Voltage (V)

• Whenever (+) and (−) charges are separated, energy is expended.

• Also known as electric potential difference, is the work needed to
move an electric charge from one point to another in an electric field.

𝑊 𝑑𝑤
𝑉= 𝑣=
𝑄 𝑑𝑞

V – voltage in volts (V) 𝑊 𝑑𝑤

W – energy in joules (J)
Q – charge in coulombs (C) 𝑉 𝑄 𝑣 𝑑𝑞
Volt (V)
• Standard unit of voltage is volt, named after Alessandro Volta.

• One volt is the potential difference (voltage) between two points

when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of charge
from point to the other.

𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐽
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1 =1
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝐶
Sample Problems
1. If 50 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 of energy are required to move 10 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 of
charge, what is the voltage?
If 50

𝑊 50 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑉= = = 𝟓 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝑄 10 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
2. A battery can deliver 10 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 of energy to move 5 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠 of
charge. What is the potential difference between the terminals
of the battery?
𝑊 10 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑉= = = 𝟓 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝑄 2 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
Sample Problems
3. A 12 − 𝑉 motorcycle battery can move 5000 𝐶 of charge, and a
12 − 𝑉 car battery can move 60,000 𝐶 of charge. How much
energy does each battery deliver?
If 50

𝑊𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝑄 = 12 𝑉 5000 𝐶 = 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑱

𝑊𝑐𝑎𝑟 = 𝑉𝑄 = 12 𝑉 60, 000 𝐶 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑱
Voltage Source
• A voltage source provides electrical energy or electromotive force
(emf), more commonly known as voltage.

• Voltage can be produced by means of chemical energy, light energy,

or magnetic energy combined with mechanical motion.

• An ideal voltage source can provide a constant voltage for any

current required by a circuit.
Voltage Source (DC/AC)
Types of DC Voltage Sources
1. Battery

• A battery is a type of voltage source that converts chemical energy

directly into electrical energy.

• All batteries use a specific type of chemical reaction called an

oxidation-reduction reaction.

• Oxidation-reduction reaction – electrons are transferred from one

reactant to the other.
Types of DC Voltage Sources
1. Battery

• Anode – is the negative or reducing electrode that releases electrons

to the external circuit and oxidizes during and electrochemical
reaction.
• Cathode – is the positive or oxidizing electrode that acquires
electrons from the external circuit and is reduced during the
electrochemical reaction.
• Electrolyte – a conductive solution that provides the ion transport
mechanism between the cathode and anode.
Types of DC Voltage Sources
2. Fuel Cells

• A fuel cell is a device that converts electrochemical energy into dc

voltage directly.

• Fuel cells combine a fuel (usually hydrogen) with an oxidizing agent

(usually oxygen).

• Fuel cells and batteries are similar in that they both are
electrochemical devices that produce electricity using an oxidation-
reduction reaction.
Simplified diagram of a fuel cell.
Types of DC Voltage Sources
3. Solar Cells

• The operation of solar cells is based on the photovoltaic effect, which

is the process whereby light energy is converted directly into
electrical energy.

• The most common type of solar cell is the crystalline silicon cell.
A crystalline silicon cell.
Types of DC Voltage Sources
4. DC Generator

• Electrical generators convert

mechanical energy into electrical
energy using a principle called
electromagnetic induction.

• A conductor is rotated through a

magnetic field, and a voltage is
produced across the conductor. Cutaway view of a DC voltage
generator.
Types of DC Voltage Sources
5. Electronic Power Supply

• Electronic power supplies convert the AC voltage from a wall outlet to

a DC voltage that can be varied over a specified range.
Types of DC Voltage Sources
6. Thermocouples

• The thermocouple is a thermoelectric type of voltage source that is

commonly used to sense temperature.

• A thermocouple is formed by the junction of two dissimilar metals,

and its operation is based on the Seebeck effect that describes the
voltage generated at the junction of the metals as a function of
temperature.
mV
Types of DC Voltage Sources
7. Piezoelectric Sensors

• These sensors act as voltage sources and are based on the

piezoelectric effect where a voltage is generated when a piezoelectric
material is mechanically deformed by an external force.

• Piezoelectric sensors are used in applications such as pressure

sensors, force sensors, accelerometers, microphones, ultrasonic
devices, and many others.
Current (I)

Random motion of free electrons Electrons flow from negative to positive

in a material. when a voltage is applied across a
conductive or semiconductive materials.

• The movement of these free electrons from the negative end of the
material to the positive end is the electrical current, symbolized by I.
Current (I)
Current (I)
Current (I)
• Electric current is the rate of flow of charge.

• Current in a metallic material is determined by net the number of

electrons (amount of charge) that flow past a point in a unit of time.
𝑄 𝑑𝑞
𝐼= 𝑖=
𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑄 𝑑𝑞
I – current in amperes (A)
Q – charge in coulombs (C)
𝐼 𝑡 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
t – time in seconds.
Current (I)
• One ampere (1 A) is the amount of current that exists when a
number of electrons having a total charge of one coulomb (1 C)
move through a given cross-sectional area in one second (1 s).

𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 A𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
Sample Problem
1. Ten coulombs of charge flow past a given point in a wire in 2
seconds. What is the current in amperes?
𝑄 10 𝐶
𝐼= = =𝟓𝑨
𝑡 2𝑠
2. If there are 2.0 A of current through the filament of a lamp, how
many coulombs of charge move through the filament in 1.5 s?
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 = 2 𝐴 1.5 𝑠 = 𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔
Sample Problem
3. The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞 =
5𝑡 sin 4π 𝑡 𝑚𝐶. Calculate the current at 𝑡 = 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖= = 5𝑡 sin 4π 𝑡 𝑡=0.5 = 5𝑡 4π cos 4π𝑡 + sin 4π 𝑡 5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖 = 20π𝑡 cos 4π𝑡 + 5 sin 4π 𝑡 𝑡=0.5

𝑖 = 20π 0.5 cos 4π 0.5 + 5 sin 4π 0.5

𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝒎𝑨 ≅ 𝟑𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝒎𝑨
Sample Problem
4. Determine the total charge entering a terminal between 𝑡 =
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 and 𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 if the current passing through the terminal is
𝑖 = 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝐴.
𝑑𝑞
𝑖= 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑖𝑑𝑡 (substitute 𝑖 = 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑡=2 𝑡=2
𝑡=2 𝑡3 𝑡2 𝑡2
‫= 𝑞𝑑 ׬‬ ‫=𝑡׬‬1 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑞= 3 − = 𝑡3 −
3 2 𝑡=1 2 𝑡=1

2 2
2 1
𝑞= 2 3− − 1 3− = 𝟓. 𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
2 2
Resistance (R)
• When electrons that are moving through a material collide with
atoms, they lose some of their energy, thus restricting their
movement.

• The more collisions, the more the flow of electrons is restricted.

• This restriction varies and is determined by the type of material.

• The property of a material to restrict or oppose the flow of

electrons is called resistance, R.
Resistance (R)
• Resistance is the opposition to current, and it is expressed in
ohms (Georg Simon Ohm), symbolized by the Greek letter omega
(𝛀).

• One ohm (1 𝛀) of resistance exists if there is one ampere (1 A)

of current in a material when one volt (1 V) is applied across
the material.

Resistor symbol
Factors Affecting Resistance of a Wire
• The material the wire is made from: The intrinsic resistivity of the
material will determine the overall resistance.

• Length of the wire: Resistance is directly proportional to the

length of the wire used. The longer the wire the higher the
resistance.
Factors Affecting Resistance of a Wire
• Diameter: The cross-sectional area of the wire has an inversely
proportional relationship to the resistance. The thinner the wire,
the higher the resistance.

• Temperature: Resistivity (and hence resistance) change when the

wire is heated up. The metal atoms in the lattice vibrate more
when heated and increasingly interrupt the flow of electrons as
they travel along the wire.
Resistance of a Wire
ℓ ℓ ℓ
𝑅= ρ = ρ 2 = ρ π𝑑2 R – ohm (Ω)
𝐴 π𝑟
4
ρ –ohm•meter (Ω•𝑚)

ℓ - length (𝑚)

A – cross-sectional
area (𝑚2 )
Sample Problem (Resistance of a Wire)
1. The substation bus bar is made up of 2 − 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 round copper
bars 20𝑓𝑡. Long. What is the resistance of each bar if resistivity
is 1.724 × 10−6 Ω − 𝑐𝑚?

12 𝑖𝑛 2.54 𝑐𝑚
ℓ 20𝑓𝑡 × ×
1 𝑓𝑡 1 𝑖𝑛
𝑅 = ρ = 1.724 × 10−6 Ω − 𝑐𝑚 2
𝐴 π 2.54 𝑐𝑚
× 2 𝑖𝑛 ×
4 1 𝑖𝑛

𝑹 = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝜴 𝒐𝒓𝟓𝟏. 𝟖𝟓 𝝁𝜴

Sample Problem (Resistance of a Wire)
2. Calculate the resistance of 100 𝑚 length of wire having a
uniform cross-sectional area of 0.1 𝑚𝑚2 if the wire is made of
manganin having a resistivity of 50 × 10−8 Ω • 𝑚.

2
1𝑚
𝐴= 0.1 𝑚𝑚2 × = 0.1 × 10−6 𝑚2
1000 𝑚𝑚

ℓ −8
100 𝑚
𝑅 = ρ = 50 × 10 Ω • 𝑚 × −6 2
= 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝜴
𝐴 0.1 × 10 𝑚
Sample Problem (Resistance of a Wire)
3. If the wire in problem #2 is drawn out to three times its original
length, by how many times would you expect its resistance to be
increased ?

ℓ1
ℓ2 = 3ℓ1 𝑅1 = ρ = 𝑘ℓ1
𝐴

ℓ2 𝑅2 𝑘ℓ2 ℓ2 3ℓ1
𝑅2 = ρ = 𝑘ℓ2 = = = =3
𝐴 𝑅1 𝑘ℓ1 ℓ1 ℓ1

𝑅2 = 𝑘(3ℓ1 ) = 3𝑘ℓ1 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟑𝑹𝟏

Resistors
Fixed Resistors

• Fixed resistors are available with a large selection of resistance values

that are set during manufacturing and cannot be changed easily.
Typical fixed resistors.
Construction views of typical film resistors.

Typical wire wound power resistors.

Resistor Color Codes
• Fixed resistors with value tolerances of 5% or 10% are color coded
with four bands to indicate the resistance value and tolerance.

Color-code bands on a 4-band resistor.

The color code is read as follows:
1. Start with the band closest to one end of the resistor. The first band
is the first digit of the resistance value. If it is not clear which is the
banded end, start from the end that does not begin with a gold or
silver band.

2. The second band is the second digit of the resistance value.

3. The third band is the number of zeros following the second digit, or
the multiplier. The multiplier is actually a power of ten multiplier;
thus, a black band in the third position represents multiplying by
100 or 1.
The color code is read as follows:
4. The fourth band indicates the percent tolerance and is usually gold
or silver.

5. For resistance values less than 10 Ω, the third band is either gold or
silver. Gold represents a multiplier of 0.1, and silver represents 0.01.
Additional notes
1. A 5% tolerance means that the actual resistance value is within ±5%
of the color-coded value. Thus, a 100 Ω resistor with a tolerance of
± 5% can have an acceptable range of values from a minimum of 95
Ω to a maximum of 105 Ω.

2. For resistance values less than 10 Ω, the third band is either gold or
silver. Gold represents a multiplier of 0.1, and silver represents 0.01.
For example, a color code of red, violet, gold, and silver represents
2.7 Ω with a tolerance of ± 10%.
Sample Problems
1. Find the resistance value in ohms and the percent tolerance for each
of the color coded resistors shown below:
Sample Problems
2. Find the resistance value in ohms and the percent tolerance for each
of the color coded resistors shown below:
Sample Problems
3. Find the resistance value in ohms and the percent tolerance for each
of the color coded resistors shown below:
Sample Problems
Related Problem:

4. A certain resistor has a yellow first band, a violet second band, a red
third band, and a gold fourth band. Determine its value in ohms and its
percent tolerance.
Resistors
Variable Resistors

• Variable resistors are designed so that their resistance values

can be changed easily.

• Two basic uses for variable resistors are to divide voltage and to
control current.
Resistors
Variable Resistors

• The variable resistor used to divide voltage is called a

potentiometer.
• The variable resistor used to control current is called a rheostat.
Resistors
Potentiometers
Resistors
Variable Resistance Sensors

• Thermistors – a resistance sensor that change resistance as a

function of temperature.

• Photoconductive cells – a resistance sensor that change

resistance as a function of light.

• Strain gauges – a resistance sensor that change resistance when

a force is applied to them.
Resistors
Symbol for Resistance Sensors
Electric Circuit
• A basic electric circuit is an arrangement of physical components
that use voltage, current, and resistance to perform some useful
function.
AC vs DC Circuit
AC vs DC Circuit
Current Control and Protection
• Closed circuit – a circuit in which the current has complete path
to flow.
• Open circuit – a circuit which has a broken path, hence, no
current will flow.
Ohm’s Law
• States that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to resistance.

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

V – voltage in volts (V) V

I – current in ampere (A)
R – resistance in ohms (Ω) I R
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law
Linear Relationship of Current and
Voltage
• In resistive circuits, current and voltage are linearly proportional.

• If one of the quantities is increased or decreased by a certain

percentage, the other will increase or decrease by the same
percentage, assuming that the resistance is constant in value.
Sample Problems
1. Determine the value of the current I for the circuit as shown:

𝑉 10 𝑉
𝐼= = = 2.13𝑚𝐴
𝑅 4.7 𝑘Ω

if the voltage is increase to

30 V, the current will be

𝑉 30 𝑉
𝐼= = = 6.38𝑚𝐴
𝑅 4.7 𝑘Ω
Sample Problems
2. If the voltage in problem #1 is quadrupled, will the current also
quadruple?

𝑉3 40 𝑉
𝐼3 = = = 8.51 𝑚𝐴
𝑅 4.7 𝑘Ω
Inverse Relationship of Current and
Resistance
Additional Sample Problems
3. In a circuit the voltage is doubled and the resistance is cut in
half. Would the current increase or decrease and if so, by how
much?

4. How many amperes of current are in the circuit as shown

below?
Additional Sample Problems
5. How many milliamperes are in the circuit as shown below?
Additional Sample Problems
6. An electric iron draws 2 𝐴 at 120 𝑉. Find its resistance.

7. The essential component of a toaster is an electrical element

that converts electrical energy to heat energy. How current is
drawn by a toaster with resistance 15 ohms at 230 V?

8. Suppose that a solar cell produces a current of 180 μ𝐴 through

a 100 Ω resistor. How much voltage is across the resistor?
Power
• Rate or expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸
𝑃= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

P – power in watts (W)

E – energy in joules (J) E
t – time in seconds (s)
P t
Power
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 1 = 1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1 • 1 = 1 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1 •
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 Therefore, power is also equivalent
to the following:
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑽𝟐
1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1 • 1 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑹
Energy
• Capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

𝐸 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃𝑡

P – power in watts (W)

E – energy in joules (J) E
t – time in seconds (s)

P t
Series Resistors
• When connected in series, resistors form a “string” in which there
is only one path for the current to flow.

𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑹𝒏
Sample Problem
• When connected in series, resistors form a “string” in which there
is only one path for the current to flow.

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

𝑅𝑇 = 56 + 100 + 27 + 10 + 47

𝑹𝑻 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝜴
Series Resistors
• A series circuit provides only one path for current between two
points so that the current is the same through each series
resistor.

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝑰𝒏
Sample Problem
• Connect each group of series resistors (as shown below) in series
with each other.
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
• Suppose that there are five
resistors positioned on a
protoboard as shown. Wire
them together in series so
that, starting from the
positive (+) terminal, 𝑅1 is
first, 𝑅2 is second, 𝑅3 is
third, and so on. Draw a
schematic showing this
connection.
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
• Connect the resistors as shown in series and determine the total
resistance based from the color coding.
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
• Determine the total resistance in the circuit as shown below.

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

𝑅𝑇 = 39 + 100 + 47 + 100 + 180 + 68

𝑹𝑻 = 𝟓𝟑𝟒 𝜴
Sample Problem
• Determine the value of 𝑅4 in the
circuit as shown.

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4

𝑅4 = 𝑅𝑇 − (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )

𝑅4 = 17.9 − (1.0 + 2.2 + 4.7)

𝑹𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝜴
Current in a Series Circuit
• A series circuit provides only one path for current between two
points so that the current is the same through each series
resistor.

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝑰𝒏
Voltage in a Series Circuit
• The total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of
the individual voltage drop across each resistor.

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛 (multiplying both sides by 𝐼)

𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛 𝑅𝑛 (Ohm’s Law V = 𝐼𝑅)

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏 (Total voltage in a series circuit)

Sample Problem
• How much voltage is required to produce 50 𝑚𝐴 through the
circuit as shown below?

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

𝑅𝑇 = 10 + 5.6 + 5.6 = 21.2𝛺

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇 = 50 𝑚𝐴 21.2 𝛺

𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
Sample Problem
• A 6 𝑉 battery is connected across three 100 Ω resistors in series.
What is the current through each resistor

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛

𝑅𝑇 = 3 100 = 300 Ω

𝑉𝑇 6𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼100 = =
𝑅𝑇 300 𝛺

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝑨
Sample Problem
• In the previous problem, calculate the total power dissipated by
the circuit.

𝑅𝑇 = 3 100 = 300 Ω

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼100 = 20 𝑚𝐴

𝑃𝑇 = 𝐼𝑇 2 𝑅𝑇 = 20 𝑚𝐴 2 (300 Ω)

𝑷𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕
Sample Problem
• Determine the value of 𝑅4 in the circuit as shown.
𝑉𝑇 50 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 = = = 5 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑇 10 𝑚𝐴

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4

𝑅4 = 𝑅𝑇 − 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

𝑅4 = 5 𝑘Ω − (100 Ω + 470 Ω + 1 𝑘Ω)

𝑹𝟒 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝜴
Voltage Divider Formula

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = ⋯ = 𝐼𝑛

𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑛
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑛 =
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑛

𝑹𝒏
𝑽𝒏 = 𝑽𝑻 •
𝑹𝑻
Sample Problem
• Determine 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 using the voltage divider formula in the circuit as
shown.
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 100 + 56 = 156 Ω
𝑅𝑛
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 •
𝑅𝑇

𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 • = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟏 𝑽
𝟏𝟓𝟔

𝟓𝟔
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 • = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟗 𝑽
𝟏𝟓𝟔
Sample Problem
• Determine the voltage drop across each resistor using the voltage divider formula
in the circuit as shown.
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 100 + 220 + 680 = 1 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑛
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 •
𝑅𝑇
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 • =𝟏𝑽
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 • = 𝟐. 𝟐 𝑽
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝟔𝟖𝟎
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 • = 𝟔. 𝟖 𝑽
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
Parallel Resistors
• When two or more resistors are individually connected between
two separate points (nodes) in a circuit, they are in parallel with
each other.
• A parallel circuit includes a voltage source between the two points
and more than one path for current.
• Each current path in a circuit is called a branch, and a parallel circuit
is one that has more than one branch.
• A node is a point or junction in a circuit where two or more
components are connected.
Parallel Resistors

• More than one path

for the current to
flow.
Parallel Resistors

• More than one path

for the current to
flow.
Parallel Resistors
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
𝑹𝑻 = + + ⋯+
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝒏

Alternative formula using conductance

1 1 1 1
𝐺1 = 𝐺2 = 𝐺𝑛 = 𝐺𝑇 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑇

𝐺𝑇 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝑛
𝟏 −𝟏
𝑹𝑻 = = 𝑮𝟏 + 𝑮𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑮𝒏
𝑮𝑻
Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
• The voltage across any
given branch of a
parallel circuit is equal
to the voltage across
each of the other
branches in parallel.

𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑩𝑮 = 𝑽𝑪𝑭 = 𝑽𝑫𝑬

• The voltage across any given
branch of a parallel circuit is
equal to the voltage across
each of the other branches in
parallel.

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = 12 𝑉
Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
The voltage across any given branch of a
parallel circuit is equal to the voltage across
each of the other branches in parallel.

𝑽𝑻 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝑽𝒏
Current in a Parallel Circuit

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝒏
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4

2 = 1 + 0.5 + 0.5

2=2
Current in a Parallel Circuit
Regardless of the number of resistors connected in parallel, the
total current would always be equal to the algebraic sum of the all
the individual currents.

𝑰𝑻 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑰𝒏
Current Divider Formula (CDF)
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑛

𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇

𝐼𝑛 𝑅𝑛 = 𝐼𝑇 𝑅𝑇 (Ohm’s Law)

𝑹𝑻
𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰𝑻 • (CDP)
𝑹𝒏
Series-Parallel Resistors
Series-Parallel Resistors
Wye
Delta
Wye & Delta Superposition
Delta to Wye (with different values of Ra,
Rb, and Rc)
Delta to Wye (with equal values of Ra,
Rb, and Rc)
Wye to Delta (with different values of R1,
R2, and R3)
Wye to Delta (with equal values of R1, R2,
and R3)
Sample Problem