CLASS VIII

SOCIAL SCIENCE
GIST OF THE LESSONS TAUGHT

COMPONENT CHAPTER NUMBER AND NAME

HISTORY Chapter-1 How, When, and Where

CIVICS Chapter 1 The Indian Constitution
GEOGRAPHY Chapter 1 Resources

HISTORY
CHAPTER - 1: How, When, and Where

Introduction: - There was a time when HISTORY was synonymous with dates. It is incorrect to fix
precise dates for processes that happen over a period of time. There was a time when history was an
account of battles and big events. But now historians write about a host of other issues and other
questions. They look at how people earned their livelihood, what they produced and ate, how cities
developed and markets came up, how kingdoms were formed and new ideas spread, and how cultures
and society changed

Why, then, do we continue to associate history with a string of dates?

This association has a reason. There was a time when history was an account of battles and big events.
It was about rulers and their policies. Historians wrote about the year a king was crowned, the year he
married, the year he had a child, the year he fought a particular war, the year he died, and the year
the next ruler succeeded to the throne. For events such as these, specific dates can be determined,
and in histories such as these, debates about dates continue to be important.
As you have seen in the history textbooks of the past two years, historians now write about a host of
other issues and other questions. They look at how people earned their livelihood, what they produced
and ate, how cities developed and markets came up, how kingdoms were formed, how new ideas
spread, and how cultures and societies changed.

Why the dates in history are not important on their own?

• The dates we select, the dates around which we compose our story of the past, are not
important on their own.
• They become vital because we focus on a particular set of events as important. If our focus
of study changes, if we begin to look at new issues, a new set of dates will appear significant.

IMPORTANT DATES WRITTEN BY BRITISH HISTORIANS

RULE OF EACH GOVERNOR GENERAL- These histories began with the first Governor General, Warren Hastings
and ended up with the last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten.
All dates in these HISTORY books were linked to these personalities- to their activities, policies, and
achievements.

It was as if there was nothing outside their lives that was important for us to know. The chronology of
their lives marked the different chapters of the history of India.

Why do we divide HISTORY into chapters?

• When we write HISTORY or a story, we divide it into Chapters to give each chapter some coherence.
 • In the histories that revolve around Governors-General, the activities of Indians
simply do not fit, they have no space.
• We need another format for our history. This would mean that old dates will no longer
have the significance they had earlier.
• A new set of dates will become more important for us to know.

How do we periodise HISTORY?

In 1817, James Mill, a Scottish economist and political philosopher, published a massive three-
volume work, ‘A History of British India '.
In this, he divided Indian History into 3 periods-
1. Hindu
2. Muslim
3. British

This periodisation came to be widely accepted. Can you think of any problem with this way of
looking at Indian history?
Why do we try and divide history into different periods?
We do so in an attempt to capture the characteristics of a time, and its central features as they appear
to us. So, the terms through which we periodise – that is, demarcate the difference between periods
– become important. They reflect our ideas about the past. They show how we see the significance of
the change from one period to the next.

Mill thought that all Asian societies were at a lower level of civilisation than Europe.
According to his telling of history, before the British came to India, Hindu and Muslim despots ruled
the country. Indian society was dominated by
❖ RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE
❖ CASTE TABOOS
❖ SUPERSTITIOUS PRACTICES

Mill felt that British rule could civilise India. To civilise India, it was necessary to introduce European
• manners
• arts
• institutions
• laws

Can we refer to any period of History as Hindu or Muslim?

A variety of faiths existed simultaneously in these periods. So, it is not right to characterize an age
only through the religion of the rulers. If we do this, then it appears that the lives and practices of
others do not matter. We should also remember that all rulers in ancient India did not share the same
faith.

How have historians divided Indian history?

• Ancient Period
• Medieval Period
• Modern period
It is a periodisation borrowed from the West where the modern period was associated with the
growth of all the forces of modernity- science, reason, democracy, liberty, and equality.
Medieval was a term used to describe a society where these features of modern society did not exist.

Do you think we can uncritically accept this characterisation of the modern period?

Under British rule, people did not have equality, freedom, or liberty. Nor was the period one of economic
growth and progress. Many historians refer to this period as colonial.

What is Colonisation?
When the subjugation of one country by another leads to political, economic, social, and cultural
changes, we refer to this process as colonisation.
The British came to India -
 To conquer the country
 To subjugate the local Nawabs and Rajas
 Established control over the economy and society
 Collected revenue to meet all their expenses
 Bought goods they wanted at low prices
 Produced crops they needed for export

As a result, political, economic, and cultural changes came about.

What sources do historians use in writing about the last 250 years of Indian history?

❖ Administration produces records

One important source is the official records of the British administration. The British believed that the act
of writing was important. Every instruction, plan, policy decision, agreement, and investigation had to be
written up. Once this was done, things could be properly studied and debated. This conviction produced
an administrative culture of memos, notings, and reports. The British also felt that all important
documents and letters needed to be carefully preserved. So, they set up record rooms attached to all
administrative institutions. The village tahsildar’s office, the collectorate, the commissioner’s office, the
provincial secretariats, the lawcourts – all had their record rooms. Specialised institutions like archives
and museums were also established to preserve important records.
In the early years of the nineteenth century, these documents were carefully copied out and
beautifully written by calligraphists – that is, by those who specialised in the art of beautiful
writing. By the middle of the nineteenth century, with the spread of printing, multiple copies of
these records were printed as proceedings of each government department.
❖ Surveys
The practice of surveying also became common under the colonial administration because
• The British believed that a country had to be properly known before it could be effectively
administered. By the early nineteenth century, detailed surveys were being carried out to
map the entire country.
In the villages, revenue surveys were conducted. The effort was to know
• the topography
• the soil quality
• the flora
 • the fauna
• the local histories
• the cropping pattern- all the facts are seen as necessary to know about to administer the region.
❖ Census-
• From the end of the nineteenth century, Census operations were held every ten years.
• These prepared detailed records of the number of people in all the provinces of India, noting
information on castes, religions, and occupations.
There were many other surveys – botanical surveys, zoological surveys, archaeological surveys,
anthropological surveys, and forest surveys.

Drawbacks of official records

The official records tell us
• what the officials thought
• what they were interested in and
• what they wished to preserve for the future.
These records do not always help us understand
• what other people in the country felt and
• what lay behind their actions. For that, we need to look elsewhere.
When we begin to search for these other sources, we find them in plenty, though they are more
difficult to get than official records.
• We have diaries of people
• accounts of pilgrims and travellers
• autobiographies of important personalities
• popular booklets that were sold in the local bazaars.
• As printing spread, newspapers were published and issues were debated in public.
• Leaders and reformers wrote to spread their ideas, and poets and novelists wrote to express their
feelings.
All these sources, however, were produced by those who were literate. From these we will not be able
to understand how history was experienced and lived by the tribals and the peasants, the workers in the
mines, or the poor on the streets. Getting to know their lives is a more difficult task.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Define the word ‘history’.
2. Who was James Mill?
3. Name the book written by James Mill.
4. In which year did James Mill publish his book ‘A History of British India’?
5. A History of British India consists of how many volumes?
6. Who was the first Governor-General of British India?
7. Who was the last viceroy of British India?
8. How do historians usually divide Indian history?
9. Where is the National Archives of India located?
10. Where can you have access to British official documents of the colonial period?
11. After how many years were census surveys conducted under the British?
 12. Who are calligraphists?
13. What is colonisation?
14. Why were revenue surveys conducted by the British in Indian villages?
15. Name the events for which specific dates can be determined.
16. What evil practices, according to James Mill, dominated Indian social life before the British came to India?
17. What do official records not tell?
18. What do British official records tell us?
19. The British set up record rooms attached to all administrative institutions. —Name one such place
20. Apart from official records, what are the other sources of information that are available to historians?

OMITTED PORTIONS
• Activities- Pgs 3 and 7
• Sources -Pgs 5 and 7
• Let’s imagine and Let’s do – Pg 8
•
Please note that the rest of the chapter, excluding the omitted portion, is included

ACTIVITY DONE FROM THIS CHAPTER – PAGE 1, FIGURE 1

NO MAP POINTING IS INCLUDED FROM THIS CHAPTER

CIVICS
Unit One: Chapter One - The Indian Constitution

The Constitution of India is the longest-written Constitution in the world. It is a set of rules by which the
government administers our country. It is the supreme law of the land. It came into effect on 26th January
1950. Our Constitution is based on the principles of democracy, socialism, and secularism.
Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar is known as “The Father of the Indian Constitution”.

Why do we need a Constitution?

1. A Constitution lays out certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that we as citizens
aspire to live in. Or, put another way, a constitution tells us what the fundamental nature of our society
is. A country is usually made up of different communities of people who share certain beliefs but may
not necessarily agree on all issues.
2. A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all persons in a country can
agree upon as the basis of how they want the country to be governed. This includes not only
the type of government but also an agreement on certain ideals that they all believe the
country should uphold.
Let us try and understand what we mean by this through two contrasting situations in the
recent history of Nepal, a country that borders India in the north.
• Until quite recently, Nepal was a monarchy. The previous Constitution of Nepal, which had been
adopted in 1990, reflected the fact that the final authority rested with the King. A people’s
movement in Nepal fought for several decades to establish democracy, and in 2006, they finally
 succeeded in putting an end to the powers of the King.
• Now, the people have to write a new Constitution to establish Nepal as a democracy. The
reason that they do not want to continue with the previous Constitution is that it does not
reflect the ideals of the country that they want Nepal to be, and that they have fought for.
• As in the game of football, in which a change in the constitutive rules will change the game
altogether, Nepal, by moving from a monarchy to a democratic government, needs to change
all its constitutive rules to usher in a new society.
• This is why the people of Nepal are in the process of writing a new Constitution for the country.
3. The important purpose of a Constitution is to define the nature of a country’s political system. For
example, Nepal’s earlier Constitution stated that the country was to be ruled by the King and his
council of ministers.
4. In countries that have adopted a democratic form of government or polity, the Constitution plays a
crucial role in laying out certain important guidelines that govern decision-making within these
societies. In a democracy, we choose our leaders so that they can exercise power responsibly on our
behalf. However, there is always the possibility that these leaders might misuse their authority, and the
Constitution usually provides safeguards against this. This misuse of authority can result in gross
injustice.
5. In democratic societies, the Constitution often lays down rules that guard against this misuse of
authority by our political leaders.
6. The Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality to all persons and says that no citizen can be
discriminated against on grounds of religion, race, caste, gender, or place of birth. The Right to
Equality is one of the Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution.
7. Another important function that a constitution plays in a democracy is to ensure that a dominant group
does not use its power against other, less powerful people or groups.
8. The Constitution usually contains rules that ensure that minorities are not excluded from anything
that is routinely available to the majority. Another reason why we have a Constitution is precisely
to prevent this tyranny or domination by the majority of a minority.
9. The Constitution is to save us from ourselves.
10. The Constitution helps to protect us against certain decisions that we might take that could have an
adverse effect on the larger principles that the country believes in. For example, many people who live
in a democracy might come to strongly feel that party politics has become so acrimonious that we need
a strong dictator to set this right. Swept by this emotion, they may not realise that in the long run, the
dictatorial rule goes against all their interests. A good Constitution does not allow these whims to
change its basic structure. It does not allow for the easy overthrow of provisions that guarantee the
rights of citizens and protect their freedom.

The Indian Constitution:

• By the beginning of the twentieth century, the Indian national movement had been active in the
struggle for independence from British rule for several decades.
• During the freedom struggle, the nationalists had devoted a great deal of time to imagining and
planning what a free India would be like.
• Under the British, they had been forced to obey rules that they had had very little role in making.
• The long experience of authoritarian rule under the colonial state convinced Indians that free India
 should be a democracy in which everyone should be treated equally and be allowed to participate in
government.
• What remained to be done then was to work out the ways in which a democratic government would be
set up in India and the rules that would determine its functioning. This was done not by one person but
by a group of around 300 people who became members of the Constituent Assembly in 1946 and who
met periodically for the next three years.

• The CHALLENGES FACED BY THE MEMBERS OF THE Constituent Assembly are-

➢ The country was made up of several different communities that spoke different
languages, belonged to different religions, and had distinct cultures.
➢ Also, when the Constitution was being written, India was going through considerable
turmoil.
➢ The partition of the country into India and Pakistan was imminent.
➢ Some of the Princely States remained undecided about their future.
➢ The socio-economic condition of the vast mass of people appeared dismal.

All of these issues played on the minds of the members of the Constituent Assembly as they drafted the
Constitution. They rose to the occasion and gave this country a visionary document that reflects respect for
maintaining diversity while preserving national unity. The final document also reflects their concern for
eradicating poverty through socio-economic reforms as well as emphasising the crucial role the people can
play in choosing their representatives.

Key Features of the Constitution

1. Federalism
2. Parliamentary Form of Government
3. Separation of Powers
4. Fundamental Rights
5. Secularism

The following are the key features of the Indian Constitution:

1. Federalism: It refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. These are at
the state and at central levels. Panchayati Raj is the third tier of the government. Citizens are governed
by laws & policies made by each of these levels of government.
It is important because, in a country like India, there are people living at different levels, and only one
level of government cannot govern them. Hence, forming a government for the different levels is
important.
(a) The Panchayati Raj is responsible for governing the village.
(b) The State Government is responsible for governing the state.
(c) The Central Government is responsible for governing the entire country.
The vast number of communities in India meant that a system of government needed to be devised
that did not involve only persons sitting in the capital city of New Delhi and making decisions for
everyone. Instead, it was important to have another level of government in the states so that decisions
 could be made for that particular area. While each state in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers
on certain issues, subjects of national concern require that all of these states follow the laws of the
central government. The Constitution contains lists that detail the issues that each tier of government
can make laws on. In addition, the Constitution also specifies where each tier of government can get
the money from for the work that it does. Under federalism, the states are not merely agents of the
federal government but draw their authority from the Constitution as well. All persons in India are
governed by laws and policies made by each of these levels of government.
2. Parliamentary Form of Government: A democratic government is one where the citizens of the country
have the right to elect their representatives. When the Constitution was being made, it ensured that
every citizen of the country, irrespective of caste, colour, creed, and religion, would have the right to elect
their leaders under universal adult suffrage, i.e., the right to vote would be given to all.
3. Separation of Powers: There are three organs of the government-
(a) Legislature - The legislature refers to our elected representatives, those who make laws.
(b) Executive - The executive is a smaller group of people who are responsible for implementing laws and
running the government.
(c) Judiciary- The judiciary refers to the system of courts in the country that settles disputes and makes sure
that laws are obeyed.
Each organ acts as a check on the other organs of the government, and this ensures the balance of power
between all three.
4. Fundamental Rights: Fundamental Rights are a set of rights that the Constitution offers to every citizen of
the country. These rights include the Right to Freedom, the Right to Equality, the Right against Exploitation,
the Right to Freedom of Religion, Cultural and Educational Rights, and the Right to Constitutional remedies.
These rights give every citizen of the country the right to be considered as equal, not to be discriminated
against based on caste, culture, or religion, to get equal educational opportunities, and to be equal in front
of the law.
The Fundamental Rights are referred to as the ‘conscience’ of the Indian Constitution. Fundamental
rights protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the State. The
Constitution guarantees the rights of individuals against the State as well as against other individuals.
Colonial rule had created a certain suspicion of the State in the minds of the nationalists, and they
wanted to ensure that a set of written rights would guard against the misuse of State power in
independent India. Fundamental Rights, therefore, protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute
exercise of power by the State.
Moreover, the various minority communities also expressed the need for the Constitution to include
rights that would protect their groups. The Constitution, therefore, also guarantees the rights of
minorities against the majority.
As Dr. Ambedkar has said about these Fundamental Rights, their object is two-fold.
• The first objective is that every citizen must be in a position to claim those rights.
• Secondly, these rights must be binding upon every authority that has the power to make laws.
List of the Fundamental Rights
(a) Right to Equality: All persons are equal before the law. This means that all persons shall be equally
protected by the laws of the country. It also states that no citizen can be discriminated against based
on their religion, caste, or sex. Every person has access to all public places, including playgrounds,
hotels, shops, etc. The State cannot discriminate against anyone in matters of employment. But there
 are exceptions to this that you will read about later in this book. The practice of untouchability has
also been abolished.
(b)Right to Freedom: This includes the right to freedom of speech and expression, the right to form
associations, the right to move freely and reside in any part of the country, and the right to practise
any profession, occupation, or business.
(c) Right against Exploitation: The Constitution prohibits human trafficking, forced labour, and
employment of children under 14 years of age.
(d)Right to Freedom of Religion: Religious freedom is provided to all citizens. Every person has the
right to practise, profess, and propagate the religion of their choice.
(e) Cultural and Educational Rights: The Constitution states that all minorities, religious or linguistic,
can set up their own educational institutions to preserve and develop their own culture.
(f) Right to Constitutional Remedies: This allows citizens to move the court if they believe that any
of their Fundamental Rights have been violated by the State.
Which Fundamental Rights will the following situations violate?
• If a 13-year-old child is working in a factory manufacturing carpets. - Right against Exploitation
• If a politician in one state decides not to allow labourers from other states to work in his state. -
Right to Freedom
• If a group of people is not permitted to open a Telugu-medium school in Kerala. - Cultural and
Educational Rights
• If the government decides not to promote an officer of the armed forces for being a woman. -
Right to Equality
The Directive Principles of State Policy
In addition to Fundamental Rights, the Constitution also has a section called the Directive Principles
of State Policy. This section was designed by the members of the Constituent Assembly to -
• ensure greater social and economic reforms
• serve as a guide to the independent Indian State to institute laws and policies that help reduce the
poverty of the masses.
5. Secularism: A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the
state religion. The Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out the ideals that we would like all citizens
of the country to adhere to, including the representatives that we elect to rule us. The Constitution has
been amended over the years to reflect new concerns of the polity.

ADDITIONAL OR EXTRA INFORMATION

Characteristics of the Indian Constitution

1. Lengthiest Written Constitution: The Indian Constitution is one of the longest in the world, encompassing
numerous articles and schedules.
2. Drawn from Various Sources: It incorporates provisions from various legal frameworks, including the
Government of India Act 1935, the British Constitution, the US Constitution, the Irish Constitution, and the
Canadian Constitution.
3. Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility: While some provisions are difficult to amend (requiring a special majority),
others can be amended with a simple majority, making it both rigid and flexible.
4. Federal System with Unitary Bias: The Constitution establishes a federal system, but with a strong central
 government and unitary features like single citizenship and an integrated judiciary.
5. Parliamentary Form of Government: India follows the parliamentary system, where the Prime Minister and
the Cabinet are responsible to the Parliament.
6. Synthesis of Parliamentary Sovereignty and Judicial Supremacy: The Constitution balances the power of
Parliament with the supremacy of the judiciary, ensuring checks and balances.
7. Rule of Law: The principle of the Rule of Law is enshrined in the constitution, meaning that everyone is
subject to the law, regardless of their position.
8. Independent and Integrated Judiciary: The judiciary is independent from the executive and legislative
branches, and the Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal.
9. Fundamental Rights: The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights to all citizens, including the right to
equality, freedom, and protection against exploitation.
10. Fundamental Duties - By the Forty-second Amendment Act, Part IVA has been added to the Constitution,
which enumerates certain fundamental duties of the citizens.
11. Directive Principles of State Policy: These principles guide the government in formulating policies and
promoting social and economic welfare.

Significance of Fundamental Rights

1. They provide suitable conditions for the all-around development of a human being.
2. These rights protect people from unjust discrimination.
3. They act as a check on the arbitrary powers and acts of the government.
4. These rights are enforceable by law, and thus, one can move to the Supreme Court or High Court for their
enforcement.
5. The fundamental rights reveal the underlying concept of equality, as all citizens are given the same freedom
irrespective of religion, sex, race, social status, or caste.
6. They have helped to frame legislation to abolish untouchability in Indian society.

Aims and Objectives of the Directive Principles of State Policy

• The Directive Principles of State Policy aim to establish political, economic, and social justice.
• It aims to provide equal opportunities and facilities to all in order to eliminate inequalities in status and
inequalities in income.
• Raising the standard of living of the people is another aim of the directives

Differences between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy

Directive Principles of State Policy Fundamental Rights

They are guidelines for the government to attain They place some restrictions on the government.
a set of objectives.
They are meant to create certain privileges for They are the privileges enjoyed by the citizens.
the people.
They are non-justiciable, thus cannot be They are justiciable, hence can be enforced by the
enforced by the court of law, which means if a court of law, which means that if a person is not
person is unemployed or gets a low wage, he/he allowed his/her religious customs he/she can go to
cannot go to the court to seek justice. the court.
 Their scope is wider as they cover subjects like Their scope is limited to the rights of an individual.
international peace and security.
They promote the welfare of all. They promote the welfare of an individual.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. What has been termed as the ‘conscience’ of the Indian Constitution?
2. What is the role of Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution?
3. Mention the two objectives of Dr. Ambedkar on the concept of Fundamental Rights.
4. What were the different adverse situations that the Constitution makers had to face while drafting the
Constitution?
5. How does the Indian Constitution ensure the separation of powers between the legislature, executive, and
judiciary?
6. What are the aims and objectives of the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Indian Constitution?
7. If a 13-year-old child is working in a factory manufacturing carpets. Which Fundamental Rights will the
following situation violate?
8. If a group of people are not permitted to open a Telugu-medium school in Kerala. Mention the
Fundamental Right that is being violated by this.
9. What caused fear among the members of the Constituent Assembly?
10. Why did Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar urge Scheduled Castes to join the government as well as the civil
services?
11. Why do we need a Constitution?
12. Why did the people of Nepal want a new Constitution?
13. What does the word ‘State’ refer to?

Portions Included
• All the boxes
• The information below the pictures, Storyboards/cartoons
• Glossary

Portions omitted
• Pg 9 - The question on Shabnam.
• Pg 10- The box
• Pg 13- The difference between State and Government
• Pg 15- The question on Fundamental duties
• Exercise- Qs no 6

Please note that the rest of the chapter, excluding the omitted portion, is included
_________________________________________________________________________________________
 GEOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 1: RESOURCES

Definition of resources:
• Definition: An object or substance that has utility or usability is termed a resource.
• We are surrounded by various types of natural and man-made resources that satisfy individual
human wants. It includes land, water, forest, machinery, furniture, clothes, etc.
• Previously, tangible objects were only considered resources, whereas intangible objects like culture,
peace, policy wisdom, etc., were not considered resources. But with time, the concept of resources
has changed –anything that has utility and value is considered a resource.

Major Characteristics of a resource [ADDITIONAL OR EXTRA INFORMATION]

1. A resource is identified mainly by two criteria: Functionality and Utility. Coal is a resource because it
is functional in relation to human demand and is utilised by humans.
2. There are three components of resource development- nature, man, and culture. Man, with the help
of his culture, uses nature for his own benefit.
3. Resources may be tangible (like minerals) or intangible (like human skill).
4. Man is the producer and consumer of all resources.
5. Since the concept of resource implies functionality, it is always dynamic. This dynamism is primarily
dependent on demand and technology.
6. All resources have some value, either economic or otherwise, and their usefulness makes them
valuable.
Value means worth. The utility of resources gives it value. So, the use of resources depends on
their value. Some resources have economic value, and some have aesthetic value. For example, metals
may have an economic value, but a beautiful landscape may not. But both are important and satisfy
human needs.
7. Resources are unevenly distributed over the Earth’s surface.
8. Resources are not always abundant, and their limited availability necessitates careful and sustainable
use.
9. Furthermore, resources are often interconnected, meaning the value or usefulness of one resource
can depend on others.

Resource-creating factors:
• The important resource-creating factors are:
➢ Nature
➢ Time
➢ Technology
➢ Humans
• With time, the importance and usability of wheels changed, and technology helped to modify it, and
now wheels are a newer mode of transport.
• The technology to create hydroelectricity has turned energy in fast-flowing water into an important
resource. Technology is the application of the latest knowledge and skills in doing or making things.
• People themselves are the most important resource. Without humans, no technology would have
developed. It is their ideas, knowledge, inventions, and discoveries that lead to the creation of more
resources.
Types of Resources: Natural
• Resources are classified into natural, human-made, and human.
Natural Resources
Resources that are drawn from nature and used without much modification are called natural resources.
Examples are the air we breathe, the water in our rivers and lakes, the soil, minerals, etc. Many of these
resources are free gifts of nature and can be used directly. In some cases, tools and technology may be
needed to use a natural resource in the best possible way.
[ADDITIONAL OR EXTRA INFORMATION]

n the basis of
ownership

[ADDITIONAL OR EXTRA INFORMATION]

A. Based on origin
(a) Biotic resources are living organisms that include plants, animals, microorganisms, and human
beings. All the biotic resources have the capacity to reproduce and regenerate within a period of
time.
(b) Abiotic resources are derived from non-living things of the environment, like rocks, minerals,
mountains, gases, etc
B. Based on development and use
(a) Actual or developed resources are those that are in existence and are being used and whose
quantity and quality are known. Example-Oil reserves of Arab countries
(b) Potential resources are those that exist in a region but whose quantity and location are not known,
and the resources are not being utilised. Example- Petroleum in the Himalayan region and Uranium in
Ladakh that have not been extracted and utilised.
C. Based on Ownership
(a) Personal or Individual resources are those that are owned privately by individuals. Example- a plot of
land, a car, etc
(b) Community resources are those that belong to all the members of the society. Example- Wells,
 ponds, etc
(c) National resources are those that belong to the people of the nation. Example- Minerals and forests
of India
(d) International resources are the sum total of all the resources owned by different nations. Example-
oceans
D. Based on availability
(a) Ubiquitous resources include those resources which occur almost everywhere, such as oxygen in the
atmosphere, sunshine, etc
(b) Localised resources are concentrated or localised at specific places only. Example-Coal, petroleum,
iron ore, etc
E. Based on stock/ renewability
(a) Renewable - Renewable resources are those which get renewed or replenished quickly.Some of
these are unlimited and are not affected by human activities, such as solar and wind energy. Yet
careless use of certain renewable resources like water, soil, and forest can affect their stock. Water is
an unlimited renewable resource. But shortage and drying up of natural water sources is a major
problem in many parts of the world today.
(b) Non-renewable - Non-renewable resources are those which have limited stock. Once the stocks are
exhausted it may take thousands of years to be renewed or replenished. Since this period is much
more than human life spans, such resources are considered non-renewable. Coal, petroleum, and
natural gas are some examples.
Renewable resources Non-renewable resources
1.Renewable resources are those resources that 1. They cannot be replenished or renewed. They get
do not get exhausted on account of their use totally exhausted on account of their use. They are
and can be replenished. Therefore, they are also also called non-replenishable or exhaustible
known as replenishable or inexhaustible resources. E.g. Natural gas
resources. Eg. water
2. They have an unlimited stock. 2. They have a limited stock.

3. Their rate of renewal is greater than the rate 3. Their rate of renewal is lower than the rate of
of consumption. consumption.

4. The initial cost of production is low, but the 4. The initial cost of production is high, but the
maintenance cost is high. maintenance cost is low.

5. Renewable resources can be divided into 5. Nonrenewable resources can be classified into
(a) Continuous or flow resources, e.g., wind, (a) Recyclable, e.g., metals
water, solar energy, etc. (b) Non-recyclable, e.g. fossil fuels.
(b) Biological resources, e.g., Natural vegetation
(forests) and wildlife.
6. These resources are pollution-free and 6. These resources cause pollution and damage to
therefore environment friendly. our environment.

Why are resources unevenly distributed on the Earth’s surface?

Resources such as water, minerals, and arable land are not evenly spread across the Earth. The unequal
distribution of resources across the Earth is due to a combination of natural and human factors.
Natural Factors
Natural resources are distributed unevenly across the Earth due to physical factors like climate, terrain, and
altitude.
• Climate: Climate affects the distribution of resources like water, fertile soil, and vegetation.
• Terrain: Terrain such as mountains, plains, and coastlines influences the distribution of resources
like minerals, forests, and arable land.
• Altitude: It plays a role in resource distribution as it affects the temperature, precipitation, and
vegetation patterns of the region.
Human Factors
• Human activities, such as deforestation, mining, and agriculture, can alter the distribution of
resources.
• Technology enables the extraction and utilisation of resources.
• Political and economic factors, such as trade policies and globalization, can also contribute to the
unequal distribution of resources.

Stock of Resources is the amount of resources available for use.

Patent means the exclusive right over any idea or invention.

Types of Resources: Human-Made

• Resources that are made by humans by converting natural substances into more useful resources
are called human-made resources. Examples: buildings, bridges, roads, machinery, and vehicles.
• Technology is also a human-made resource. It is the application of the latest knowledge and skill in
doing or making things.
• Patent means the exclusive right over any idea or invention.
Types of Resources: Human
• Human Resources refers to the number (quantity) and abilities (mental and physical) of the people.
• People can make the best use of nature to create more resources when they have the knowledge,
skill, and technology to do so. That is why human beings are a special resource.
• Education and health help make people a valuable resource.
• Improving the quality of people’s skills so that they are able to create more resources is known as
human resource development.
Resource Conservation:
• Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation.
• Balancing the need to use resources and also conserve them for the future is called
sustainable development.
• There are many ways of conserving resources, such as by reducing consumption, recycling, and
reusing things.
 [ADDITIONAL OR EXTRA INFORMATION]

ero waste

• Substitution – Development of the substitute is a major principle of resource conservation. Non-

renewable energy resources like fossil fuels can be substituted by renewable energy resources like
solar power.
• Development of Awareness – No conservation programme is complete if people are not involved.
For example, initial uses of solar power may encounter some problems. However, people may be
motivated to use it if they become aware of the need to conserve fossil fuels.

Some Principles of Sustainable Development

➢ Respect and care for all forms of life
➢ Improve the quality of human life
➢ Conserve the Earth’s vitality and diversity
➢ Minimise the depletion of natural resources
➢ Change personal attitudes and practices toward the environment
➢ Enable communities to care for their environment
We must ensure that:
• All uses of renewable resources are sustainable.
• The diversity of life on Earth is conserved.
• The damage to the natural environmental system is minimised.

Give reasons
(a) Coal is a nonrenewable resource.
Coal has a limited stock. Once the stock is exhausted, it may take thousands of years to be renewed or
replenished. Since this period is much longer than the human lifespan. Hence, coal is regarded as a
nonrenewable resource.
 (b) Biotic resources are renewable.
All the biotic resources have the capacity to reproduce and regenerate within a period of time. Hence,
they are called renewable resources.

Activity
“Rahiman paani raakhiye,
Bin paani sab soon.
Paani gaye na ubere Mod, manus, choon…”
[Says Rahim, keep water, as without water, there is nothing. Without water, pearls, swans, and dough cannot
exist.] These lines were written by the poet Abdur Rahim Khankhanam, one of the nine gems of Akbar’s court.
What kind of resource is the poet referring to? What would happen if this resource disappeared? State three
Reasons.
Answer.
• The resource referred to by the poet is water.
• It is one of the most indispensable resources of life.
• It can be said to be one of the preconditions of life, like air.
• Firstly, water serves the most basic purpose of drinking, without which life is not possible.
• In the absence of water, one would be unable to clean clothes, utensils, or even take a bath.
• Farmers depend on water for irrigation.
• Rainwater is so important for proper agriculture.
• Water is also used in cooking food.
• Nowadays, water has proved to be a useful source of electricity.
• Besides human beings, plants require water for their growth.
• Water is also required for various industrial purposes in factories. In short, no form of life can go on
without water.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Which resource is a special resource and why?
2. What makes a substance a resource?
3. Why is air a ubiquitous resource?
4. How are resources classified according to their distribution?
5. What are the physical factors that affect the distribution of natural resources?
6. Mention how the stock of certain renewable resources may be affected by overuse.
7. Differentiate between abiotic and biotic resources.
8. Mention our responsibility to maintain and preserve the life support system that nature provides us.
9. What is the significance of time and technology in making a substance a resource?
10. Which of the categories of resources have limited stock?

OMITTED PORTIONS
NO MAP POINTING IS INCLUDED FROM THIS CHAPTER
• Let's do- Pgs 1 and 3
• For Fun- Pg 6

Please note that the rest of the chapter, excluding the omitted portion, is included
 PLEASE NOTE:

• Students should refer to the prescribed textbooks for History, Civics, Geography,
and the GIST.

• All additional information in the GIST is also important for the Examination.

____________________________________________________________________________________________