-7 Gi

1 Why was Berlin divided? Explain two of the following:

2 Why was the Soviet Union worried about Berlin in ¢ the importance of Kennedy's 1963 speech for the
the years 1958-61? | future of Germany
3 Who were the presidents of the USA from 1958 to | the importance of the ‘Bay of Pigs’ incident for the
1970? future of Cuba
4 Who were the leaders of the Soviet Union from | the importance of the ‘Prague Spring’ for relations
1958 to 1970? | between the USA and the Soviet Union.
5 Why did Kennedy visit Berlin in 1963? 16 marks
6 When did Fidel Castro gain power in Cuba? aad ne pee = re: aa
7 What was the ‘Bay of Pigs’ incident? eer ene @
8 What agreements were made as a result of the
Cuban crisis? Remember that this question is not asking for a
description of an event or policy. It is asking about
9 What was the ‘Prague Spring’?
why that event or policy was important. What
10 How did Brezhnev react to the ‘Prague Spring’? difference did it make? Remember to pay attention
to the context. The ‘Prague Spring’ might have been
important in how it affected life inside Czechoslovakia
Activities
but that’s not what the third bullet point is asking
Write a short paragraph explaining why events in about!
Berlin in 1958 almost led to war. SEI oe
Write a paragraph to explain why events in Cuba
in 1962 almost led to war.
Write a short paragraph explaining why even
‘socialism with a human face’ in Czechoslovakia
was not acceptable to the Soviet Union.

63
Writing historically: linking information
When you explain events and their consequences, you need to show how your ideas link together.

Learning outcomes NX
By the end of this lesson, you will understand how to:
¢ link ideas clearly and concisely, using present participles and non-finite clauses.

Non-finite clause: a clause beginning with a non-finite verb. These can be:
* apresent participle: a verb form ending in -ing, e.g. ‘running’, ‘building’, ‘forming, ‘falling’, etc.
* a past participle: a verb form often ending in -ed, e.g. ‘formed’, ‘happened’, etc, although there
are several exceptions, e.g. ‘ran’, ‘built’, ‘fell’, etc.
* an infinitive: the ‘root’ verb form, which often begins with ‘to’, e.g. ‘to run, ‘to build, ‘to form’.

How can I link ideas using present participles?

You can structure sentences to link related ideas in a number of different ways. One way is to use a
present participle to create a non-finite clause.
For example, look at all the different ways in which two sentences in the example answer below can be
linked to this exam-style question:

Explain two consequences of the election of Alexander Dubcek as First

Secretary of the Czech Communist Party in 1968. (8 marks)

Dubcek. reformed He introduced the idea of

COMMUNISM, Socialism with a human face’.

Dubcek wanted to reform communism, introducing the idea of ‘socialism with a human face’.

This present participle clearly and succinctly links the two points together.
1. Look at the sentences below. How could you link them using a present participle?

Communist rule in Czechoslovakia This led to mass protests on the

became more unpopular. streets of Prague. ll oJ
Brezhnev was determined to re-establish He therefore ordered Warsaw
Soviet control over Czechoslovakia.
a
Pact troops to march on Prague. il oy
2. a. Choose either of the sentences above. How else could you link them? Experiment with two or
three different ways.
b. Which of your experiments expresses the information most clearly? Write a sentence explaining
your choice.

64
 How can I link ideas using other kinds of non-finite verbs?
There are three forms of non-finite verb:
¢ Infinitives (e.g. ‘to open’, ‘to make’, ‘to mean’) ¢ Past participles (e.g. ‘opened’, ‘made’, ‘meant’
* Present participles (e.g. ‘opening’, ‘making’, ‘meaning’)
Compare the sentences below:

Dubcek was determined to give socialism a ‘human face’. He introduced political and social
reforms.
This non-finite clause allows the writer to connect these two points much more neatly.

Determined t6 give socialism a ‘human face’, Dubcek introduced political and social reforms.
Now compare these sentences:
vee
EE
RNG
Brezhnev ordered Warsaw Pact troops to invade Czechoslovakia. He wanted them to restore
Soviet control.
This non-finite verb allows the writer to connect these two points much more neatly.

Brezhnev ordered Warsaw Pact troops to invade Czechoslovakia, torestore Soviet control.
3. Write as many sentences as you can linking these points using non-finite verbs.

Dubcek. introduced social and political reforms.

Brezhnev ordered him not to go too far with his reforms.
Dubcek did not listen to Brezhnev.
Brezhnev ordered Warsaw Pact troops to march on Prague.

Did you notice?

Non-finite clauses can often be positioned at different points in a sentence without affecting its meaning.
Experiment with one or two of the sentences above, trying the non-finite clause in different positions.

Improving an answer
4. Look at the points noted below in response to this exam-style question:

Explain the importance of the ‘Bay of Pigs’ invasion for relations

between the USA and Soviet Union. (8 marks)
The US government had criticised the Soviet Union for interfering in other countries’ affairs.

The US government was publicly exposed as interfering in other countries’ affairs.

The Cuban people supported their pro-communist government against the invaders.
Fidel Castro asked the Soviet Union for support.
Khrushchev decided to place Soviet missiles on Cuba.
a. Experiment with different ways of linking some or all of the points using non-finite verbs.
b. Look carefully at all of the sentences you have written. Which ones work well, clearly and briefly
linking ideas? Which do not? Use your findings to write a final re-draft of the notes above,
~ aiming to make your sentences as clear and concise as possible.

65
 03 The end of the Cold War,
1970-91
The events in Berlin, Cuba and Czechoslovakia in the 1960s had highlighted
) just how far apart thinking was in Moscow and Washington. But one area
| where there was agreement was that the nuclear arms race threatened
the future of mankind. This is one reason why the 1970s saw an attempt
| to improve relations through a policy known as détente. By the end of that
| decade, however, relations had once more deteriorated to a point where there |
| was a ‘Second Cold War’ as President Ronald Reagan took a much tougher ;
approach towards the Soviet Union.
When Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet leader in 1985, he realised that his
country could no longer afford the cost of the nuclear arms race and that
radical changes were needed to how the Soviet Union was governed. Little did
he realise that his policies would bring about, not only an end to the Cold War,
| but also the break-up of the Soviet Union.
ssi : a eee
a eee

When you have finished studying this chapter you will:

* know about the ways the USA and Soviet Union worked together to reduce
the threat of nuclear war in the 1970s
understand how relations deteriorated into a ‘Second Cold War’
understand how Soviet control of Eastern Europe came to an end.
 Learning outcomes
* Know why the USA and Soviet Union followed a policy of détente in the 1970s.
* Know about the series of agreements that reinforced détente.
¢ Understand why détente was abandoned.

Extend your knowledge >

The ongoing arms race
1968 Nixon elected In 1957, the USA developed inter-continental ballistic
President of the USA 1969 Brandt elected missiles (ICBM). Within a year, the Soviet Union
Chancellor of West had them too. In 1960, the Americans developed
Germany submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM). The
1972 SALT 1
Soviets had these from 1968. In the same year, they
1973 Brezhnev visits developed anti-ballistic missiles (ABM), designed to
Washington intercept ICBMs. The Americans developed their own
1975 Helsinki Accords, four years later.
Apollo-Soyuz Space
mission
Why did the USA and the Soviet Union
follow a policy of détente at this time?
1979 SALT 2
Apart from the understandable desire to avoid plunging
the world into nuclear war, both the USA and the Soviet
Union had internal reasons for improving relations in
Déetente the late 1960s and early 1970s.
After the Second World War, an arms race developed
In 1968, Richard Nixon was elected president of the
between the USA and the Soviet Union. Part of this
USA. He was determined to take his country out of the
arms race involved developing missiles which could
Vietnam War, which had cost the USA billions of dollars
carry nuclear warheads into enemy territory. Each
and resulted in the deaths of almost 60,000 American
country’s scientists worked to develop weapons that
soldiers.
would give their side an advantage. Soon, both the
Soviet Union and America had enough long-distance There had also been large-scale demonstrations against
weapons to completely destroy their rivals. With this the war in the USA (which sometimes ended in violence)
great firepower, the result of war would be ‘Mutually and many Americans thought the USA should take a
Assured Destruction’ (MAD). So neither country’s leaders less active role in international affairs. The USA also had
wanted to risk a war which would lead to their own many social problems. Inequality between rich and poor,
destruction. white and black, led to urban rioting on a massive scale
in 1968, triggered by the assassination of the civil rights
However, the Cuban Missile Crisis (see page 49) showed
that even if the leaders of the USA and Soviet Union leader Martin Luther King.
didn’t want to war they could lose control of events: a
devastating war could break out almost by accident.
During the 1970s, there was a genuine attempt to have Détente*
a more co-operative and stable relationship. The policy A period of peace between two groups that were
_ has generally been referred to as détente’. previously at war, or hostile to each other.

67
 A policy of détente with the Soviet Union would allow the USA to spend less
money on weapons and more on trying to solve the social problems that
had led to the riots of 1968.

The aftermath of rioting on the streets of Chicago, in April 1968, after the
assassination of Martin Luther King.

The Soviet Union was facing economic problems and wanted to cut spending
on weapons and devote more resources to improving living standards and
updating its economy.

The Soviets also felt this was a relatively good time to look for better
relations with the USA. They felt they were the USA’s equals in nuclear
weapons capability and the Vietnam War had shown that the USA military
was not unbeatable. Improving relations and spending less on weapons
would be a ‘safe’ policy.

* Wants to focus on ending

the Vietnam War
+ Needs to address social
Both countries: Poor living standards
problems that led to
* Can spend less money on Economy is not
large-scale rioting in 1968
nuclear weapons developing
* Building nuclear weapons is
+ Have more money and time to Building nuclear
expensive.
concentrate on other issues, weapons is expensive.

Figure 3.1 A summary of reasons why the USA and Soviet Union pursued a policy of détente in the 1970s.

68
There was also pressure for improved relations
coming from Europe. In 1969, Willy Brandt was elected
Chancellor of West Germany. He followed a policy of Interim*
‘Ostpolitik’, which involved building better relations Temporary, short-term. The treaty was called ‘Interim’
between East and West Germany. Other European because the restrictions only applied until 1977.
nations followed his lead and began establishing better
relations with East European countries.
SALT 1 had a number of weaknesses. In reality, if nuclear
war looked likely, it was unrealistic to expect it could be
Extend your knowledge > avoided just because the countries had signed a piece
Henry Kissinger and détente of paper, especially as both countries still owned more
One of the key figures in America’s policy of détente than enough nuclear weapons to destroy the other
was Henry Kissinger, who won the Nobel Peace Prize many times over. It was also true that the treaty did not
for his part in negotiating an end to US involvement cover the latest technological development, multiple
in Vietnam. In 1969, the US president, Richard Nixon, independently targeted re-entry vehicles (MIRVs), which
appointed Kissinger as national security adviser and carried multiple nuclear warheads on a single missile.
in 1973 he took Kissinger with him on a visit to the
However, SALT 1 did have a significant impact on
Soviet Union.
international relations. Whatever its faults, it had major
symbolic importance. Both the USA and the Soviet
SALT 1 Union wanted to reach agreement and wanted to
demonstrate their better relations publicly.
Perhaps the most important agreement between the
USA and Soviet Union during the period of détente was Shortly after signing SALT 1, Nixon visited Brezhnev
the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT 1) signed in in Moscow, and in 1973 the Soviet leader came to
May 1972. The treaty was the result of several years of Washington. In 1974 negotiations began for SALT 2,
difficult negotiations between the USA and the Soviet in which it was hoped agreement would be found on
Union about which weapons should be limited. The matters not resolved in SALT 1.
treaty set out agreements in three areas:

The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty stated that ABMs were

allowed at only two sites. Each site should have a
maximum of 100 missiles.
The Interim* Treaty placed restrictions on the number
of ICBMs and SLBMS each country could have. The
USA was allowed 1,054 ICBMs and 740 SLBMs. The
Soviet Union was allowed 1,618 ICBMs and 740 SLBMs.
The Soviet Union was allowed more ICBMs because
the USA already had more strategic bombers.
The Basic Principles Agreement laid down rules for
the conduct of nuclear warfare (such as banning
the placing of warheads on the seabed) and set
out steps for avoiding a nuclear war. For example,
both countries agreed to exercise restraint in their
relations and if war looked likely, ‘to make every effort
to avoid this risk’.

69
 3.1 Attempts to reduce tension between East and West, 1969-79

Activities ? Source B
1 Write a paragraph explaining President Nixon with the Soviet leader, Brezhnev during their meeting at the
why the USA and the Soviet White House in 1973.
Union decided to follow a
policy of détente in the 1970s.
2 Pick one of the following
statements and prepare a
short talk (no more than 30
seconds) in support of the
statement:
a SALT 1 was a valuable
move towards world
peace.
b SALT 1 had too many
weaknesses to be
considered a valuable
agreement.

The Helsinki Accords, 1975

In 1973, 33 nations from NATO and the Warsaw Pact met to build on the
spirit of co-operation which had been established in SALT 1. In August
1975,
an announcement was made to say agreement had been reached in
three
areas, which the conference organisers described as ‘baskets’:

|
area |
We will continue to work for closer We will respect human rights
Borders are inviolable, they relations between Western and and individual freedoms such
cannot be altered by force. as free speech, religion, and
Soviet-controlled countries. This
will include trade agreements, free movement across Europe.
technology exchanges anda joint Ss
Space mission.

Figure 3.2 The main

agreements covered in the
three ‘baskets’ of the Helsinki Accords.
 The Soviet-American team of astronauts and cosmonauts that worked on the
Apollo-Soyuz mission of 1975.

Basket 1 was very significant as this was the first time that the boundaries
between East and West Germany and the existing boundaries of the Soviet-
controlled countries were formally accepted.

The spirit of co-operation described in Basket 2 was followed up that same

year with a joint USA-Soviet Space mission.

The Helsinki Accord was the high point of détente. It seemed to mark the Comments made by the Soviet
dawn of a new approach to international relations. But even in drawing up Ambassador to the United Nations

the agreements, the USA and the Soviet Union were still, to some extent, about the Helsinki Accords.

playing Cold War politics. The members of the Politburo

read the full text. They had
What Brezhnev wanted from the agreements was recognition of existing no objections when they read
the first and second sections.
borders and an opportunity to boost the Soviet economy. So while he was
When they got to the third
very pleased with Baskets 1 and 2, some American politicians were very ‘humanitarian’ section, their
unhappy with them (see Source D). hair stood on end. Some said
it was a complete betrayal
What the USA wanted was an extension of human rights into Soviet- of communist ideology. But
controlled territories, which would undermine communist authority and Gromyko came up with this
argument. The main thing
weaken the power of the Soviet Union. So, while the Americans were pleased
about the Helsinki treaty
with Basket 3, the Soviets were concerned that organisations would be set is the recognition of the
up to monitor Soviet policies in its satellite states (see Source E). borders. That is what we
shed our blood for in the
Great Patriotic War. All 35
Signatories are now saying
The Helsinki Accords were signed by President Gerald Ford on behalf of the USA. these are the borders of
History will judge this conference not by what we say here today, but by what we Europe. As for human rights,
Gromyko said, ‘Well, who’s
do tomorrow. Not by the promises we make, but by the promises we keep.
the master of this house? We
Mr. Ford flew halfway round the world to sign an agreement at are the master and it will
Helsinki which placed the American seal of approval on the Soviet be up to us how we decide to
Empire in Eastern Europe. act. Who can force us?’

71
 SALT 2
Talks working towards a second SALT continued until 18 June 1979, when
President Carter for the USA and President Brezhnev for the Soviet Union
signed a highly complex and technical agreement. It included restrictions
on missile launchers and strategic bombers, as well as a ban on testing or
deploying new types of ICBM.

However, the improved relations between the Soviet Union and USA that had
existed for much of the 1970s were beginning to fade.

¢ Inthe USA, there was a growing belief amongst both Democrats

(President Carter's party) and Republicans that the Soviet government
could not be trusted. There had been an increase in Soviet support for
communist groups in countries such as El Salvador, Nicaragua and Angola.
Any agreement with the Soviet Union was seen by some Americans as a
sign of weakness.
¢ In November 1979, Islamic militants captured the American embassy
in Tehran (capital of Iran). American diplomats and their families were
publically humiliated and more than 60 of them held hostage for 444
days. Many angry Americans wanted to see an end to détente and for
America to restore its position as a powerful nation that took strong
measures against anyone threatening its interests.
e Even within President Carter’s own administration, advisers such as
Zbigniew Brzezinski called for a stronger stance to be taken against the
Soviet Union.
¢ Finally, in December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, bringing
the period of détente to an end.

When the Soviet Union entered Afghanistan, SALT 2 was still going through
the process of ratification* by the American government. President Carter
felt he could no longer support the treaty and it was withdrawn from the
Senate.

Activities
1 Agreement was made on three ‘baskets’ at Helsinki. Which one do you
Ratification* think was the most important for relations between the USA and the
Formal approval. If the Senate Soviet Union? Explain your answer.
had ratified SALT 2, the terms Some historians thought that the seizure of American hostages in Iran
would have become official US helped bring an end to détente. Can you explain the link between the
policy. two events?

72
|
_ Write a narrative account analysing the key events of |Remember that the key to scoring well on this type
|détente in the years 1970-79. | of question is to create a coherent narrative that links
|You may use the following in your answer: | together events and explains how one leads to the
és SALT 11972 | next in a logical and structured way.

_« The Helsinki Accords, 1975.

|
_ You must also use information of your own. 8 marks |

¢ The events of the 1960s had worried world leaders about the threat of nuclear war.
¢ The arms race increased that worry.
¢ Both the USA and the Soviet Union had domestic reasons for wanting to improve relations.
¢ There was a series of agreements to limit nuclear weapons in the 1970s.
¢ By the end of the 1970s, the spirit of co-operation had died.

$1 What was ‘MAD’?

S2 What were the weaknesses of SALT 1?
$3 Why was SALT 2 not ratified by the USA?

C1 Why was ‘MAD’ not necessarily bad?

C2 How did the policy of ‘Ostpolitik’ influence events in the 1980s?
C3 What different aims did world leaders have in the Helsinki Accords.
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? Form a small group and discuss any questions
you are not sure about. Look for the answers in this section. Now rewrite your answers as a group.

73
 Learning outcomes x |
¢ Know why the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.
e Understand how the invasion affected international relations.
¢ Know about Ronald Reagan’s role in the ‘Second Cold War’.

The Soviet invasion of

Afghanistan, 1979
1979 Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan
Why was the Soviet Union interested in
Afghanistan? <
Afghanistan was viewed by the Soviet Union as an
1980 Carter Doctrine,
important neighbour. In 1979, a revolution in Iran
US boycott of Moscow deposed the Shah*. He was replaced by a Muslim
Olympics, the election fundamentalist government. Afghanistan now formed
of Ronald Reagan, the an important buffer between Iran and the Soviet
beginning of a ‘Second Union. Moscow was determined not to let Muslim
1981 Martial law Cold War’ fundamentalism spread across its borders: the Soviet
declared in Poland
Union had many Muslim citizens. To protect Soviet
interests, it was important to ensure that there was a
pro-Soviet government in Afghanistan.
1982 Death of
Brezhnev
Shah* —
King or emperor. lran was ruled by shahs until the
1983 SDI announced by 1979 revolution.
President Reagan

1984 Soviet boycott of

Los Angeles Olympics

PERSIAN '
GULF

ARABIAN SEA

Figure 3.3 Afghanistan in 1979 and its borders with the

Soviet Union, Pakistan and Iran.

14
Build-up to the invasion Extend your knowledge by
In April 1978, a pro-Soviet government took control in Afghanistan and
The mujahideen and the Afghan
received economic assistance from Moscow. It was toppled in September
War
1979 when Hafizullah Amin staged a popular coup. At first, Moscow
The Muslim guerrilla fighters who
supported Amin, but his government became increasingly unpopular as
fought against the government of
other pro-Muslim factions tried to overthrow him. When Brezhnev heard
Amin and then the government
rumours that Amin was talking to the USA about possible American support,
of Babrak Kamal and the Soviet
he decided to act.
invasion force were known as the
On 24 December 1979, Soviet forces invaded Afghanistan. They claimed mujahideen. Their war against
that they had been invited in by Amin to support his government against the Soviet Union lasted until the
terrorists. However, Amin was assassinated on 27 December (almost certainly Soviets withdrew in 1989. During
by Soviet commandos) and replaced by the pro-Soviet Babrak Kamal. The this period, the USA supplied the
Soviets remained in Afghanistan for almost ten years, fighting opponents of mujahideen with weapons and
Babrak Kamal. billions of dollars. For the Soviet
Union, the financial cost was
approximately $8 billion a year
and some 15,000 Soviet troops
Afghan mujahideen standing on a captured Soviet tank, 18 January 1980.
were killed. Civilian casualties
were enormous, with some
estimates suggesting as many as
1.5 million deaths.

The American reaction

The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to protect its interests ina
neighbouring state. It saw the situation as very similar to that in
Czechoslovakia (see Chapter 2). But the Americans believed this was an
example of the Soviet Union attempting to spread communism abroad,
which they had worked to resist.

President Carter went as far as to claim the invasion posed the biggest
threat to world peace since the end of the Second World War. He withdrew Economic sanctions*
the SALT 2 proposal (page 72) from the Senate and increased spending on Measures taken to damage
arms. In his state of the union speech to the American people in January a country’s economy, usually
1980, he said that the USA would repel by force, if necessary, any threat to involving a trade ban.
American interests in the Persian Gulf. This became known as the Carter

(fe:
Doctrine and was deliberately modelled on the Truman In the 1980 presidential election in the USA, the
Doctrine (page 20) to show its importance. Carter also Republican candidate, Ronald Reagan, ridiculed
imposed economic sanctions* on the Soviet Union and President Carter as weak and argued that the time
began sending weapons and funds to the mujahideen. had come for America to reclaim its position on the
world stage and stand up to communism. He won a
The impact of the invasion on USA-Soviet landslide victory.
relations Although US-Soviet relations were becoming more
Détente was already close to breaking up before the confrontational, the invasion of Afghanistan made
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. After the invasion it was confrontation more of a certainty. It helped bring about
finished. Some historians argue that the Americans the election of a US president who believed communism
deliberately over-reacted to the Soviet invasion because was ‘evil’ and should be actively opposed.
they were looking for a way to ‘get out’ of détente. If so,
they had found their way.

Cause and Consequence (2c)

Far-reaching consequences
Most events have multiple consequences. Their impact can often be felt in many different ‘strands’ of history, e.g.
the Wall Street Crash had economic consequences, but also affected society, politics and international relations.
The Soviet Union's decision to invade Afghanistan was a significant event in the Cold War that had consequences
in several different areas.

1 How many consequences have been identified? Do you think this list is complete? If no, what has been
missed?
2 Suggest a category (e.g. international relations, government, social, economic) for each consequence. How
many categories have you ended up with?
3 Which of these consequences do you think the Soviet Union might have intended when the invasion of
Afghanistan was planned?
Which of the consequences might a historian writing a history of the Cold War not refer to? Explain your
answer.
Write one historical question about the invasion of Afghanistan that might require the historian
to know about
all these consequences in order to answer it well.

16
The Olympic boycotts Ronald Reagan and the ‘Second
In protest against the invasion of Afghanistan, the
USA led a boycott of the 1980 Olympic Games, which Cold War’
was held in Moscow. Over 60 nations supported the US
boycott. Reagan’s policies
President Reagan's tougher approach towards the
This was a highly significant move as the Olympic
Soviet Union led to a period of tense and hostile
Games are a global event, which the Soviet Union was
relations that is often referred to as the ‘Second Cold
hoping to use to promote communism to the huge
War’. In reality, the change had already begun under
television audience who would watch the Olympics
President Carter, but it became much more obvious
around the world. The boycott reflected the influence
under Reagan.
that the USA had in international affairs. All countries
looked forward to the Olympics, and telling their ¢ Reagan's mind-set was made clear in a speech to a
athletes not to go was not an easy thing to do. Some Christian group in 1983, in which he described the
countries, including Britain, did not prevent athletes Soviet Union as an ‘evil empire’ and said that the USA
from going, but did encourage them not to take part. represented the forces of ‘good’.
Others allowed athletes to take part as individuals, ¢ Reagan persuaded the US Congress to boost
rather than officially representing their country. But America’s armed forces by increasing spending on
American athletes were told that if they tried to travel to arms. In 1982, 13% more was spent, with a further
Moscow, their passports would be taken away. 8% in 1983 and 1984. New weapons such as Trident
submarines and Stealth bombers were developed.
The boycott was so effective that with many of the
best athletes staying away, some events at the Moscow ¢ He announced the ‘Reagan Doctrine’: the USA would
games were made to look second-rate. The Soviet not only support anti-communist governments, but
Union was extremely angry that its chance to showcase also anti-communist groups trying to overthrow
communism to the world had been undermined and communist governments. In line with this doctrine,
relations with the USA deteriorated even further. support was given to insurgent groups in Central
American countries including El Salvador and
This was a significant moment in the ‘Second Cold Nicaragua. US forces also invaded the Caribbean
War’. Relations were so poor that even four years later, island of Grenada and toppled the communist
when it was the USA’s turn to hold the Olympics in Los government there. Reagan described this as the first
Angeles, in 1984, the Soviet Union led a boycott of the ‘rollback’ of communist influence since the Second
games which was joined by 15 communist countries. World War.

The Strategic Defense Initiative

Activities President Reagan knew that the Soviet economy was
1 Why did the Soviet Union invade Afghanistan? - struggling. So by increasing spending and support
2 What were the consequences of that invasion for for anti-communists, he knew he could create real
international relations? difficulties for the Soviet Union. It would need to find
extra funding to counter the USA.
You have been appointed by Ronald Reagan to
run his campaign against President Carter. Your In 1983, Reagan announced a new policy that would
message is ‘Carter has been soft on the Soviets’. place Soviet spending under even more pressure. The
What arguments would you use to support your Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), or ‘Star Wars’ as it
message? was popularly called, would place a series of satellites

77
3.2 Flashpoints in superpower relations, 1979-84

in orbit. These satellites would carry powerful lasers that could shoot down
Soviet missiles and prevent them from harming the USA. This was, of course,
against the terms of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty (see page 55). Reagan
spoke of SDI as a reality and did not admit to the world that the new system
was years from being ready.

In Moscow, the news of the development was a complete shock. The Soviet
Union had devoted huge resources to catching up with American missile
technology. Now their missiles would be redundant and a new system was
needed.

SDI was a significant turning point both in the arms race and the Cold War.
The Soviet Union's leaders knew that they would have to invest huge sums
to develop an equivalent system to SDI. The USA had made major advances
in computer technology and the Soviet Union would have to catch up before
it could even begin to consider building its own SDI system. But the Soviet
economy was not strong enough. This was one important factor behind the
‘new thinking’ of Mikhail Gorbachev when he became Soviet leader in 1985.

Source B
Ronald Reagan announcing SDI in a televised address to the nation on 23 March
1983,

Look at Source B. What does

the image on the easel show? |
Source B is a still froma
television address to the
nation. Suggest reasons why
the image on the easel has
been placed there.
What was the Soviet reaction
to the announcement of SDI?
Why did it have such a major
impact on relations between
the USA and Soviet Union?

78
 i
An extract from Ronald Reagan's autobiography, published Explain the importance of the Soviet invasion of
in 1990. _ Afghanistan for relations between the USA and the
During the late seventies, I felt our country Soviet Union. 8 marks
had begun to abdicate* its historical role aaa SRT Eos oe
as the spiritual leader of the Free World
and its foremost defender of democracy...
Predictably, the Soviets had interpreted our
hesitation as reluctance to act and had tried
to exploit it in their agenda to achieve a The question asks about importance and also gives |
communist-dominated world... . I deliberately you a context for that importance - relations between
set out to say some frank things about the the USA and the Soviet Union.So you are not asked
Soviets to let them know there were some new
to say why the Soviet Union invaded or how difficult
fellows in Washington.
they found it to win. Explain how the invasion
affected relations. Did it make them better or worse?

Abdicate*
To step down from office or power.

¢ The Soviet Union was concerned about nationalism in Afghanistan.

¢ The USA saw Soviet intervention in Afghanistan as spreading communism.
¢ Relations between the USA and the Soviet Union deteriorated.
¢ Ronald Reagan was elected with a ‘get tough on the communists’ policy.
e A ‘Second Cold War’ began.

S1 Who were the mujahideen? _

$2 What was the Carter Doctrine?
$3 Explain how ‘SDI’ was supposed to work.

C1 Why might some people argue that the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan served American purposes?
C2 How did Reagan’s attitude to the Soviet Union differ from that of his predecessors?
C3 How important was ‘SDI’ in.changing relations between the USA and the Soviet Union?
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? Form a small group and discuss any questions
you are not sure about. Look fonthe answers in this section. Now rewrite your answers as a group.

19
 Learning outcomes : iN
¢ Understand the impact of the arms race on the Soviet economy.
¢ Know about Gorbachev's ‘new thinking’ and its impact on international relations.
* Know about the end of the Cold War and the break-up of the Soviet Union.

¢ Meanwhile, Soviet troops carried out manoeuvres

along the Polish border, ready to invade, if necessary.
In other Soviet satellite states, opposition to.
communist rule was only kept in check by the tight
1985 Gorbachev
control of secret police forces, for example, the Stasi
becomes Soviet leader,
Geneva Summit 1986 Reykjavik Summit in East Germany and Securitate in Romania.
e The Soviet Union had suffered from poor leadership
1987 Intermediate-
for many years.
Range Nuclear Force
1988 Moscow Summit Treaty (INF)
¢ In recent years there had been a run of leaders in
poor health, who ruled briefly and did not have time
1989 Fall of Berlin Wall to make useful plans for the future. Brezhnev died in
1982 after a long illness. His successor Andropov died
1990 Gorbachev wins
in 1984. Chernenko followed and died a year later.
Nobel Prize
1991 Gorbachev
overthrown, Soviet
Union dissolves
Extend your knowledge >»
The Chernobyl disaster
In the early hours of 26 April 1986, there was an
Gorbachev's new thinking explosion in one of four nuclear reactors at the
Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union in Chernobyl power station in the Soviet Union. The
March 1985. At this time, the Soviet Union was facing a blast released more than one hundred times the
number of serious problems: radiation released by the Hiroshima atomic bomb.
The Soviet authorities were reluctant to release full
¢ During the Brezhnev era, huge sums were spent
details of what happened, but we now know that
on developing arms to keep pace with the USA.
over 350,000 people were moved out of the area to
Investment in the Soviet economy was low. There was
avoid radiation. Only 31 people died at the time, but
barely any industrial growth in the Soviet Union or its
it has been much more difficult to know how many
satellite states in the mid-1980s. Standards of living people have died from cancers caused by radiation.
in the East were nowhere near what could be found in The environmental group, Greenpeace, estimates that
the West.
there will be 93,000 extra cancer deaths because of
¢ Low standards of living and the lack of human rights the explosion. However, despite the contamination,
were leading to unrest in some satellite states. In wildlife thrives in the exclusion zone. |
Poland, the trade union ‘Solidarity’ posed such a
threat to the communist government that it was
banned. In 1981 the authorities declared martial law.

80
Gorbachev knew that things had to change and is said to have told his
wife in 1985, ‘We can't go on living like this’ He was determined to reform
communism in the Soviet Union and introduced a series of policies that would Perestroika*
have a major impact on Soviet foreign policy and relations with the USA. Russian for ‘reconstruction’ It
was used in the Gorbachev era
* Gorbachev proposed that the Soviet state and economy should be
reformed to include some of the practices that made capitalism to describe his programme for
reorganising and restructuring
successful. This was called perestroika’*.
the Soviet state.
* There should also be more openness and less corruption in government.
People should not need to fear the state or fear expressing their opinions Glasnost*
(see Source A). This policy of glasnost* would allow opposition to the Russian for ‘openness’ or
government and give the people a better understanding of how the ‘transparency’. In the 1980s and
country was run. 1990s, it was used to describe
¢ The Brezhnev Doctrine (see page 60), which had dominated the Soviet Gorbachev's new, more open,
Union's relations with its satellite states and the West since the time of attitude to government and
the ‘Prague Spring’, would now be dropped. The Soviet Union would no foreign relations.
longer get involved in the domestic affairs of other communist countries.
¢ The Soviet Union would reduce spending on arms and defence and
withdraw from Afghanistan.
A joke from the Soviet era.
A frightened man came to the
The American response KGB.
At the same time as Gorbachev was adopting new policies in the Soviet
‘My talking parrot has
Union, there was a change of thinking in the USA.
disappeared.’

When Ronald Reagan had started his term as president in 1981, he promised ‘That’s not the kind of
that he would stand tough against communism. He had brought about case we handle. Go and make
a ‘Second Cold War’ with an increase in spending on arms and a more a report at the police
station.’
confrontational approach to the Soviet Union. However, when Gorbachev
became Soviet leader in 1985, relations between the USA and the Soviet ‘Excuse me, of course I know
Union changed. Here was a Soviet leader who was not looking to expand that I need to talk to the
police. I’ve come here to
communism, but instead, was determined to reform the Soviet Union from
make an official statement
the inside, and moreover to work with the USA to reduce Cold War tensions. that I completely disagree
with the parrot.’
Reagan saw that there was a real opportunity to end the Cold War and to
adopt a more open approach to the Soviet Union, whilst at the same time
sticking to his overall aim.

Gorbachev's new thinking in action

During the first four years of Gorbachev's leadership of the Soviet Union,
significant steps were made to bring about further limitations on nuclear
weapons.

81
 Geneva Summit
November 1985
Before the Geneva Summit, Gorbachev appointed a new foreign minister, Eduard Shevardnadze, to
replace the old hardliner, Andrei Gromyko. At Geneva, Gorbachev and Reagan met for the first time.
Outcome
No formal agreements but Reagan and Gorbachev established a good working relationship, and a
mutual desire to improve relations between their countries.

Reykjavik Summit
October 1986
Gorbachev was worried about the danger that nuclear weapons posed to the world. His desire to reduce
the world stockpile of nuclear arms may well have been strengthened when the Chernobyl nuclear
power plant in Ukraine exploded in April 1986. Large swathes of the Soviet Union and beyond were
affected by nuclear fallout. In Reykjavik, Gorbachev proposed phasing out nuclear weapons if the
Americans gave up their SDI program.
Outcome
Both leaders knew that the Americans could not agree to give up SDI. Once again, the meeting broke up
with no formal agreement but an improvement in relations.

Washington Summit : a
December 1987
Gorbachev had now accepted that the Americans were not going to scrap SDI, and that his country's best
interests lay in agreements on disarmament, reducing spending on weapons and better relations with
the West.
Outcome
This was the first US-Soviet summit to lead to the signing of a formal treaty — the Intermediate-Range
Nuclear Force (INF) Treaty. The treaty said that both countries would abolish all land-based missiles with a
range of 500-5,500 km.

Moscow Summit
1988
In this summit, some complex detail related to the INF treaty was resolved. Later in the year, Gorbachev
travelled to the USA, where he made a speech at the United Nations announcing a reduction in Warsaw
Pact troops and that Soviet forces would leave Afghanistan.
<a ‘

Malta Summit
1989 x
At Malta, Gorbachev met with the new American president, George Bush.
Outcome
No new agreements were made, but both the USA and the Soviet Union saw this meeting as marking the
end of the Cold War.
Gorbachev said, 'l assure the President of the United States that | will never start a hot war against the
USA. We are at the beginning of a long road to a lasting, peaceful era. The threat of force, mistrust,
psychological and ideological struggle should all be things of the past! Bush said, 'We can realise a lasting
peace and transform the East-West relationship to one of enduring co-operation:

Figure 3.4 Landmark summit meetings between the US and Soviet leaders in the 1980s.

82
 _ 3.3 The collapse of Soviet control in Eastern Europe, 1985-91

The end of the Soviet hold on

Reagan and Gorbachev sign the INF Treaty in Washington, Eastern Eu rope
in December 1987.
Once Gorbachev had announced that the Soviet
Union was giving up the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Soviet
satellite countries were free to choose how they would
be governed. They would no longer have to fear that
the Soviets would intervene as they had in Hungary
in 1956 (see page 32) and Czechoslovakia in 1968
(see page 58). Gorbachev's reforms within the Soviet
Union, restructuring the economy and introducing
more openness to government, further encouraged the
people of the satellite states to introduce changes that
would improve their standard of living and increase
their individual freedoms.

Gorbachev's reforms were not intended to bring an

end to communism. They were designed to introduce

June 1989: Poland November 1989:

Solidarity is legalised and elaete Czechoslovakia
wins a landslide victory in = — The ‘Velvet Revolution’
Polish elections. EA Countries under overthrows the
September 1989: East Ss: communist government.
Germany RY = | Non-Soviet communist The anti-communist
Huge numbers of East Germans Re countries be Ne is elected
leave for the West, travelling president.
through Hungary to Austria. On December 1989:
11 September, 125,000 East Romania
Germans cross the border. There are demonstrations
October 1989: East against the communist
Germany government. The
Gorbachev refuses to help the communist leader,
East German government Ceausescu, is overthrown
put down demonstrations. and executed.
November 1989: East December 1989:
Germany Bulgaria
The East German government The communist leader
announces that the border Peter Mladenov resigns
crossing to West Berlin will be live on national television.
opened. Thousands of East Free elections are held the
Berliners force their way following year.
through the crossing. People December 1990:
on both sides of the Berlin Yugoslavia
Wall start pulling it down. Slovenians vote to
East and West Germany are become independent in
formally reunited in 1990. a free referendum.
May 1989: Hungary Yugoslavia breaks up as
The government takes Croatia, Serbia and
sea the fence along Montenegro,
the border with Bosnia-Herzegovina,
non-communist Austria. It Kosovo and Macedonia
promises a new democratic ee a
government, free elections independence during
are held in October. the 1990s.
Ay th

Figure 3.5 The end of communist rule in Eastern Europe.

83
reforms that would strengthen communist government,
both within the Soviet Union and within the satellite
states in the Warsaw Pact. As it turned out, within A German, who was a 10-year-old living in East Germany
when the Berlin Wall fell, describes visiting West Germany
twelve months of his speech at the United Nations, the
three months later.
communist system would be dismantled throughout
I went with my mother by train from Berlin. I
Eastern Europe. A year after that, the Soviet Union itself
remember the day very well; being excited and
was disbanded. also a little nervous. We passed the border,
and no one asked us for our passports or where
we wanted to go — unimaginable only months

The significance of the fall of earlier. We arrived and everything looked and
felt different. Streets were clean, buildings
the Berlin Wall and houses were kept well and the air did not
smell of burnt brown coal. For a few days
On a personal level, for many citizens of East and West I felt like living in a different world. I
Germany, the fall of the Berlin Wall meant they could returned home after a few days, and became
be reunited with relatives and friends who they had not aware of the large differences between East
and West, in particular of the rundown, sad and
seen for almost 30 years. There were scenes of great
dirty state that East Germany was in.
emotion as people realised that the restrictions that had
prevented them from crossing the border were gone.
People wanted to commemorate the day the Wall fell. were falling and the Soviet Union showed it had no
For days after the border opened, they took hammers intention of stepping in to stop the wave of protest and
and chipped away to break off their own souvenir piece demand for reform.
to take home.
For 30 years the Berlin Wall had stood for the division
In political terms, the fall of the Wall was mainly a of Europe. It was a symbol of the Cold War and of Soviet
symbolic event. By November 1989, East Germans could control. On 9 November 19839, its destruction became
already travel to the West through Austria and the the symbol of the end of Soviet control and the end of
East German leader Erich Honecker had been sacked. the Cold War.
Throughout Eastern Europe, communist governments

The end of the Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact had been formed after the Western
Allies set up NATO (see Chapter 1). Its creation formally
East Berliners climbing on the Wall on 11 November 1989.
established that Europe was divided into two armed
camps and throughout the period of the Cold War
the Warsaw Pact was seen as a potential threat to
the democratic West. As far as the Soviet Union was
concerned, of course, it was also a means to co-ordinate
forces to defend the communist East from any threat
from the West.

The Pact was also a symbol of Soviet dominance in

Eastern Europe. It was a highly useful way for the Soviet
Union to keep an eye on what its communist allies were
doing and forcing decisions on them. So when Hungary
and Czechoslovakia stepped out of line (in 1956 and
1968), it was Warsaw Pact forces that brought them back
into the fold.

84
The events of 1989 saw communist governments The satellite states regained their independence
coming under pressure,across Eastern Europe and made The end of the Pact led to many countries becoming
it impossible for the Warsaw Pact to survive. Military truly independent of the Soviet Union and governing
co-operation between the member states ended in early themselves for the first time in decades. They no longer
1990 and the Pact was formally dissolved in July 1991. had to follow policies created in Moscow, or run their
economies to benefit the Soviet Union. After the Warsaw
The end of the Pact was a highly significant moment in
Pact was finished, every single one of its members
the history of the Cold War.
abandoned communism.
Europe was reunited
Gorbachev fell from power
The formation of the Warsaw Pact had formally divided
Losing control over the Soviet satellites played a major
Europe in two. Now its break-up indicated that the
part in the downfall of Gorbachev in the Soviet Union.
division between democratic West and communist
Hard-line communists blamed him for losing control
East was gone. The Cold War was over and there were
over Eastern Europe and threatening Soviet security.
no longer two armed alliances confronting each other
His position became worse when the Baltic states of
across the ‘Iron Curtain’. Indeed with the end of the
Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia all declared themselves
Warsaw Pact and the Berlin Wall, the ‘Iron Curtain’ itself
independent of the Soviet Union during 1990.
ceased to exist. The confrontational politics that had
brought the world close to nuclear war on at least one In August 1991, the communist hardliners staged a
occasion during the Cold War became a thing of the coup against Gorbachev. Boris Yeltsin, the president
past. of the Soviet republic of Russia rallied the people of
Moscow to oppose the coup and Gorbachev continued
in government, but the coup severely damaged his
authority.
Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian republic, standing
on top of a tank in August 1989. He is rallying support for The leaders of the other Soviet republics took
Gorbachev. One of his supporters is waving a Russian flag. advantage of Gorbachev's weakness and 12 of them
oS
ae
SIE
RE TH
AS ga Wie
== om
ES
Bs
Wk ERS e BER
ae as
>
joined together in a Commonwealth of Independent
as - —— Se: & @ =z iS
a
peeves
Be
cas
be wa
SOS oe
—
:
pie eats
z B
ei
Bice
—
SS
ae - & so
x - ON ee
wh
Be
States. Gorbachev could not continue under these
& ‘tom —o- —- Da: ee = 4 ei; em
as me Se
vs ai
—
ir
G2 wr
SS et
mr
ee ay
te ee "
vom es te circumstances and on 25 December 1991, he announced

:
his resignation as Soviet leader. His resignation was
we say Gee fiw, Se. ‘Dap re ew = rn ma RD
— — ee tt ee Ses soe = ' A
cs FF“B
—“—
B® Be BG
te = —-} wet ee an ES immediately followed by the break-up of the Soviet
Union.

Activity
In a small group, prepare a presentation explaining
which of these two statements you agree with more.
Include as much evidence as you can from this
chapter.
a ‘The Cold War came to an end because President
Reagan’s policies won it for the USA’.
b ‘The Cold War came to an end because Mikhail
Gorbachev was a weak leader’.

85
3.3 The collapse of Soviet control in Eastern Europe, 1985-91

Major events 1970-91 October 1986 Reagan and Gorbachev

meet at Reykjavik Summit
March 1983 Reagan announces sol|
T November 1989
December 1979 Soviet eaRoue Fall of the Berlin Wall
Union invades Afghanistan arch 1
pp aa seas : November 1980]!| Gorbachev May 1989
— Ronald Reagan becomes Hungary December 1991
November 1968 August 1975 elected leader of opens Gorbachev —
Nixon elected Helsinki June 1979] |President of Soviet borders resigns, Soviet
LS President of USA Accords agreed ||SALT 2 signed]| [the USA Union || |with Austria Union dissolves
is :
——
=e MiG
ie
ryee
tad
<a
5
KR Cool
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*, *
Freezing

Figure 3.6 Relations between the USA and Soviet Union, 1968-91.

|Explain two consequences of Mikhail Gorbachev's This question asks about ‘consequences’ so we don't
_ decision to abandon the Brezhnev Doctrine. 8 marks | need a lot of information on how or why the Doctrine |
|was abandoned. Instead concentrate your efforts on
_ what difference abandoning it made. How did this
change things?

¢ The weakness of the Soviet economy led to a rethink of the country’s role in international politics.
* Gorbachev's ‘new thinking’ encouraged a positive response from the USA.
¢ The Soviet Union abandoned the Brezhnev Doctrine.
¢ Nationalist uprisings resulted in the break-up of the Warsaw Pact.
The Soviet Union was dissolved.

S1 When did Reagan and Gorbachev meet in Geneva?

S2 What was Gorbachev's ‘new thinking’
S3 What were perestroika and glasnost?

C1 What part did the Chernobyl disaster play in international relations in the 1980s?
C2 Why was the fall of the Berlin Wall so important?
C3 How significant was the end of the Warsaw Pact?
How confident do you feel about your answers to these questions? Re-read the chapter, making notes as you go.
Now try answering the questions again.
ee Se a Be a are
2cap: The end of the Cold War, 1970-71

1 When were the Helsinki Accords signed? _ Explain two of the following: |
2 What incident led to President Carter announcing “« the importance of the nuclear arms race for
the Carter Doctrine? relations between the USA and the Soviet Union
3 How did the Soviet Union retaliate when the USA _ © the importance of the Soviet invasion of |
boycotted the 1980 Olympics? Afghanistan for relations between the USA and the |
4 In which Warsaw Pact country was martial law Soviet Union |
declared in 1981? /* the importance of Ronald Reagan for relations |
5 What was SDI? | between the USA and the Soviet Union. 16 marks ©
6 Name the Soviet leaders from 1982 to 1985. 7 i, ah eat a 2 a iia aoe
7 What was the main agreement of the INF Treaty?
8 What happened on 9 November 1989?
9 Who helped Gorbachev stay in power when there _ Remember that this question is not asking for a
description of an event or policy. It is asking about
was a coup in August 1991? |
why that event or policy was important. What
10 When did Gorbachev resign?
difference did it make? Remember to pay attention
to the context. All these developments are about
relations between the USA and the Soviet Union.

Write a short paragraph explaining why détente

came to an end from 1979.
2 Why is the period 1979-85 sometimes called the
‘Second Cold War’?
3 How important was Gorbachev's ‘new thinking’ in
ending the Cold War?

87
 WRITING
Q HISTORICALLY

Writing historically: narrative analysis

When you write a narrative analysis, you need to explain a series of events: their causes and
consequences. You need to think about how you express the links between causes and effects.

Learning outcomes iN
By the end of this lesson, you will understand how to:
¢ use conjunctions to link and indicate the relationship between points
* use non-finite verbs to link relevant information or indicate the relationship between points.

Co-ordinating conjunction: a word used to link two clauses of equal importance within a sentence,
e.g. ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘so’, ‘or’, etc.
Subordinate clause: a clause that adds detail to or develops the main clause, linked with a
subordinating conjunction such as ‘because’, ‘when’, ‘if’, ‘although’, etc.

How can I link my points in sentences to show cause and effect?

When explaining complex sequences of events, use co-ordinating conjunctions to link them in sentences.
Look at this exam-style narrative analysis task:
“ite a narrative account analysing the key events of the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan. (8 marks)

1. How could you link these three points using just co-ordinating conjunctions, e.g. ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘so’?

In 1978 the pro-Soviet government in Afghanistan was toppled in a local coup.

The Soviet Union learned that the new government was in talks with the USA.
The Soviet Union was worried about losing influence in the region and invaded Afghanistan in
December 1979.
2. You can also use subordinating conjunctions to make the relationship between cause and effect
clear. For example, linking:
* an explanation: (e.g. ‘because’, ‘as’, ‘in order that’, etc)
¢ acondition: (e.g. ‘if’, ‘unless’, etc)
* a comparison: (e.g. ‘although’, ‘whereas’, ‘despite’, etc)
* asequence: (e.g. ‘when’ ‘as’, ‘before’, ‘after’, ‘until’, etc).
Look at these simple, short questions and answers:
a. Why did the Soviet Union want a pro-Soviet government in Afghanistan? It did not want hardline
Muslim ideology to spread from Iran to the Soviet Union.
b. What made the Soviet Union concerned about Hafizullah Amin and his government? He was in
talks with the USA.
c. What reason did the Soviet Union give for invading Afghanistan? They said they had been invited
by Amin to help him deal with terrorism.
d. What happened after Hafizullah Amin was killed? He was replaced by the pro-Soviet Babrak Kamal.

88
 WRITING
. HISTORICALLY
Rewrite the information in each question and answer as a single sentence. Choose a different type of
subordinating conjunction (explanation, condition, comparison and sequence) in each one to express
the relationship between cause and effect as clearly as possible.
3. Experiment with different ways of using a subordinating conjunction to link two or more of your
sentences into a single sentence.
How can I link my points in other ways?
You can add relevant information and further explanation of cause and effect using non-finite verbs.
These include facing / faced, determining /determined, cutting / cut.
Compare these two extracts, written in response to the exam-style question on the previous page.

The Soviet Union became concerned that it would lose influence in Afghanistan because i
learned that Hafizullah Amin was in talks with the USA.
Two points are linked using a subordinating conjunctior

Learning that Hafizullah Amin was in talks with the USA, the Soviet Union became
concerned that it would lose influence in Afghanistan.
Two points are linked using a non-finite verb.
Look at the two sentences below. How could you link the two points in each one, using a non-finite verb
instead of a conjunction? Hint: think about how you could use a non-finite form of the highlighted verb.
President Carter claimed that the invasion was a major threat to world peace, $6 he
increased spending on arms.
President Carter announced the ‘Carter Doctrine’ in January 1980, soon after imposed
economic sanctions on the Soviet Union.
Did you notice?
There are lots of different ways to link points in sentences. Some of them make the relationship between
points more clearly than others.
4. Choose one of the sentences above. Experiment with rewriting it in two or three different ways,
using different methods to link points. Which version expresses the relationship most clearly and
fluently?

Improving an answer
Now look at this paragraph from the beginning of one student's response to the narrative analysis task
on the previous page.

In 1978 the pro-Soviet government in Afghanistan was toppled in a coup. In the following year
there was a revolution in Iran. This brought in a new Muslim fundamentalist government.
This worried the Soviets. They did not want fundamentalist ideas spreading to the Muslim
population in the Soviet Union. They were also worried about losing influence in Afghanistan
when the new ruler Hafizullah Amin held talks with the US government.
5. Try rewriting this paragraph, using conjunctions and non-finite verbs to make the sequence of
events, and the relationship between cause and effect, clear.
6. Continue the response above with a second paragraph explaining how the situation developed. Use
conjunctions and non-finite verbs to make clear connections between causes and effects.
89
 Here are some extracts from The Wind in the Willows.
The difference between a story
and a narrative account that
analyses Toad had a passion for cars. He saw a car in
the middle of the yard, quite unattended. Toad
Paper 2, Question 2 will ask you to ‘Write a narrative walked slowly round it. ‘I wonder,’ he said
account analysing ... . (see page 95 in Preparing for your to himself, ‘if this car starts easily.’ Next
exams). You are not being asked to tell a story in the moment he was turning the starting handle.
Then he heard the.sound of the engine and,
examination; you are being asked to explain how events
as if in a dream, he found himself in the
led to an outcome. This means showing that the events driver’s seat. He drove the car out through
are a series of happenings that have links between the archway and the car leapt forward through
them. To do this, you must show that: the open country...

events are prompted by something

This extract has the first important ingredient of
these events react with other events (or perhaps they narrative: sequence — putting events in the right order.
react with existing circumstances)
Words and phrases like ‘next moment’ and ‘then’ show
consequences follow from them. the sequence. However, it lacks the analytical links
Showing links like these is what turns a story into ‘an between events. In this case, key links could be built
account that analyses’. around phrases such as ‘because’, ‘in order to’ or ‘as a
result of this’.
Narratives for young children are always stories;
they deal with events and descriptions. For example, For example:
many versions of the adventures of Toad of Toad Hall,
Toad saw the car parked in the middle of the
originally described in the children’s book The Wind in |.Because there was no one with it, he
the Willows, have been published. These narratives show took the opportunity to have a good look at
how Toad got himself into a number of scrapes. One it. He even gave the starting handle a turn
see how easily it started. It
episode describes his fixation with acquiring a fast car,
| started easily, but the sound of 'the engine
his theft of one, his arrest for dangerous driving and his affe ted Toad so much that his old passion for
subsequent trial and imprisonment. esurfaced and his urge to drive the car
4‘increased to such an extent that it became
Oy
a
irresistible. , as if in a drean,
~ he found himself in the driver’s seat...

The analytical narrative, as well as linking events,

also makes clear what followed on from them — what
difference they made. It uses process words and
phrases that show something was happening. In this
example, the process words and phrases are ‘affected’,
‘resurfaced’, ‘increased’ and ‘became’.

1 Choose a story that you know well - or think of a your arrows with links chosen from the chain of
plot for a story of your own. linkages (see Figure 1).
Select up to eight key events in the story and list Write a narrative account analysing the key events
them in a sequence. Ideally, these events should be of your story. Use the links and at least five process
from the beginning, middle and end of the story words. Choose them from the process word case
(if two things happen at the same time you can (see Figure 2) or use others of your own. Remember
list them together). Create a flow chart with arrows that events can combine with long-standing
from one event to the next in the sequence. Label feelings or circumstances as part of the narrative
(for example, Toad’s passion for motorcars).

90
 [began became developed

| increased
/ reinforced || encouraged eteriorated |

Figure 1 The chain of linkages Figure 2 Process word case

Writing historical accounts analysing...

You may be asked to write an account that analyses the key events which led to something, or the key events of a
crisis, or the way in which something developed. This example has shown the skills you will need to write a good
historical account. As you prepare for your examination, you should practise by:

* selecting key events

* sequencing them
¢ linking them into a process that explains an outcome.
As you study the events of the Cold War, note the linking phrases and process words the author has used in this
book. You should add them to your own lists. When you create your own analytical historical narratives, try to make
use of both linking phrases and process vocabulary.

Activities
Study the timeline on page 20. You can use the events Working individually, write your own narrative
from it to help you to answer the following question: account, with linkages and showing a process.
Write a narrative account analysing the development of Focus on what it is you are explaining and choose
Europe into two blocs in the years 1947-49 process words which relate to, e.g. the setting up of
different organisations and alliances.
1 With a partner, write the events on pieces of card,
without their dates, and then: Either swap accounts with a partner or check your
own account. Highlight linkages in yellow and
a practise sequencing them correctly
process words in green. You can use the same
b agree on another one or two events you could words more than once, but aim to have at least five
choose to include in your account and any green and five yellow highlights. See if using more _
events you could remove ‘process words’ improves your account even more.
identify an instance where long-standing
circumstances (or attitudes) were involved as
events unfolded.

You are now ready to complete your exam question. Remember to use SSLaP.

e Select key events and developments. ¢ Show the Process that led to the outcome of your analytical
© Sequence them in the right order. narrative.

e Link them, and

91
Preparing for your exams

Preparung foryour &CSE faper Z ¢xam

Paper 2 overview 2 Write a narrative account analysing...
(8 marks)
Your Paper 2 is in two sections that examine the Period
This question asks you to write a narrative explaining
Study and British Depth Study. They each count for
how events led to an outcome. Allow 15 minutes to
20% of your History assessment. The questions on
write your answer. You are given two information
Superpower relations and the Cold War (1941-91) are
points as prompts to help you. You do not have to use
the Period Study and are in Section A of the exam
the prompts and you will not lose marks by leaving
paper. You should use just under half the time allowed
them out. Always remember to add in a new point of
for Paper 2 to write your answers to Section A. This will
your own as well. Higher marks are gained by adding
give you a few moments for checking your answers at
in a point extra to the prompts. You will be given at
the end of Section B.
least two pages of lines in the answer booklet for your
answer. This does not mean you should try to fill all the
space. The front page of the exam paper tells you ‘there
SENT Laoag e rr a a Tp eT may be more space than you need’. Aim to write an
ieee SG kg SOI PE eR ee organised answer, putting events in the right order and
! ae sruay — mecuCSuols SS — lees cae showing how one connected to the next. Your narrative
“Section B or Answer 3 32 marks = should have a clear beginning, middle and end.
L : Options —questions ~ minutes
Flioee Start Event Finish
Beriad, Study Option 26e 27:
Superpower relations and the Cold — — =P
This led This
Wat, 1941-91 ton. prompted...

You will answer Questions 1, 2 and 3.

1 Explain two consequences of... (2 x 4 marks) 3 Explain two of the following... (2 x 8 marks)
This question is worth half your marks for the whole
Allow ten minutes to write your answer. Write about
Period Study. Make sure you have kept 25 minutes of
each consequence. You are given just over half a page
the exam time to answer. It asks you to explain the
for each. Use this as a guide for answer length. You
importance of events and developments. You have
should keep the answer brief and not try to add more
a choice of two out of three. Take time to make the
information on extra lines. This will make sure you
allow enough time for later questions worth more choice. Before you decide, be clear what you have
marks. Make sure you focus on consequence: as a result; to explain: the question is always worded as ‘The
as a consequence; the effect was are useful phrases to use. importance of... for... . It is a good idea during revision
to practise identifying the importance of key events
for something: what did they affect or lead to? Ask
yourself: ‘What difference did they make to it?’ or ‘Why
did they matter?’ Be clear about your reasons for saying
something is important.

92
 Preparing for your exams
®

Faper 2, Ques tion

Explain two consequences of the decisions made SEGIMtIG 6 2 eee!
z by The Grand Alliance at the Yalta Conference in Th ; :
ernie ee) e question wants you to explain the results
of something. What difference did it make? Use
phrases such as ‘as a result’ or ‘the effect of this

Se 16 2 6 © 6 OO 8 0 OO © Of O C'.0 6 0 CC 0 6 6 0 0 0 0.0 0 Hie 6 @ 6 OO 0 0 © 6 0 © O30 00 0 C0 G0 0.0 0 6.0 0 0 6 048 10 0 0 8 0 00 6 6068 6 66 6 6 8 8

Consequence 1: This answer has identified a

As a result of the Yalta Conference, Germany was divided into consequence and given a brief
§ different zones. There were four of these governed by different description. However, it needs
countries. This division led to a lot of difficulties in the future. more detail to provide an effective
explanation

Consequence 2: This needs more examples and

Another consequence of the conference was that there was explanation.
The second sentence does
disagreement about how Poland was to be governed, It was agreed not explain fully how the decision led
that there would be a government decided by free elections, but to disagreements between different
there was disagreement about who The Grand Alliance wanted to members of The Grand Alliance.
win those elections. This led to further tension.

This is an average answer because it identifies two consequences with

some support, but it needs more explanation of consequence with
specific information. Use the feedback to rewrite this answer, making as
many improvements as you can.

93
Preparing for your exams

faper 2, Question 1
Explain two consequences of the decisions made Exam tip) 2 Sale Geroeime
by The Grand Alliance at the Yalta Conference in - |
February 1945. (8 marks) The question wants you to explain the results
of something. What difference did it make? Use
phrases such as ‘as a result’ or ‘the effect of
this was’.

HHH ESCH KEC CCM OHO HOM HCCC CCH ECL H 6 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 68 6 66 C0 6 6 6 (0) 0) ee) e18) 206964) e)s8 sakes eae
CC} SHES HHH ESE HOOSCS

Consequence 1:
At the Yalta Conference the Big Three decided what would happen to Germany A clear explanation of the
after the war. As a result of the conference Germany was divided into four impact of the division of
zones, controlled by Britain, the USA, the Soviet Union and France. Each Germany, with specific
country had the right to govern its sector as it saw fit. However, Stalin factual support.
believed that in the end he had been given the poorest sector and resented
the fact that the Western Allies administered the wealthier parts. So this
led to worse relations between East and West as Germany became an area of
tension.

Consequence 2:
Yalta led to an increase in suspicion between Stalin and the USA / Britain. A valid point very well
This suspicion was as a result of the failure to agree on how Poland should explained, with a high level
be governed, There was general agreement that a government would be of factual support.
elected using free elections, but this meant different things to each country.
To Stalin it meant using his influence to ensure a pro-Moscow government.
Britain and the USA supported the ‘London Poles’ who were non-Communists. . ||
Stalin wanted a Communist government in Poland as part of his plan to
build a buffer zone. He saw the action of Britain and the USA as trying to |
undermine the security of the Soviet Union. So relations worsened. |

This is a strong answer because it has explained two consequences and

supported both with specific information showing good knowledge of
the period.

94
 Preparing for your exams
®

faper 1, Question 2
Write a narrative account analysing the key events leading to
z, the break-up of the Warsaw Pact in the years 1985-91. Batre ere ope @
You may use the following in your answer: Remember that the key to scoring well on
* Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union in 1985 this type of question is to explain how one
© the falliobuhe Berlin waltin 1989. event leads to the next in a logical and
; structured way.
You must also use information of your own. (8 marks) y <i

Cay?
When Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union he had a new way
of thinking. He abandoned the Brezhnev Doctrine and had more open This answer has listed the main
government in the Soviet Union. This loosening of the grip was noticed events but it does not show the
in the Soviet satellite countries and they began to break away from the links in the ‘developing story’
control of the Soviet Union. First of all, East Germans started leaving
for the West through Hungary. Then Poland had free elections and the
communists lost. In October the Berlin Wall came down and in the next
month there was a revolution in Czechoslovakia. In July 1991 the Warsaw
Pact was dissolved.
eoeee ee eee eee eoveeerveeveeeeeeeeoeveoeeeseeoeoeseeeeeeeoeeeeoeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeveeeeeeeeeoeeeeoeeeeeeeee

This is an average answer because, whilst it shows an understanding

of the events, they are not clearly linked together to show a coherent
narrative. Use the feedback to rewrite this answer, making as many
improvements as you can.

95
Preparing for your exams

faper 1, Question 2
Write a narrative account analysing the key events
leading to the break-up of the Warsaw Pact in the years 1985-91.
You may use the following in your answer:
e Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union in 1985
e the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.
You must also use information of your own. (8 marks)

The break-up of the Warsaw Pact probably started when Gorbachev came
to power in the Soviet Union. Although he did not intend to end Soviet
domination of Eastern Europe, Gorbachev decided that the Soviet Union
could not continue to spend huge sums on the arms race and foreign policy. |
Because of this, in 1985 he announced that the Soviet Union was abandoning |
the Brezhnev Doctrine. This paragraph follows |
As a result, the members of the Warsaw Pact realised they could now on neatly from the one |
introduce reforms in their countries, without fear of being invaded by before, explaininga link
Warsaw Pact forces like Hungary and Czechoslovakia were many years between events in the ;
earlier. $0 when, in September 1989, East Germans started travelling to West Soviet Union and events
in Warsaw Pact countries.
Germany through Hungary and Austria little was done to stop them. The
countries of Eastern and Western Europe were becoming more connected.
In the same month, the communist government in Poland was replaced after
earlier being defeated in free elections. In October, communist government
came to an end in Hungary. Moscow made no attempt to prevent the Polish
elections or get rid of the new non-communist leaders in either country.
Since the Warsaw Pact existed mainly to protect its communist members
from the West, the reasons for its existence were fading away. This paragraph makes a
The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 made it even clearer that East and West clear link between events
were not divided any more. Its fall was symbolic and encouraged further and the implications for
challenges to communist rule. Communist regimes in Czechoslovakia and the Warsaw Pact.
Romania were also toppled shortly afterwards. By the summer of 1990 all
the old communist governments of the satellite states were replaced by new
governments that had been democratically elected. With most countries of .
Eastern Europe now being led by non-communist governments there was no f
need for the Warsaw Pact. As a result, it was dissolved in July 1991,

This is a strong answer because it organises the events described ina :

coherent sequence, highlighting the links between them, and relates
them to the break-up of the Warsaw Pact.

96 yi
‘|
 Preparing for your exams
Paper 2, Question 3
Explain two of the following:
The sampte answer below covers
* The importance of the Truman Doctrine for international relations after
just the bullet point about the
the Second World War Olympic boycotts. Don’t forget in
* The importance of the building of the Berlin Wall for the development of the exam you need to write about
the Cold War two.
* The importance of the Olympic boycotts for relations between the USA
and the Soviet Union. (16 marks)

The question asks about importance but each bullet point also gives
you a ‘for’ -— e.g. ‘for the development of the Cold War’. Don’t just tell
the story of the event - e.g. the building of the Berlin Wall. Make
sure you also explain the impact. How did it change things for the
development of the Cold War?

eoeeoeoeeoves eee eevee eevevee sere eveeeeeeseeoeeeoeoeeeooeeevHeHoeoHvoHeHevoeewee ® ooeeceoeeve ewe eeeeeeee eee eee ove

The Olympic boycotts were very important. At this time relations

This answer has correctly identified
between the USA and the Soviet Union were getting worse. They became that the boycotts were important
even worse when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. So the Americans in intensifying the Cold War and
wanted a way to punish the Soviet Union. They did this by persuading explained why the boycott upset
lots of countries not to attend the Moscow Olympics in 1980. That really the Soviet Union.
upset the Soviet Union because it was hoping to use the Olympics to
show everyone how great communism was and how successful athletes
from Warsaw Pact countries were (50 proving that communist society was
better) _-
The writer uses ‘really upset’ twice.
The Soviet Union was really upset about the boycott and got its revenge It would be better to go into more
four years later when it led a boycott of the Olympics being held in Los depth about how the Soviet Union
Angeles. So the Cold War got colder. reacted.

This is an average answer because it does not provide enough

explanation of what the impact of the boycotts was. It is also short on
specific information to support the answer. Use the feedback to rewrite
this answer, making as many improvements as you can.

oF
Preparing for your exams
Ffaper 1, Ques tion 2
Explain two of the following:
¢ The importance of the Truman Doctrine for international relations after
the Second World War
¢ The importance of the building of the Berlin Wall for the development of
the Cold War
The sample answer below covers
* The importance of the Olympic boycotts for relations between the USA just the bullet point about the
and the Soviet Union. (16 marks) Olympic boycotts. Don’t forget in
the exam you need to write about
two. =
ecoeoeeveveevereeeevrere ee eee er eee erereree ee eee e eee eseeeeezeeeeeee eee eee e @ eesveevevereeevoe eee eeeevree eevee ee @

By the time of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, détente was coming

to an end. As a vesult of the invasion, the Americans issued the Carter
Doctrine and looked for ways to show their disapproval of the Soviet
Union. Boycotting the Moscow Olympics provided an excellent opportunity.
This really upset the Soviet Union because it was hoping to use the
Olympics to show everyone how great communism was and how successful
athletes from Warsaw Pact countries were (s0 proving that communist
Society was better). So the American boycott was important because
it made it plain to the Soviet Union that the period of co-operation This answer correctly identifies
that the boycotts were important
was over and that the USA still considered itself as the leader of the
in intensifying the Cold War.
democratic world, ready to resist attempts to spread communism.
Equally, the Moscow boycott angered the Soviet Union which retaliated
by leading the Warsaw Pact countries in a boycott of the Los Angeles
Olympics in 1984, This showed the world was still divided in two camps,
East and West. _There is also factual support
to explain how the boycotts
So the Olympic boycotts made the Cold War colder and showed that the
intensified the Cold War.
USA and the Soviet Union were still bitter rivals.

This is a strong answer because it explains importance by showing

the consequences of the boycotts and their impact on the Cold War. It
supports the argument with good detail.

98
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3
1 Soviet Union, USA, Britain 1 Because Germany was occupied 1 1975
2 Tehran — 1943, Yalta - 1945, by the Soviets from the East and 2 The invasion of Afghanistan by
Potsdam — 1945 the democratic allies from the the Soviet Union
Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill, then:
West. The country was divided
The Soviet Union led a boycott
Stalin, Truman, Attlee
into zones and so was the
of the 1984 Los Angeles
capital, Berlin
Truman said the spread of Olympics
communism should be stopped
Large numbers of educated
Poland
people were leaving East
and the USA would help Strategic Defense Initiative — a
Germany for the West
countries that did not want to plan to place satellites in orbit
become communist Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson,
that could shoot down nuclear
Nixon
A state that is under the control missiles fired at the USA
of another state. Satellite 4 Khrushchev, Brezhnev
Brezhnev, Andropov, Chernenko,
states in Eastern Europe were To show support for the people Gorbachev
controlled by the Soviet Union of West Berlin
The USA and Soviet Union would
Britain, France, USA and nine 6 1959 abolish all land-based missiles
others An attempt to topple Castro's with a range of 500-5,500 km
Soviet Union, Poland, government using ClA-trained 8 The Berlin Wall came down
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Cuban exiles
9 Boris Yeltsin
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, East Test Ban Treaty (1963), Outer
10 25 December 1991
Germany Space Treaty (1967), Nuclear
1949 Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968)
Inter-continental ballistic missile 9 The spring of 1968, when
10 Khrushchev Alexander Dubcek tried
to reform communism in
Czechoslovakia
10 He first warned Dubcek to
reverse the reforms, then
sent Warsaw Pact troops to
re-establish Soviet control

be)
Key terms are capitalised initially, in bold type with an asterisk.
Entry headings for topic booklets are shown in italics.

German Democratic Republic

A Communism*,
conferences
9, 20, 43
(East Germany), 27
Abdicate’, 78 Big Three, 10-14 Germany :
Acheson, Dean, 53 summits, 39-40, 83, 84, 87 division and re-unification, 14,
Adenauer, Konrad, 26, 42 Containment*, 21,34 24, 26, 85
Afghanistan, TA, UA TH Conventional* weapons, 29 East and West, 25-26, 29, 37-39, 67
aid, financial, 20-21, 34 Cuba » Second World War, 11-13
airlift, Berlin (Operation Vittles), 25-26 Missile Crisis, 49-55) 6/ see also Berlin
Amin, Hafizullah, 75 Revolution and ‘Bay of Pigs, 49, 50-51 Glasnost*, 81
arms (weapons) currency, 25, Gorbachev, Mikhail, 81-85
Afghanistan and, 15 Czechoslovakia, 14, 17, 27, 58-61, 83, 84 Gottwald, Klement, 17, 58
American spending on, 40, 75, 78 Grand Alliance, Il ae 23)
Cuba and,
race, 13, 14-15, 27-29,
49
D Greece and Civil War,
Greenpeace,
20-21
80
38-40, 65, 78-79 Democracy*, 11,18,.21 Grenada, 78
see also nuclear weapons/war see also elections Gromyko, Andrei, 71, 82
atomic bomb. see nuclear weapons/war Détente* (policy), 67-72, 16 Guevara, Che, 49
Attlee, Clement, 13 Deterrent* (nuclear), 31
Deutschmark, 25
disarmament, 82 H
see also under nuclear weapons/war Hawks*, 54
Baltic States, 18, 85 Doctrine™*, 60 Helsinki Accords, 70-71
‘Bay of Pigs,’ 44, 49,51 dollar imperialism, Ze Hiroshima, 14
Berlin Dubcek, Alexander, 58-60 hostages, UZ
crises, (Wax (05, 33138) Dulles, John Foster, Syl SS) human rights/freedoms, 10, 55, 69, 70, 81
division, 13, 22-24 Hungary, Li '29-3.15735, 56
Wall, 41-44, 48, 85-86 Husak, Gustav, 60
Bevin, Ernest, CD All E hydrogen bomb. see nuclear
blockades, 25, 26, 54 Eastern Europe, Ii l25es; V4 weapons/war
Bonn, West Germany, 24 end of Soviet control, 84-88
borders, European, 69, 70
boycotts, Olympic, Ui
as satellite states, 16-17, 21, 22,
31, 69, 81, 82 I
Brandt, Willy, 69 see also Warsaw Pact ICBM, 29. Ola he
Brezhnev, Leonid, 59, 60, 61, 69-72, Economic sanctions*, 75 Ideology*, 9
75, 80-83 economy inter-continental ballistic missiles
Brezhnev Doctrine*, 60, 81 aid for, 19, 20-21, 22, 37, 46 (ICBM), 2956 he
Brinksmanship* 55 cost of arms and, p28, Interim* Treaty, 69
Britain Soviet, 66, 79, 81, 82, 84, 86 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force
Berlin/Germany and 22-23, 38, 41 Eisenhower, Dwight, 29) 34, 39-40; Treaty (INF), 82
ideology, 9 45,47 Iran, 71, 73
Marshall Plan and, 20, 21 elections, 11, 50, 56, 85 Islamic militants, 72
nuclear weapons, sy, By Europe, re-unification, 86 Isolationism*, 21
Budapest, 32-34 see also Eastern Europe;
Bulgaria, 16, 83 Western Europe
Bush, George W., 82 exam preparation, 92-98
Japan, 11, 13, 14-15
C F
Camp David Summit, 43 Fechter, Peter, 46 K
Capitalism*, 9 Federal Republic of Germany Kadar, Janos, 38
Carter, Jimmy, 2, (= (West Germany), 26 Kennan, George, 15=16):20
Castro, Fidel, 49-50 see also Germany, East and West Kennedy, John F, 44, 46, 47, 50-55
Ceausescu, Nicolae, 59 Ford, Gerald, thal Khrushchev, Nikita, 31-32
censorship, 58 France, 39-40, 59 Berlin Ultimatum and Wall, 42, 44,
Central America, ai Berlin/Germany and, 13, 22, 24, Cuba and, 49, 50-55
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 44, 50, 51 25, 38, 41 Hungarian Uprising and, 29,32
Chernobyl disaster, 80, 82 nuclear weapons, 14,52 King, Martin Luther, 67, 68
children, 26 Free city”, 42 Kissinger, Henry, 69
Churchill, Winston, 9-10, 12-13, 16-17 freedoms and rights, 10, 67, 70, 83 Kohl, Helmut, 22
CIA, 44,50, 51 Korean War, Sil
Cold War, definition, 8
Colonialism”, 2
Cominform and Comecon, 23 Geneva Summits, 32, 35, 40, 82

100
L protests against Soviet control, (BI BYA +
Warsaw Uprising, 18
London Poles*, 13 Potsdam Conference, i ey NG) Tehran Conference, 11-12
‘Long Telegram’ (Kennan), 15 ‘Prague Spring,’ 58-61, 81 telegrams, ambassadors,’ 15
Los Angeles Olympics, Tel Pravda (newspaper), 60 ‘Thirteen Days,’ (US naval blockade), 54
Tito, Josip, 59
M R trade,
trade unions,
46, 47, 55, 69
55, 81, 85
MAD (‘Mutually Assured Destruction’), 67 Radio Free Europe, 34 treaties, nuclear non-
Marshall Plan, 20-21, 22-24, 34 Radio Prague, 58, 60 proliferation, 52, 67-68, 71, 83, 84
McNamara, Robert, 53 Rakosi, Matyas, 32 Trizonia, 24-25
MIRVs, 69 Ratification”, he Truman, Harry S., 13, 14,15
missiles, nuclear, 27-28, 48-54, 65, Reagan, Ronald, 76-78, 81, 82 Truman Doctrine, 20-23, 27, 16
67, 71, 78-79, 83 Red Army, 8, 14, 17748, 25 Turkey, 52, DAF D>
money, 23 refugees, East German, 31-38, 41-42
Moscow Olympics, 77 Reparations*, 12-14
Moscow Summit (1988), 82 Reykjavik Summit, 82, 86 U
mujahideen, 75-76 rights and freedoms, 10, 55, 69, 70, 81 U-2 spy-planes, 43-44, 52,54
multiple independently targeted riots, 32, 41, 68 UK. see Britain
re-entry vehicles (MIRVs), 69 Romania, 16, 18, 59, 80, 83 Ukraine, 9,12, 82
Muslim fundamentalism, 74 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 10, 12-13 Ulbricht, Walter, 45
Ultimatum*, 42-44
N Ss United Nations,
US ideology,
i253
10
Nagasaki, Japan, 14 SALT 1 and 2 treaties, 69, 70, 72, 75, 76 USSR. see Soviet Union*
Nagy, Imre, 32, sanctions*, es
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation), 24, 27, 34, 52
Satellite states*,
see also Eastern Europe
al
V
Nicaragua, UCM SDI (‘Star Wars’), 78 Veto*, power to, 13
Nixon, Richard, 67, 69-70 ‘Second Cold War,’ 77, 80 Vienna Summit, 44
Non-proliferation*, 55 Second World War, 9-11, 20-21 Vietnam War, 67-69
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation secret police, 58, 80 Vyshinsky, Andrey, ae,
(NATO), 24, 27, 34, 52 Shahs*, 74
Novikov, Nikolai, 15
nuclear weapons/war
social problems,
Socialism*,
30, 37, 65-66
58 W
arms race, 13, 14-15,.27-29, ‘Solidarity’ (trade union), 80, 83 Wall, Berlin, 40-47, 52, 83-85
38-40, 65, 78-79 Soviet Union* Warsaw Pact, Che
Cuba and, 48-54 definition, 9 end of, 84
non-proliferation* and ideology, 10 Hungary and, 33, 34
disarmament, 52, 67-68, 71, 83, 84 reforms and end of, 81-88 ‘Prague Spring’ and, 58, 59, 61
see also Chernobyl disaster space missions, el Warsaw Uprising, 18
‘Space race,’ 55 Washington Post (newspaper), 56

Oo spy flights,
Stalin, Joseph,
43-44, 52
10-18, 20, 22-27
Washington Summit (1987),
weapons. see arms; nuclear
82

Olympic boycotts, 77 Berlin blockade/airlift and, 23-24 weapons/war

Operation Little Vittles, 26 Czechoslovakia and, 55 Western Europe, (23) 2A8
Operation Vittles (Berlin airlift), 25-26 death, 29 writing historically: building/linking
‘Ostpolitik’ (West German policy), 69 ‘Star Wars’ (SDI), 78 information, 38-39, 64-65, 88-89
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties
p (SALT 1 and 2), 69-20; (2, Gp,,16
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 78
Palach, Jan, 60 sugar trade, 49-50 Yalta Conference, il
Paris Summit, 44 summit meetings, 39-40, 83, 84, 87 Yeltsin, Boris, 85
Perestroika’, 81 Yugoslavia, 18, 59, 83
Poland, al eho oO nos
end of communist rule, 83

101
Acknowledgements
With thanks to Paulette Catherwood for additional University, 05/06/47, Courtesy of the George C. Marshall
authoring support Foundation, Lexington, Virginia; Extract in Source F on
page 27 from The North Atlantic Treaty Washington D.C.
Picture Credits 04/04/49, NATO; Quote on page 33 from Khrushchev:
The publisher would like to thank the following for their And the First Russian Spring, Charles Scribner's Sons
kind permission to reproduce their photographs: (Fyodor M. Burlatsky), Orion Publishing Group Ltd with
(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; l-left; r-right; t-top) permission; Extract in Interpretation 1 on page 44 from
Milestones: 1953-1960/U-2 Overflights and the Capture
akg-images Ltd: ullstein bild 75; Alamy Images: CTK of Francis Gary Powers, 1960, Office of the Historian, U.S.
17, Everett Collection Historical 26, Keystone Pictures State Department; Extract in Source D on page 44 from
USA 47, The Art Archive 3tl, The Illustrated London News Radio and Television Report to the American People on
Picture Library. Ingram Publishing 10c, 13; Bridgeman the Berlin Crisis, July 25, 1961, John F. Kennedy; Quote
Art Library Ltd: 78; Corbis: Bettmann 8, 30, 31, Hulton- on page 47 from Remarks at the Rudolph Wilde Platz,
Deutsch / Hulton-Deutsch Collection 21, Hulton-Deutsch Berlin, John F Kennedy, 26/06/63, Extract in Source
Collection 7b; Getty Images: Bettmann 40, 43, 46, G on page 47 from John F Kennedy — Remarks at the
52, 68, 50B, 50T, DIANE-LU HOVASSE / AFP 85, Dirck Rudolph Wilde Platz, Berlin 26/06/1963; Extract in
Halstead / The LIFE Images Collection 7t, 70, Hulton Source G, page 51, quote on page 52, extract in Source
Archive / Stringer 10t, 34, Keystone-France /Gamma- E on page 53 from Selected Foreign Policy Documents
Keystone 59, Lehnartz/ ullstein bild 45, Universal from the Administration of John F. Kennedy Jan 1961-
History Archive / UIG 83, UniversallmagesGroup 10b; Nov 1963: London, the Stationery Office 2001, Military
Mary Evans Picture Library: picture-alliance / dpa 66, Resources: Bay of Pigs Invasion & Cuban Missile Crisis,
84; Mirrorpix: 15; NASA: S75-22410 71; The Herb Block The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration;
Foundation: A 1962 Herblock Cartoon 56 Quote on page 55 from John Foster Dulles, interview
in Time-Life Magazine Time-Life Volume 40, No 3
Cover images: Front: Getty Images: Grey Villet / The
LIFE Images Collection
16/01/1956 p.78, with permission from The Reader's
Digest Magazine UK; Extract in Source F on page 55 from
All other images © Pearson Education Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament by Nikita
Khrushchev, translated and edited by Strobe Talbott.
We are grateful to the following for permission to
Copyright © 1974 by Little, Brown and Company (Inc).
reproduce copyright material:
Used by permission of Little, Brown and Company;
Text Extract in Source D on page 60 from Pravda, September
Extract in Source D on page 16 from Telegram from 25, 1968, Vol. 7, No. 6 (November 1968), pp. 1323-
Nikolai Novikov, Soviet Ambassador to the US, to the 1325 International Legal Materials, reproduced with
Soviet Leadership 27/09/46, History and Public Policy permission of American Society of International Law, in
Program Digital Archive, AVP SSSR, f. 06. op. 8, p. 45, the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance
p. 759, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Center; Extract in Source D on page 71 from The Helsinki
with permission from the Cold War International History Accords, US President Gerald Ford; Extract in Source C
Project; Extract in Source E on page 16 from Winston on page 78 from An American Life, Reprint edition ed.,
Churchill The Sinews of Peace (“Iron Curtain Speech”) Threshold Editions (Reagan, R) p.266, Copyright © 1990
05/03/1946 reproduced with permission of Curtis Brown, Ronald W. Reagan reprinted with the permission of
London on behalf of the Estate of Winston S. Churchill, Simon & Schuster, Inc. and Janklow & Nesbit Associates.
Copyright © The Estate of Winston S. Churchill; Quote All rights reserved; Extract in Source E on page 84 from
on page 22 from Ernest Bevin from a statement Fall of the Berlin wall — 25 years on: ‘We were always
made at a National Press Club lunch in Washington, aware that another part of Berlin existed’, Independent,
01/04/49 Harry S. Truman Library; Extract in Source C 31/10/2014 (Robert Vielhaber).
on page 22 from the “Marshall Plan” speech at Harvard

102
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The front cover image shows a photo of Fidel Castro from 1959; the year he
became prime minister of Cuba. After a long guerilla war, Castro overthrew
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