Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2022, 55, 19–39 NUMBER 1 (WINTER)

“Why don’t behavior analysts do something?”1 Behavior analysts’

historical, present, and potential future actions on sexual and
gender minority issues
Matthew R. Capriotti
Department of Psychology, San José State University

Jeanne M. Donaldson
Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University

For thousands of years, societies actively practiced the oppression, persecution, and dehumaniza-
tion of sexual and gender minority (SGM) people (e.g., lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and
queer individuals). Rekers and Lovaas’ (1974) study is part of that history within behavior analy-
sis. Following requests for retraction, the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and
LeBlanc (2020) issued a formal Expression of Concern about the work. Continued conversation
and debate have followed. First, we contextualize debate around retraction of Rekers and Lovaas
and the history of behavior analysts’ work on SGM issues. Second, we propose 5 steps that
leaders in behavior analysis can take with relative immediacy, and we describe 5 research areas
that individual behavior analysts could pursue. We conclude that behavior analysts can contrib-
ute much toward the liberation of SGM individuals if we begin to bring our science to bear on
pressing, socially significant issues facing SGM communities.
Key words: behavior analysis, conversion therapy, ethics, health disparities, LGBTQ+,
retraction, sexual and gender minority

There is an ongoing controversy in behavior

analysis surrounding research conducted by
George Rekers and Ivar Lovaas in the early 1970s
Matthew R. Capriotti https://orcid.org/0000-0003- and published in the Journal of Applied Behavior
0825-2926
Jeanne M. Donaldson https://orcid.org/0000-0003- Analysis (JABA; Rekers & Lovaas, 1974). Today,
1615-6061 this work is clearly recognizable as a form of gen-
1
While being dragged out of the Stonewall Inn in hand- der identity change therapy, or “conversion ther-
cuffs and forced into a police paddy wagon during the infa-
mous 1969 police raid of this establishment, Stormé apy” (American Psychological Association, 2021;
DeLarverie is said to have shouted to a pair of onlookers who Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
had also been in the bar, “Why don’t you guys do some- Administration, 2015). Since its publication, Rekers
thing!” Accounts of this event suggest that these words
occasioned the acts of resistance that followed, marking an and others have used this paper and subsequent,
historic turning point in the SGM rights movements in the related work to promote sexual orientation and
United States. gender identity change practices both within and
We thank the many colleagues who provided feedback
and suggestions on previous versions of this manuscript.
beyond the scientific literature (Kosky, 1987;
The authors thank Jennifer Austin, Daniel Conine, Jesse Langevin, 2013; Rekers, 1982a, 1982b, 1995,
Dallery, Annesa Flentje, Patrick Friman, Grant 2009; Roberto, 1983). Around the time the work
Gautreaux, Tim Hackenberg, Christopher Martell, David was published, Nordyke et al. (1977) and
Pantalone, and Maranda Trahan for their comments on
prior versions of this manuscript. Winkler (1977) published critical commentaries
Address correspondence to: Matthew R. Capriotti, describing their ethical concerns with both the goals
Department of Psychology, San José State University, and the procedures involved in Rekers and
One Washington Square, San José, CA 95192-0120.
Email: [email protected] Lovaas (1974). More recently, some behavior ana-
doi: 10.1002/jaba.884 lysts have requested retraction of the paper, which
© 2021 Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
19
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
20 Matthew R. Capriotti and Jeanne M. Donaldson

led to The Society for the Experimental Analysis of perspectives of sexual and gender minority
Behavior (SEAB) and LeBlanc (2020) issuing an (SGM) people (i.e., those whose sexual orienta-
Expression of Concern. The Expression of Concern tion and/or gender identity does not align with
was the first such statement issued in JABA about societal expectations based on their birth-
any article in its history. However, some behavior assigned sex, such as lesbian, gay, bisexual,
analysts have publicly critiqued the ways they feel transgender, and queer people), and believe it
this Expression of Concern missed the mark would have looked quite different had these
(Gingles & Donovan, 2020; Johnson, 2020). voices been included. Other behavior analysts
Johnson (2020) has put forth the most thor- were likely excited to see a milestone of pro-
ough critique of the Expression of Concern. gress in our field on issues related to SGM. We
Johnson’s critique is detailed and contains a expect that these differences in reactions are
wealth of contextual information; we encourage due largely to differences in personal histories
readers to read it in full, but we briefly summa- (e.g., the first author identifies as a sexual
rize his main points here. Johnson argues that minority and has conducted SGM-related
Rekers and Lovaas (1974) was, in fact, unethical research and public health work for 6 years).
by the standards of the time it was conducted, For thousands of years, societies, with a few
citing historical contemporaneous criticisms noteworthy exceptions, actively practiced the
(i.e., Nordyke et al., 1977; Winkler, 1977) and oppression, persecution, and dehumanization
historical events (e.g., the American Psychiatric of SGM people. Religious attempts to exorcise
Association depathologizing homosexuality in or “cure” homosexuality and cross-gender
1973). He ultimately disagrees with SEAB and behavior have a long history. Rekers and
LeBlanc’s (2020) “stated ambiguity” about Lovaas’ approach in their 1974 study fits in this
whether Rekers and Lovaas was “unethical by the history, albeit using physical punishment,
standards of the time.” Johnson also points out extinction, and differential reinforcement,
that the Committee on Publication Ethics’ rather than spiritual intervention (although
(COPE, 2019) retraction guidelines specify only Rekers was also a proponent of spiritual inter-
that retraction of “unethical research” is appropri- vention in his books; Zucker, 1984). Over the
ate, without specifying that this be “by the stan- past half-century, numerous societies, including
dards of the time.” Based on this, Johnson calls the U.S., have begun to embrace SGM identi-
on SEAB and LeBlanc to “apply current ethical ties as normal, nonpathological human experi-
standards to historical work which inarguably ence. Laws, social norms, educational and
harms people” and reverse their decision not to clinical practices have changed to increasingly
retract. support SGM equality and prevent discrimina-
Although Johnson’s (2020) critiques have tion, harassment, and violence against SGM
been shared publicly, we suspect others have people. To our chagrin, we note that behavior
discussed such critiques among colleagues or analysts have been largely absent from partici-
had similar private reactions. The Expression of pating visibly in this progress, at least in our
Concern evoked and elicited different responses professional roles (Morris et al., 2021).
among different readers (including between the The primary purpose of this paper is to dis-
first and second authors of this paper). Some cuss some relevant circumstances at the time of
readers (e.g., the first author) found that the Rekers and Lovaas (1974) and since, consider
Expression of Concern elicited strong aversive some impacts of the movement for retraction
private experiences for them and share the frus- and subsequent Expression of Concern,
tration that the Expression of Concern appears describe behavior analysts’ subsequent treat-
to have been written without inclusion of ment of SGM issues, and provide clear
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Why Don’t Behavior Analysts Do Something? 21

suggestions for behavior analysts to work agree with Friman (2021) that, “behavior ana-
toward SGM people’s liberation going forward. lysts can be just as prone as non-behavior ana-
Our suggestions include both things that lysts to adopt a blame-laden explanation for
behavior analysts in leadership positions of pro- problem behavior that occurs outside the spe-
fessional organizations can do, and things that cific stimulus control of their training” (p. 6).
individual behavior analysts can do, specifically Yet, their behavior is also a product of circum-
in the form of pursuing research aimed at stances. Here, we discuss some circumstances
improving the lives of SGM people. As we dis- surrounding this initial work and we discuss
cuss these issues, we wish to make clear that how these circumstances have changed. The
SGM people are not a homogenous group causal role of these circumstances is speculative,
(despite our “umbrella” references to “SGM but, we believe, worth considering.
people” and “SGM issues”), particularly with In the 1970s, when behavior analysts and
respect to the effects of current discriminatory behavior therapists published the bulk of their
practices and other intersecting minoritized iden- seminal research on conversion therapy, legal
tities. We especially note that transgender and prohibitions on adults’ “cross-dressing” in pub-
other gender-minority people are the target of an lic existed in many U.S. states, including in
exceptionally large proportion of violence and dis- New York and California, and adults were
crimination against SGM communities in our arrested on these terms (Charnock, 2021, Pub-
current times. We also agree with others lic Broadcasting Service, 2015; Stein, 2019).
(e.g., DeFelice & Diller, 2019) that an Also at that time, sexual orientation and gender
intersectional lens is critical to conducting mean- identity change therapies were legal in all
ingful work aimed at bettering the lives of any 50 states, and no major professional organiza-
marginalized people, including those in SGM tion had declared opposition to these practices.
communities. Although our analysis here is of The research center and clinic with which
limited scope in these ways (and others), we Rekers was affiliated was a reputable program
believe our critiques and calls for action here pro- at the University of California, Los Angeles
vide a first step for developing work as a field that with federal grant funding (SEAB &
more squarely addresses many of the specific LeBlanc, 2020; Zucker, 1984). The American
issues that we treat only tangentially here. Psychiatric Association defined homosexuality
as a mental disorder until 1973 and maintained
definitions of gender-related disorders that
Some Circumstances around SGM People at inappropriately pathologized the experience of
the Time Rekers and Lovaas (1974) Was many, if not most, transgender people until at
Published and Since least 1994 (Zucker, 2010). In this context, it
Here, we take a context-focused, behavior- seems that Rekers and Lovaas (1974) was pub-
analytic “Circumstances View” (Friman, 2021) lished at a time when attempts to change gen-
of Rekers and Lovaas’ (1974) scientific behavior der expression were beginning increasingly to
related to this work. One tenet of the Circum- be seen as controversial (Nordyke et al., 1977;
stances View is that it applies to the behavior Winkler, 1977) but also clearly still within the
of all people. That includes behavior that we broad bounds of societal acceptance.
find extremely noxious. This includes the Under the same historical circumstances,
behavior of George Rekers, Ivar Lovaas, and professionals in related disciplines also ex-
others involved with this and similar efforts. cluded, disparaged, and belittled SGM people.
Under the current circumstances, we find it A reading of psychoanalysis’ treatment of SGM
tempting to vilify these people’s behavior. We individuals surpasses even the stigmatizing
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
22 Matthew R. Capriotti and Jeanne M. Donaldson

language used in Rekers and Lovaas (1974). American Counseling Association (2013), the
For instance, one psychoanalyst (Bergler, 1956) American Association for Marriage and Family
described SGM people as “psychic masoch- Therapy (2009), the American School Counselor
ists… subservient when confronted with a Association (2014), the National Association of
stronger person, merciless when in power, Social Workers (2000), and the American Psy-
unscrupulous about trampling on a weaker per- choanalytic Association (2012) have made public
son.” Other psychoanalysts described SGM position statements against the practice of conver-
people as having a pathological “character dis- sion therapy, and they have affirmed their stances
order” to be cured through psychoanalysis that minority sexual orientations (e.g., lesbian,
(e.g., Pattison, 1967). The American Psychoana- gay, and bisexual) and gender identities (e.g.,
lytic Association did not accept openly gay and transgender, gender nonbinary) are normal, non-
lesbian trainees until 1991 (Goode, 1998; pathological variations of human experience.4
Isay, 1996). Within the field of behavior therapy, Conversion therapy is legally banned in 21 states
arguably the most closely aligned with behavior (Movement Advancement Project, 2021).
analysis, problems were present too. Two highly It is also clear that many important changes
regarded researchers in the behavior therapy field, outside of scientific and mental health practice
Gerald Davison2 and David Barlow,3 both con- occurred in the years immediately surrounding
ducted formative work on conversion therapy or Rekers and Lovaas’ (1974) paper. For instance,
“sexual orientation change therapy” (Barlow & the first massive pro-SGM demonstrations in
Agras, 1973; Wilson & Davison, 1974). Barlow the U.S. began in the wake of the 1969 Stone-
et al. (1977) published a case study on the treat- wall riots, the American Psychological Associa-
ment of a “conservatively diagnosed transsexual” tion depathologized homosexuality in 1973,
who experienced a “long-lasting masculine (from and Harvey Milk became the first openly SGM
female) gender identity” (p. 394) through reli- person elected to public office in 1978. To be
gious exorcism. sure, in 2021, anti-SGM policies still exist
As SEAB and LeBlanc (2020) noted, “times (e.g., “bathroom bills,” Transgender Law
have changed;” circumstances have changed. Center, n.d.), and SGM people continue to
Major professional organizations, including the experience violence, harassment, and discrimi-
American Psychological Association (2009; nation in healthcare and educational settings
2021), American Psychiatric Association (2000), (James et al., 2016; Lambda Legal, 2010; Wirtz
the American Academy of Child and Adolescent et al., 2020), among others. Nonetheless, it’s
Psychiatry (2018), the American Medical Associa- clear that there has been progress since 1974.
tion (AMA, 2018, 2019; Davis et al., 1996),
the American Academy of Pediatrics (1993), the
2
Some Issues Surrounding the Current
Notably, Davison began to change his views on his
own conversion therapy work in 1972. Then, in 1974 as Retraction Debate
president of the Association for the Advancement of Although societal progress has clearly been
Behavior Therapy, he successful advocated for a resolution
affirming homosexuality as normal and “urg[ing] all men- made, oppression of SGM people continues to
tal health professionals to take the lead in removing the
4
stigma of mental illness that has long been attributed to Though a granular discussion of each statement is
these patterns of emotion and behavior.” Davison cen- beyond the scope of this paper, we note that organizations
tered the topic in his 1974 presidential address have tended to first state positions around sexual orienta-
(Davison, 2016). tions change efforts, and only more recently have taken
3
Barlow referred to this work as “the most regrettable up clear formal positions specifically around gender iden-
initiative of [his] clinical research career” in a 2016 retro- tity and expression change therapies (e.g., American Psy-
spective (2016; Ch. 1, p. 6). chological Association, 2021).
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Why Don’t Behavior Analysts Do Something? 23

this day, such that continued progress is needed violation of ethical protocols in with several
to bring about equality for SGM people. Those other categories for rarely used retraction rea-
requesting retraction of Rekers and Lovaas (1974) sons (e.g., administrative errors, publishing
consider retraction to be an important part of the without the agreement of all authors), which
progress that needs to be made. In considering collectively accounted for 12% of all retractions
the issues surrounding retraction, we first consider in psychology. Most prior uses of the retraction
some circumstances that affect scientific behavior process for unethical research have been tied to
and the behavior of those who make decisions objective procedural violations (e.g., failing to
about retraction—editors and publishing compa- obtain institutional review board approval, fail-
nies. Then we briefly discuss the processes and ing to disclose risks to participants during con-
standard uses of retraction and editorial Expres- sent; Retraction Watch, n.d.). Additionally, the
sions of Concern. Finally, given that a retraction vast majority of retractions occur within 4 years
was not issued, we consider how retraction would of publication (Craig et al., 2020; Fang
or would not affect current and future practice et al., 2012). Historical papers reporting
and research. unethical research procedures are not typically
Circumstances surrounding the behavior of retracted (Craig et al., 2012; Fang et al., 2012;
scientists have led to much of what we appreci- Retraction Watch, n.d.).
ate about modern society (e.g., medical and Specifically, papers similar to Rekers and
technological advances, behavioral interven- Lovaas (1974) have not been retracted, nor
tions). However, the behavior of the scientist, have members of other professional communi-
like all behavior, is also susceptible to problem- ties called for their retraction. The current edi-
atic circumstances (e.g., faulty stimulus control tors of the Journal of Experimental Child
producing measurement errors, extreme Psychology and the Journal of Abnormal Child
response requirements—such as high-impact Psychology have not received requests to retract
publications and grant obtainment—required Rekers’ papers published in their journals
for the reinforcers associated with tenure and (Rekers, 1975; Rekers et al., 1974; respectively)
promotion producing scientific misconduct). or other similar contemporaneous publications
Retraction is the mechanism by which journal (D. Bjorklund, personal communication, May
editors can correct the record when published 3, 2021; P. Frick, personal communication,
scientific reports cannot be trusted due to error April 21, 2021; respectively). Additionally, the
or scientific misconduct (Committee on Publi- current editors of journals publishing similar
cation Ethics [COPE], 2019). Correction in work from David Barlow (Barlow, 1973,
the form of retraction means the publication is Behavior Therapy; Barlow et al., 1977, Archives
stamped as retracted and accompanied by a of Sexual Behavior; Hay et al., 1981, Journal of
retraction letter explaining why the editor ret- Consulting and Clinical Psychology) also have
racted the paper; in nearly all cases, retracted not received requests for retractions of those
articles continue to be available online at the papers (D. Sloan, K. Zucker, and J. Davila,
journal website (e.g., Elsevier, n.d., Wiley, n.d.). respectively, personal communications on May
Retraction of scientific papers, in general, is 20, 2021). We note this as a circumstance sur-
very rare. For example, approximately 2,000 rounding the present retraction debate (i.e., a
out of 25 million (0.008%) of PubMed search- lack of parallel events in other fields), but we
able publications since 1940 have been ret- are mindful that behavior analysts and JABA
racted (Fang et al., 2012). Even when could certainly be the first to retract a paper of
retractions are issued, they are rarely on ethical this sort. We do suspect that other differences
grounds. Craig et al. (2020) lumped the in retraction calls between behavior analysis
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
24 Matthew R. Capriotti and Jeanne M. Donaldson

and these other fields may be a function of potential additional context for circumstances
other more recent circumstances, particularly surrounding retraction decisions.
the extent to which each discipline made con- When the findings of a retraction investiga-
structive, contemporary contributions to SGM tion by the editor-in-chief, publishing
issues (e.g., through position statements, prac- company, or both do not support retraction,
tice guidelines, and research contributions). editors may issue an Expression of Concern.
The retraction process may be initiated by Expressions of Concern are distinct from com-
the journal editor upon receiving information mentaries expressing concerns about a paper
suggesting errors or misconduct have occurred, (e.g., Nordyke et al., 1977; Winkler, 1977) in
either from the authors or others. However, that they are formally linked to the publication
when the journal is published by a large pub- and issued by an editor. As with retractions
lishing company, the publishing company per- (but unlike commentaries and rejoinders), edi-
forms a formal review (e.g., Springer, n.d.; torial Expressions of Concern are rare, and
Wiley, n.d.). That is, although retractions are nearly all are issued shortly after the initial pub-
issued by journal editors, journal editors do not lication of the manuscript of concern (Vaught
necessarily have unilateral authority to issue et al., 2017). In fact, SEAB and LeBlanc (2020)
retractions in the absence of support from the is the first editorial expression of concern issued
journal’s publishing company. JABA is publi- by a SEAB journal (JABA and Journal of the
shed by Wiley, whose procedure for retraction Experimental Analysis of Behavior). Notwith-
involves a formal review by an internal commit- standing valid critiques of the Expression of
tee, including individuals with legal expertise Concern (e.g., what was said and how it was
(Wiley, n.d.). Retraction decisions by publish- said, as well as what was not said), we do not
ing companies seem likely to be made conserva- want readers to miss the historical significance
tively to avoid legal liability. That is, there are of, and precedent set by, the issuance of the
legal and financial circumstances surrounding Expression of Concern. In our view, it repre-
the choices people on retraction review com- sents an attempt to achieve, or at least begin to
mittees make about whether a paper meets the achieve, solidarity with SGM communities. We
COPE guidelines for retraction. believe we are better off attempting to reinforce
Additionally, with respect to the category of SEAB and LeBlanc’s action by responding with
“unethical procedures,” we could find no elaborative discussion and forward-looking
COPE flowchart (COPE, n.d.) for making actions, rather than attempting to punish this
these decisions, in contrast to some of the class of responses by decrying its (real) prob-
other more common reasons for retraction lems or impugning the authors’ motives, both
(e.g., suspected peer review manipulation, fabri- of which are frequent human responses in the
cated data, plagiarism, authorship problems, presence of arguments that one finds offensive
undisclosed conflicts of interest). The historical around emotionally charged topics.
lack of precedent, absence of a COPE flowchart Retraction is not necessary for preventing
regarding the unethical procedures, and poten- current practitioners from conducting conver-
tial legal implications for retraction seem likely sion therapy. Professional practice guidelines
circumstances that might influence a publishing and ethical codes serve as safeguards against
company’s decision to retract Rekers and using unethical historical publications as sup-
Lovaas (1974), if a JABA editor-in-chief were port for current practices. To examine just one
to request retraction. This is not to say the out- example from medicine, works on lobotomy
come of not retracting the paper was the remain published in old editions of top medical
“right” outcome, simply to provide some journals (e.g., Bennett et al., 1943, Journal of
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Why Don’t Behavior Analysts Do Something? 25

the American Medical Association; Jenkins procedural components in textbooks

et al., 1954, American Journal of Psychiatry), (e.g., Behavior Modification, 6th Edition;
but there is no serious concern that physicians Miltenberger, 2016). However, textbook revisions
will liberally lobotomize patients, as this would do not require retractions of papers. In fact, the
be clearly unethical, clearly outside of standards reference to Rekers and Lovaas has been removed
of care, and almost unquestionably lead to rev- from the eBook version and the next edition of
ocation of current board certifications on ethi- Behavior Modification (R. Miltenberger, personal
cal and legal grounds. Likewise, retraction communication, December 10, 2020), which is
would not necessarily prevent uncredentialed, likely a result of specific feedback delivered to the
unlicensed individuals (including religious author and publishing company from behavior
clergy) from engaging in unethical practices analysts.
consistent with the procedures found in Rekers
and Lovaas (1974), other conversion therapy
Some Suggestions for Behavior Analysts to
procedures, or other pseudoscientific and
Address SGM Issues
unethical “therapies.” Even following retrac-
tion, those who are interested would still be Although past and current circumstances
able to find the paper, generally on the have not supported behavior analysts’ work on
journal’s website itself (see above), and, if not SGM issues, perhaps we can arrange the cir-
there, elsewhere on the internet (where nothing cumstances that would. We first suggest some
seems to truly disappear) or from a colleague relatively low-effort things that behavior ana-
who has saved a copy. Preventing the use of lysts can do now. Then, we consider
these procedures altogether requires changes to contingency-establishing actions that behavior
state or federal law and mechanisms for the analysts can take to increase the probability that
effective enforcement of said laws. more behavior analysts will engage in research
Retraction is also not necessary to prevent cur- in this domain. Finally, we outline a few rela-
rent researchers from replicating or extending tively straightforward research ideas that we
Rekers and Lovaas (1974). The aforementioned hope could reduce the initial response effort for
professional practice guardrails also apply to con- beginning this research.
version therapy in the context of applied-behav-
ior-analytic research (i.e., wherein one or more 1. Professional Behavior-Analytic
members of the author team is either licensed Organizations and Credentialing Bodies
and/or credentialed as a clinician, or a trainee Can Take Clear, Unequivocal Stances
operating under professional ethical codes). As Against Conversion Therapies
described in the Expression of Concern (SEAB & The Association for Behavior Analysis Interna-
LeBlanc, 2020), the procedures in Rekers and tional (ABAI) and the Association for Professional
Lovaas would not be approved by institutional Behavior Analysts (APBA) can publish position
review boards today. Retraction also does not pre- statements against conversion therapy as it relates
vent the paper from continued citation. In fact, both to gender identity and sexual orientation
retracted papers continue to be cited post- change efforts (Conine et al., 2021). On July
retraction (Madlock-Brown & Eichmann, 2015; 26, 2021, ABAI issued a draft statement against
Redman et al., 2008). Given that research repli- the practice of conversion therapy, which is cur-
cating or extending Rekers and Lovaas would not rently pending input from its members as of this
meet current research ethics standards, the writing. The Behavior Analysis Certification
remaining concern about continued citation is Board (BACB) is a credentialing body that pub-
using this work as an example of certain lishes the Code of Ethics that governs professional
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
26 Matthew R. Capriotti and Jeanne M. Donaldson

behavior analysts’ practice. The BACB could (e.g., how to adopt affirming clinical, research,
amend the Code of Ethics to include clear, pro- and training practices). In addition to providing
scriptive language around conversion therapy. support to practitioners, these guidelines can be
Taken together, position statements from profes- helpful for ethics committees when reviewing
sional organizations and enhanced clarity in the cases of potentially unethical behavior. Again,
BACB Code of Ethics could bolster ethical review we can borrow from what others have done in
of reports of unethical practice of conversion ther- the realm to guide how we approach develop-
apy, likely leading to more serious consequences ing these guidelines. For example, in 2015 the
for offending practitioners (e.g., by weakening American Psychological Association published
any defense about the ambiguity of whether these Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Trans-
procedures are allowable under the BACB Ethics gender and Gender Nonconforming People. This
Code). These statements would also provide pol- document reviewed extant literature and mer-
icy advocates additional references, rationales, and ged findings with task force experts’ opinions
general support in states where conversion ther- around best practices for assessment and inter-
apy is still legal. One potential way to reduce the vention services to gender-minority people.
response effort required to create these position Suggestions 1 and 2 could also provide oppor-
statements is by reaching out to people in leader- tunities to engage the SGM behavior-analytic
ship positions in other fields for ideas on effec- community and those with relevant expertise
tively writing these statements (i.e., engage in on SGM research to be actively involved in the
imitation of effective modeled responses). The development of the position statements and
fields represented by other journals that published practice guidelines.
conversion-therapy related work (e.g., clinical psy-
chology, counseling psychology, psychiatry) have
all issued position statements against the use of 3. Professional Behavior-Analytic
conversion therapy, as have other professional Organizations Can Work to Increase
organizations representing related professions. We SGM Representation and Inclusivity at
can borrow from their successful strategies to Conferences and Other Professional
improve our own. Further, behavior-analytic Spaces
organizations may consider joining forces on such Professional organizations like ABAI and
a statement by creating a joint task force; this APBA can work to increase SGM representa-
alignment of efforts would also decrease the tion and inclusivity at their meetings. Increas-
response effort involved in creating and endorsing ing representation in programming can include
such statements. showcasing talks on SGM issues and inviting
speakers on these issues from behavior-analysis
friendly fields (e.g., in the B. F. Skinner lecture
2. Professional Behavior-Analytic series at the ABAI Annual Convention). Addi-
Organizations Can Issue Practice tionally, conference organizers can invite talks
Guidelines on Working with SGM Clients from, and center the scholarship of, SGM
ABAI and the APBA can publish practice researchers who study research on topics not
guidelines to advise behavior analysts on best directly related to gender and sexual orienta-
practices around providing affirmative services tion. Including SGM speakers’ work that both
when working with SGM clients. If position does and does not focus on SGM-related issues
statements largely tell behavior analysts what has the advantage of both bringing attention to
not to do (conversion therapy), practice guide- “SGM issues” while also showcasing represen-
lines can tell behavior analysts what to do tation of SGM individuals across a broad swath
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Why Don’t Behavior Analysts Do Something? 27

of areas within our field. Inclusive meeting contribute to crowdfunding efforts to support
practices can include providing a pronoun expanding these awards.
option on conference nametags and ensuring
meeting spaces have gender-neutral bathrooms.
These things do improve the experience for 5. Researchers Could Publish SGM-
transgender and other SGM attendees and are Related Research in Behavior-Analytic
not only of symbolic significance. Leland and Journals
Stockwell (2019) provide an excellent inventory Given the history of conversion-therapy-
of affirmative practices for further ideas about related research in behavior analysis and the
how conference organizers, as well as those who increased likelihood of transgender and other
lead in other professional spaces (e.g., agency gender-minority people to demonstrate symp-
directors, clinical directors), can adopt more toms of autism spectrum disorder (Warrier
inclusive and affirming practices for gender- et al., 2020), we believe that current research
minority people. on SGM issues is an important area for behav-
ior analysts to pursue. Before providing sugges-
tions on future research, we discuss the existing
4. Behavior-Analytic Organizations Can behavior-analytic work on SGM issues as well
Incentivize SGM-Related Research as recent work in related fields.
Incentivizing behavior-analytic SGM research Morris et al. (2021) reviewed coverage of
with grant funding could reduce one barrier to SGM topics in behavior-analytic journals and
entering this research domain. Professional found that, of a paltry 12 studies related to sex-
behavior-analytic organizations offer various ual orientation and gender identity, the only
research awards for student-level investigators. two experimental studies were related to conver-
The Society for the Advancement of Behavior sion therapy (Barlow & Agras, 1973; Rekers &
Analysis (SABA) recently began sponsoring a Lovaas, 1974). Two other papers were contem-
$5,000 Innovative Student Research Grant in poraneous responses decrying Rekers and
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI). We Lovaas’ 1974 study as unethical (Nordyke
believe such grant funding, which prioritizes work et al., 1977; Winkler, 1977). Two additional
around minoritized communities, serves several studies by Brady and Levitt (1965a, 1965b)
benefits. First, and most obviously, it supports investigated and found environment–behavior
grant recipients in their research. Second, it may and behavior–behavior correlations related to
provide the circumstance for those not currently same-sex attraction. They (1965a) found that
conducting DEI-focused research to develop pro- male college students who self-reported prior
posals and plans to do so. Even when applications sexual experiences were more likely to report
go unfunded, the researcher has already moved sexual arousal toward a picture of a “scantily
forward with DEI work insofar as they have clad” man. Further, they found in a second
designed and planned a study that they may now study (1965b) that men’s self-reported sexual
be able to carry out with alternate means of sup- attraction to other men occurred along a contin-
port. The impact of this new SABA award uum, consistent with other much publicized
remains to be seen, but we think it is a step in research by Kinsey et al. (e.g., Kinsey
the right direction. Further, we feel that increas- et al., 1948). In a similar vein, Dancey (1990)
ing the number, size, and eligibility for such found no relationship between women’s sexual
awards would enhance impacts on scientists’ orientation and family or personality variables. It
behavior. Our feeling is that many members of is worth noting that neither Dancey’s nor Brady
behavior-analytic organizations would be likely to and Levitt’s studies are “classically” behavior-
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
28 Matthew R. Capriotti and Jeanne M. Donaldson

analytic in their (survey-based) methodology, published on SGM issues, it becomes clear that
although they can well be taken as consistent early conversion therapy studies do not repre-
with a functional contextual account. sent a majority of behavior analysts’ treatment
More recently, behavior analysts have written of sexual orientation and gender diversity.
conceptual pieces that have discussed how Rather, 10 of 12 other papers reviewed by
behavior-analytic and functional contextual Morris et al. (2021) have tended much more
principles can, and should, support a society toward supportive and affirming accounts that
more affirming of SGM people. For instance, conceive sexual and gender diversity as normal
Malott (1996) discussed how a behavioral con- and nonpathological variants of human
ceptualization accounted for variability in sex behavior.
role behavior and sexual behavior5 and argued Researchers in related fields have investigated
against harmful bioreductionist ideas of the interventions and related phenomenological
time (e.g., the search for “the gay gene”). Fur- research to support SGM individuals. For exam-
ther, Malott provided an analysis of how anti- ple, in the face of the HIV/AIDS epidemic,
SGM (i.e., “homophobic”) behavior is socially behavior therapists developed and tested interven-
instructed and maintained, along with a call for tions to support adherence to life-saving, but dif-
people to “…work for a more tolerant society ficult to tolerate, antiviral medications
compatible with the material and social realities (e.g., Safren et al., 1999, 2001, 2003), as well as
of the 20th and 21st centuries.” In 2018, to decrease behavior that posed risk for HIV
Snycerski et al. used verbal behavior approaches transmission (e.g., Knauz et al., 2007). In the
(including Relational Frame Theory) to explain past decade, behavior therapists and cognitive-
how anti-SGM narratives can deleteriously behavioral therapists have increasingly begun to
impact the overt and covert behavioral develop transdiagnostic psychosocial interventions
wellbeing of SGM individuals. The following to support the mental health of SGM people
year, Leland and Stockwell (2019) published (e.g., Flentje, 2020; Pachankis et al., 2019).
an inventory of behavioral competencies for Notably, one of these interventions, the
practitioners toward creating affirming environ- ESTEEM protocol (Pachankis et al., 2019), is
ments for transgender and gender non- based directly on the Unified Protocol for the
conforming clients, employees, and students. Treatment of Emotional Disorders, a trans-
DeFelice and Diller (2019) published a femi- diagnostic behavior therapy protocol developed
nist critique of the under-treatment of women by Barlow (Barlow et al., 2010), who authored
and sexual and gender minorities in both an early lab-analogue study of conversion therapy
behavior-analytic and feminist histories. in JABA (Barlow & Agras, 1973). Barlow’s con-
In sum, behavior analysts have sparsely tributions to the field, while including several sex-
treated topics related to SGM people or of sex- ual orientation change studies that we decry in
ual orientation and gender in general. That is, this paper, have also contributed directly to the
by far, the most salient finding from a review betterment of SGM people’s mental health
of our field’s action in this area. That said, through the ESTEEM treatment approach. Addi-
looking at what behavior analysts have tionally, Barlow was extensively involved in evalu-
ating evidence-based approaches to the treatment
5
Here, we discuss mainly the “take-home” messages of of fear- and anxiety-related problems, which dis-
Malott (1996) and others’ works in the context of behav- proportionally affect SGM people (King
ior analysis’ history on SGM topics. A detailed critique of et al., 2008; Lewis, 2009). Similarly, Steven
Malott’s article would find us in disagreement with him
on several important points, but this is beyond the scope Hayes authored two studies on decreasing men’s
of this article. arousal to same-sex stimuli (Brownell et al., 1977;
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Why Don’t Behavior Analysts Do Something? 29

Hayes et al., 1983). As Conine et al. (2021) also behavior-analytic research,” the required effort
highlight, Hayes later developed affirming behav- and probability of reinforcement would seem
ioral psychotherapy for gay men (Yadavaia & to predict them matching relatively more
Hayes, 2012), and at least one book-length treat- toward “traditional” research and relatively less
ment has followed (Skinta, 2020). Behavior ther- toward SGM-focused work. In an effort to
apists have made important contributions toward reduce the response effort required to begin this
bettering the lives of SGM people. work, we offer (below) a few relatively detailed
Although some of these interventions and suggestions for behavior analysts interested in
research approaches tend to be quite different beginning research on SGM-related issues.
than those commonly used by behavior ana-
lysts, there are likely many questions related to Specific Ideas for Behavior-Analytic Research
SGM issues that are clearly amenable to typi- on SGM Issues
cal behavior-analytic procedures. These might Behavior analysts can contribute to develop-
be a reasonable starting place for those inter- ing training practices to help family members
ested in pursuing SGM-related research in sol- and friends use correct names and gender pro-
idly behavior analytic roles and spaces. Some nouns for transgender individuals who have
have called for behavior analysts to practice recently socially transitioned (Conine
increased flexibility around our verbal and et al., 2021). For example, imagine a transgen-
methodological conventions toward increased der man named James, who has recently
relevance in “mainstream” behavioral health begun expressing his gender as masculine at
practice (Friman, 2004, 2010, 2021; Woods work, school, and at home. James now uses
et al., 2006). We agree with these arguments he/him/his pronouns. His friends and family
in favor of “mainstreaming” behavior-analytic are all supportive of his transition and gender
science, and we think the same principles can identity but still frequently “slip up” and call
help behavior analysts achieve increased rele- James by Jane (his birth name) and refer to
vance around SGM issues, as well as those James using she/her/hers pronouns. This is
related to race, ethnicity, and other marginal- highly aversive to James, and can, understand-
ized aspects of identities. ably given his history, occasion “angry”
However, beginning research in a new area responding. This kind of pattern is a common
can pose several challenges. Given the general experience for transgender and other gender-
lack of research on SGM issues published in minority individuals that causes significant
behavior-analytic venues, there is a lack of distress, whereas having others use correct pro-
available mentorship in SGM research within nouns and current names contributes to a suc-
behavior analysis, which limits opportunities cessful psychosocial transition (The Trevor
for students of behavior analysis who are inter- Project, 2021). There are no current specific
ested in doing this work and increases the “best practices” for teaching family, friends,
response effort of conducting this research. and others to consistently use correct pro-
These issues make conducting SGM research nouns. There are some existing general recom-
riskier in terms of likely success in developing mendations to invite people to state their
and executing a publishable research project. pronouns during public introductions, as well
From a matching law perspective (Myerson & as to “gently correct” incorrect pronoun use
Hale, 1984), if a behavior-analytic researcher is (e.g., American Psychological Association of
posed to allocate their behavior between the Graduate Students subcommittee on Sexual
two operants of “conducting SGM-focused Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2019),
research” or “conducting more ‘traditional’ though how best to shape this repertoire is an
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
30 Matthew R. Capriotti and Jeanne M. Donaldson

open empirical question. We suspect that approaches to implementing affirmative practices

behavioral methodologies such as habit rever- such as pronoun solicitation would meet a large
sal training, which has been applied to other group of activists, psychotherapists, and other cli-
kinds of ineffective speaking “habits” nicians of various stripes who would be interested
(e.g., filling pauses with “um,” “uh,” etc.; in adopting them. It also is likely that this
Mancuso & Miltenberger, 2016; Montes research would be cited in academic and profes-
et al., 2019) would be helpful. A healthy dose sional journals within mainstream psychology and
of feedback, prompting, and reinforcement of across a range of disciplines. And, most impor-
correct responding would likely go a long tantly, these techniques would go a long way
way here. toward making life better for many gender-
Second, behavior analysts can also directly minority individuals who have faced so much
study social validity (i.e., among gender- adversity.
minority people) of different SGM affirmative Third, behavior analysts can develop
practices. Staying on the topic of gender pro- methods for reducing problematic verbal and
nouns, recommended practices (e.g., sharing nonverbal behavior about SGM communities
pronouns in meeting introductions) are usually (e.g., homophobic and transphobic insults,
generated around the voices of gender minority jokes, and slurs). Some approaches to allyship
individuals; the centering of SGM voices in this (e.g., Oregon Center for Educational Equity, n.
process greatly increases the odds that these prac- d.) instruct individuals to “speak up” and “call
tices will be socially acceptable in broader com- out” oppressive verbal and nonverbal acts, be
munities of gender-minority individuals. Yet, they around gender, sexual orientation, race, or
little empirical inquiry has been done into the other aspects of identity. These concepts paral-
acceptability of these approaches in different set- lel “bystander interventions” models from
tings (e.g., a classroom vs. a social club; a queer- social psychology, based on the work of Darley
centered space vs. a general space) and as to how and Latané (1968) and others. Essentially, these
topographical variants (e.g., asking attendees to programs teach a chain of behavior in the pres-
share pronouns aloud during a first group meet- ence of a problematic event (noticing the event
ing vs. inviting to add them to a nametag they [R1] à stating to oneself that “I should do
have prepared) affect the acceptability of this pro- something” [R2] à making a statement to
cedure. We suggest this not to negate the validity thwart another’s threatening behavior or correct
of the views of those who have proposed these an offensive comment [R3]). Skills are
steps, but rather to point out that behavior- established through modeling, behavioral
analytic research can further refine and develop rehearsal, and feedback, often in a workshop or
best practices for creating optimally inclusive envi- training environment. This framework could
ronments that benefit from flexibility and sensi- be used to train adults to respond with disap-
tivity to context. Indeed, research on best proval to SGM jokes, slurs, and insults, and, of
practices for asking questions about sexual orien- course, to similar assaults on the basis of race,
tation and gender identity has shown that, even ethnicity, country of origin, and the inter-
when questions are developed by SGM section of these variables.
researchers and in consultation with SGM com- Additionally, a behavioral analysis of the
munity members, the acceptability of these “best effects of these types of interventions would
practice”-derived questions varies according to likely be useful for developing guidance on the
context (e.g., being asked in a medical appoint- conditions under which different types of
ment vs. in other venues; Suen et al., 2020). responses to problematic verbal behavior reduce
Once developed, findings on empirically derived future instances. That is, how the effectiveness
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Why Don’t Behavior Analysts Do Something? 31

of contingent disapproval is related to different these sorts of questions. The world could benefit
variables, such as the nature of the relationship from behavior analysts using our powerful tech-
between the person engaging in the problem- nologies to teach these allyship repertoires, in
atic verbal behavior and the person delivering hopes of making the world a place full of people
disapproval (family members, friends, acquain- who don’t just behave tolerantly but who act to
tances, strangers), public versus private disap- reduce oppressive acts and speech that worsen the
proval, and other aspects of the delivery of the lives of SGM people.
disapproval. It seems likely that the efficacy of Fourth, and related to the above, behavior
different responses in changing future behavior analysts can conduct prevention research to
might depend on the function of the utterance promote the wellbeing of SGM youth in
in the first place. For instance, perhaps a private schools. As mentioned by Conine et al. (2021),
aside is more effective for changing the future this can include antibullying efforts aimed at
verbal behavior of an elder peer who has used decreasing harmful behavior toward peers, with
an outdated term to refer to gay people, an eye toward SGM topics. Indeed, exposure to
whereas overt, public correction may be more peer victimization is linked to increased risk for
effective for individuals making bigoted jokes, suicidality, worse mental health outcomes, and
the telling of which was previously reinforced worse educational outcomes among SGM
by laughing audiences. Although the public youth (Aragon et al., 2014; Hatchel
correction might not reduce bigoted joke tell- et al., 2019; The Trevor Project, 2021). Ross
ing, it might enhance stimulus control such et al. (2009) described the successful applica-
that the jokes are only told to particular audi- tion in elementary schools of behavior-analytic
ences. An additional effect of public correction antibullying approaches, which focused on
may be to the benefit of audience members. teaching both targeted and “bystander” stu-
For example, if speaking out against problem- dents to decrease social reinforcement for bully-
atic verbal behavior has been modeled, it may ing behavior. This work could be expanded to
be imitated by audience members in the future. middle and high schools and investigated at
As such, researchers examining the effects of larger scale. Behavior analysts can also develop
reducing problematic verbal behavior might prevention programs to teach “self-compassion”
consider measuring collateral effects on targets repertoires to youth. This work may seem, at
from the marginalized community and first glance, far from the realm of behavior anal-
bystanders. ysis, but Relational Frame Theory and Accep-
Extant bystander intervention training efforts tance and Commitment Therapy have been
have had limited impact (Katz & Moore, 2013), applied to teach self-compassion and decrease
likely because they occur in a single training envi- self-stigma, through establishing self-accep-
ronment that may fail to promote generalization. tance, deictic relational framing (perspective
However, behavior-analytic researchers have a taking), and mindfulness in adults (Yadavaia &
longstanding history of designing clever generali- Hayes, 2012). Behavior analysts could extend
zation tests (e.g., Himle et al., 2004; Vanselow & this work to youth and evaluate the effects on
Hanley, 2014) that provide robust tests of verbal and nonverbal behavior toward SGM
whether skills taught during training can be youth or others with cross-gender behavior.
expected to occur in other environments. Finally, Applied as a universal socio-emotional learning
behavior analysts have a long and fruitful history program, early in children’s development (akin
of empirically matching interventions to behav- to the friendship skills taught in the Preschool
ioral functions, so we are optimistic that behavior Life Skills curriculum; McKeown et al., 2021),
analysts could produce impactful research around such efforts could prevent psychological distress
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
32 Matthew R. Capriotti and Jeanne M. Donaldson

and increase behavioral functioning in youth group-design studies of contingency management

with cross-gender behavior, who may later for substance use and found differences in patterns
come to identify as SGM. In turn, such pro- of treatment response for SGM individuals, com-
grams may increase accepting behaviors on the pared to their heterosexual, cisgender counterparts.
part of their non-SGM peers as well. At pre- The language of an “identity” changing
sent, this is admittedly speculative, but it repre- environment–behavior relations that underlie treat-
sents one branch of possible research to ment effectiveness may not sound compatible with
improve socio-emotional learning programs behavior analysis prima facia; however, if we con-
that are popular in schools. We also agree with sider that SGM individuals are more likely to have
Conine et al. that such interventions could had some common elements in their behavioral
extend beyond the target individual to include histories that differ from non-SGM individuals, we
SGM-affirming parent-training programs. can begin to understand this differential treatment
Fifth, we can continue to apply behavioral tools response within a behavioral framework.
to better the behavioral health of SGM individuals Alternatively, our hunch is that many of our
specifically. And, in doing this, we can identify interventions may have comparable efficacy for
unique needs of SGM clients. The number of SGM clients and for cisgender, heterosexual
SGM clients who receive behavior-analytic inter- individuals. To evaluate this, it would be help-
ventions is likely not small. Approximately 4%-6% ful for behavior analysts to collect and report
of the population identifies as SGM (Jones, 2021; data on participants’ sexual orientation and
Williams Institute, 2020), and this proportion may gender identity. This would allow readers to
be rising among younger cohorts, as identifying more effectively describe and respond to the
with minority sexual and gender identities becomes representation of SGM individuals in research.
less stigmatizing (GLAAD, 2017). Further, recent Even in fields with robust reporting of some
research suggests that transgender and other demographic data (e.g., gender, race, and eth-
gender-minority people are more likely to demon- nicity), it has been noted that reporting of sex-
strate symptoms of autism spectrum disorder ual orientation and trans/nonbinary gender
(Warrier et al., 2020). Given that people with identity has lagged (e.g., in the literature on
autism represent the largest segment of behavior- psychotherapy for substance use, anxiety and
analytic clinical service clients, this means that mood problems; Flentje et al., 2015; Heck
transgender and other gender-minority people are et al., 2017).
likely represented in many professional behavior Researchers could also publish consecutive
analysts’ caseloads. We do not have meaningful controlled case series (Hagopian, 2020) show-
data to indicate whether there are interindividual ing the outcomes of various interventions with
differences in how transgender versus cisgender cli- SGM identities, directly bolstering confidence
ents with (or without) autism respond to behavior- in the generality of our treatments’ acceptability
analytic interventions. This lack of information and effectiveness among SGM populations.
likely results from our field’s under-investigation of Such reports can describe use of behavior-
interindividual differences in general, combined analytic treatment approaches for problems
with under- reporting and collecting of adequate topographically related to stressors related to
demographic variables in behavior-analytic publica- sexual orientation and gender identity
tions (see Jones et al.’s 2020 meta-analysis). That (e.g., Acceptance and Commitment Therapy to
said, such an investigation has been conducted in decrease self-stigma among gay men;
at least one area of behavior-analytic intervention: Yadavaia & Hayes, 2012). Just as importantly,
contingency management for substance use. Zajac these reports can also describe how behavioral
et al. (2020) evaluated pooled data from five interventions for more universal problems can
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Why Don’t Behavior Analysts Do Something? 33

be delivered in an SGM-affirming fashion In addition to decreasing response effort,

(e.g., social anxiety; Walsh & Hope, 2010). these collaborations can also lead behavior ana-
These recommendations also apply to race/eth- lysts to expand their work to research questions
nicity, cultural background, socioeconomic sta- and study designs that are less typical within
tus, and their intersections as noted by Jones our field. For instance, clinical psychology
et al. (2020). We also emphasize that compre- research on social validity often makes use of
hensive reporting of demographic data is qualitative methodology to identify the social
necessary for behavior analysts to begin to acceptability (or unacceptability) of interven-
understand the generality of our research litera- tions (e.g., Halmetoja et al., 2014; Johansson
ture to clients with multiple intersecting et al., 2015; Pardo et al., 2020). Behavior anal-
marginalized identities (e.g., a Black transgen- ysis could benefit from a systematic under-
der child). standing of factors that may affect the
acceptability of common interventions for
Collaborating Beyond the Traditional SGM individuals, but behavior-analytic
Bounds of Behavior Analysis research training rarely, if ever, includes robust
The above research directions represent steps training in qualitative research methodologies
that can be taken by staying within behavior (e.g., focus group facilitation, thematic analysis,
analysts’ general methodological wheelhouse. grounded theory approaches to data analysis).
That is, they involve specific questions about Thus, by collaborating with colleagues who do
environment–behavior relations that can readily possess these skills, ideally in combination with
be measured using direct assessment of behavior. research experience in SGM issues, behavior
Additional possibilities of this sort exist, includ- analysts can find new ways to enhance our
ing, as Conine et al. (2021) point out, in the area field. Though the methodology may not look
of Organizational Behavior Management, where classically behavior-analytic, the function of this
behavior analysts are increasingly conducting research (i.e., to evaluate, and later improve,
research on best practices for optimizing work- social acceptability of interventions) is at the
places in various ways (which could include SGM heart of our field (see Wolf, 1978).
employees’ wellbeing). We note that behavior Finally, it is worth noting that these collabo-
analysts might find themselves intrigued by these rations hold tangible additional benefits to
research questions but daunted by some aspects behavior analysts. Research that establishes and
of expanding their research into a new area. In validates culturally responsive interventions is
these cases, we recommend behavior analysts col- at the heart of the National Institute of Mental
laborate with professionals in allied disciplines Health (NIMH)’s 2020 Strategic Plan for
(e.g., psychology) who already have been doing funding research (i.e., “Objective 4.3, Develop
work around SGM issues. We have much to innovative service delivery models to dramati-
learn from our colleagues in these fields. In our cally improve the outcomes of mental health
own careers, we have found that the response services received in diverse communities and
effort reduces dramatically when we partner with populations”). Research on culturally adapted
collaborators who already work in these areas. treatments often blends qualitative approaches
These collaborators, though not behavior analysts (to gain initial insight on adapting interven-
themselves, generally have responded with enthu- tions or to get feedback about social acceptabil-
siasm. They provide guidance on “where to start ity of a modified intervention) with
looking” in the literature and provide context and quantitative approaches (to evaluate treatment
orientation that have allowed us to move swiftly effectiveness; see Haack et al., 2019 for one
through large and dense literatures. example). Behavior analysts who collaborate
 19383703, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jaba.884 by Egyptian National Sti. Network (Enstinet), Wiley Online Library on [12/05/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
34 Matthew R. Capriotti and Jeanne M. Donaldson

with colleagues in other disciplines who bring some of our recommendations will take time,
prior expertise in SGM issues and methodologi- effort, and a change in behavior of specific
cal diversity could find themselves able to com- groups of individuals in leadership roles. We
pete for large, federal research grants in new hope that individual researchers and practi-
areas. Subsequently, it is likely that this work tioners in the behavior-analytic community will
would be published in venues that extend call on leadership to make such changes and
beyond behavior analysis, enhancing the repu- that some will begin to pursue research in this
tation of our field and the likelihood of such area. Other fields have been conducting
collaborations replicating and expanding. Of research on SGM issues for decades, but none
course, mixed-methods research on culturally has realized the explanatory or behavior-change
tailored treatments is just one example of how power that underlies our field. So, why don’t
behavior analysts can use collaboration to we do something, fellow behavior analysts?
increase the impact of our science.

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