Celestial Navigation

Celestial navigation can be defined as determining a ship’s position by the observation of

celestial bodies (sun, moon, planets, and stars). It is a detailed subject far beyond the scope
of this text, but it is hoped that the general principles will inspire Sea Scouts to learn more
about the navigator’s art. While less complicated in practice than it appears in theory, celestial
navigation is best learned with an instructor.

The definitive reference for celestial navigation was written by Nathaniel Bowditch. His
book, The New American Practical Navigator, first published in 1802, is still carried on board
every commissioned U.S. Navy vessel. It is far too complicated for the beginner; however, a
number of excellent small books are now available with the general theme of simplified
celestial navigation. Those that strip away the theory and deal with practical situations
are recommended.

Celestial navigation begins with the geographical position or ground point (GP) of a
celestial object. The ground point is that spot on the earth where the object is directly overhead.
If we can find where we are in relation to a celestial object’s ground point, we can draw a line of
position. When two or more lines of position intersect, we have a fix. So, if we can draw two or
more lines of position related to the ground points of two or more celestial bodies, we have a fix.

To achieve this, the navigator needs some information. First, the angular height of the
celestial object above the horizon must be measured. A sextant is used for
this purpose. Next, the precise time of the observation must be noted. A very
accurate clock, the chronometer, gives the time to the nearest half-second.
Third, the navigator must know the location of the ground point of the
celestial object at the time of the observation. This is looked
up in the current edition of the Nautical Almanac. Finally, the navigator
uses a set of sight reduction tables (where all the heavy mathematics have
been done) to compute the azimuth (direction) and altitude (a function
of distance) of the celestial body. Now a line of position can be drawn.
Lines of position from one or two other stars give the fix at the time of
the observations.

Most navigators use prepared worksheets to enter the data and compute
the results. A number of factors must be considered, such as the height of the observer above
the water, parallax, instrument error, etc. A good worksheet has spaces for these entries, and
the navigator is not likely to forget them. Sight reduction worksheets look complicated but,
with practice, are no more difficult than reconciling a checkbook. The only arithmetic involved is
addition and subtraction.

The Sextant
A sextant is the instrument chiefly used in celestial navigation. It is designed for sighting two
objects at the same time (the horizon and the sun, for example) and measuring the exact angle
between them. It is a precision instrument shaped like a piece of pie, and is held on edge with
one hand while sight adjustments are made with the other.
 Its name—sextant—comes from its lower arc, which is one-sixth (60 degrees) of a circle.
The arc is divided into degrees: minutes and 10ths are read by means of a vernier (a refinement
in dividing) or a micrometer drum.

The sextant takes advantage of the principle that the angle made by the last direction of a
ray of light, reflected twice in the same plane, is twice the angle made by the reflecting surfaces.
That sounds complicated, but it means that the 60-degree sextant arc is able to measure angles
up to 120 degrees.

Using a sextant takes practice. The easiest procedure for beginners is to move the index arm
to zero and point the telescope to the desired celestial object. If you are observing the sun, do
not forget to move one of the sun shades into position. Now, keeping the celestial object in the
right-hand, silver portion of the horizon glass, move the sextant down and swing the index arm
out until the horizon appears in the left-hand side of the horizon glass. Clamp the index arm
and make fine adjustments with the micrometer drum or tangent screw until the split image
shows the object exactly at the horizon.

For the sun or moon, the upper

or lower limb (or edge) of the object
should be exactly at the horizon. For
a star or planet, it should be centered
on the horizon line. Now rock the
sextant back and forth a few times to
see that the object has been measured
at its lowest point. This check will
assure that the sextant is perfectly
vertical. When you’re satisfied with
the sight, note the exact time, and
read the elevation from the arc and
micrometer drum or vernier scale.

Since a sextant measures angles

very accurately, it has uses other
than in celestial navigation. It can
be used to measure distances. The
height of lighthouses and other
visible landmarks are listed on
charts. If you measure the angle
1. The Frame
2. The Arc, known as the Limb between the top and bottom of a
3.
4.
The Index Bar
Clamping Mechanism
lighthouse whose height you know,
5. Micrometer Screw knowledge of simple trigonometry
6. Index Mirror
7. Horizon Glass and a tangent table can give you
8.
9.
Telescope
Index Shades
your distance from the lighthouse
10. Horizon Shades (the distance equals the height
11. Measured Angle
12. Reading of Measured Angle; Here 45°0’ divided by the tangent of the angle).

The sextant used by a professional navigator is a delicate and expensive instrument. A

number of plastic sextants now on the market are surprisingly accurate and modestly priced.
The old-time navigator might be horrified at the notion of a plastic sextant, but they have been
used successfully on a number of occasions by yachtsmen in round-the-world cruises. In fact, a
perfectly adequate beginner’s sextant can be purchased for less than the almanac and reduction
tables needed to use it.