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Radiography in Modern Industry

Fundamentals of Processing
In the processing procedure, the invisible image produced in the film by
exposure to x-rays, gamma rays, or light is made visible and permanent.
Processing is carried out under subdued light of a color to which the film is
relatively insensitive. The film is first immersed in a developer solution,
which causes the areas exposed to radiation to become dark, the amount
of darkening for a given degree of development depending on the degree
of exposure. After development, and sometimes after a treatment
designed to halt the developer reaction abruptly, the film passes into a
fixing bath. The function of the fixer is to dissolve the darkened portions of
the sensitive salt. The film is then washed to remove the fixing chemicals
and solubilized salts, and finally is dried.
Processing techniques can be divided into two general classes--"MANUAL
PROCESSING" and "AUTOMATED FILM PROCESSING".
If the volume of work is small, or if time is of relatively little importance,
radiographs may be processed by hand. The most common method of
manual processing of industrial radiographs is known as the tank method.
In this system, the processing solutions and wash water are contained in
tanks deep enough for the film to be hung vertically. Thus, the processing
solutions have free access to both sides of the film, and both emulsion
surfaces are uniformly processed to the same degree. The all-important
factor of temperature can be controlled by regulating the temperature of
the water in which the processing tanks are immersed.
Where the volume of work is large or the holding time is important,
automated processors are used. These reduce the darkroom manpower
required, drastically shorten the interval between completion of the
exposure and the availability of a dry radiograph ready for interpretation,
and release the material being inspected much faster. Automated
processors move films through the various solutions according to a
predetermined schedule. Manual work is limited to putting the
unprocessed film into the processor or into the film feeder, and removing
the processed radiographs from the receiving bin.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Cleanliness
In handling x-ray films, cleanliness is a prime essential. The processing
room, as w ell as the accessories and equipment, must be kept
scrupulously clean and used only for the purposes for which they are
intended. Any solutions that are spilled should be wiped up at once;
otherwise, on evaporation, the chemicals may get into the air and later
settle on film surfaces, causing spots. The thermometer and such
accessories as film hangers should be thoroughly washed in clean water
immediately after being used, so that processing solutions will not dry on
them and possibly cause contamination of solutions or streaked
radiographs when used again.
All tanks should be cleaned thoroughly before putting fresh solutions into
them.
Mixing Processing Solutions
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Processing solutions should be mixed according to the directions on the
labels; the instructions as to water temperature and order of addition of
chemicals should be followed carefully, as should the safe-handling
precautions for chemicals given on labels or instruction sheets.
The necessary vessels or pails should be made of AISI Type 316 stainless
steel with 2 to 3 percent molybdenum, or of enamelware, glass, plastic,
hard rubber, or glazed earthenware. (Metals such as aluminum,
galvanized iron, tin, copper, and zinc cause contamination and result in
fog in the radiograph.)
Paddles or plunger-type agitators are practical for stirring solutions. They
should be made of hard rubber, stainless steel, or some other material
that does not absorb or react with processing solutions.
Separate paddles or agitators should be provided for the developer and
fixer. If the paddles are washed thoroughly and hung up to dry
immediately after use, the danger of contamination when they are
employed again will be virtually nil.
A motor-driven stirrer with a stainless steel propeller is a convenient aid in
mixing solutions. In any event, the agitation used in mixing processing
solutions should be vigorous and complete, but not violent.
MANUAL PROCESSING
When tank processing is used, the routine is, first, to mount the exposed
film on a hanger immediately after it is taken from the cassette or film
holder, or removed from the factory-sealed envelope. (See the figure
below.) Then the film can be conveniently immersed in the developer
solution, stop bath, fixer solution, and wash water for the predetermined
intervals, and it is held securely and kept taut throughout the course of
the procedure.
At frequent intervals during processing, radiographic films must be
agitated. Otherwise, the solution in contact with the emulsion becomes
exhausted locally, affecting the rate and evenness of development or
fixation.
Another precaution must be observed: The level of the developer solution
must be kept constant by adding replenisher. This addition is necessary to
replace the solution carried out of the developer tank by the films and
hangers, and to keep the activity of the developer constant.
Special precautions are needed in the manual processing of industrial x-
ray films in roll form. These are usually processed on the commercially
available spiral stainless-steel reels. The space between the turns of film
on such a reel is small, and loading must be done carefully lest the turns
of film touch one another. The loaded reel should be placed in the
developer so that the film is vertical--that is, the plane of the reel itself is
horizontal. Agitation in the developer should not be so vigorous as to pull
the edges of the film out of the spiral recesses in the reel. The reel must
be carefully cleaned with a brush to remove any emulsion or dried
chemicals that may collect within the film-retaining grooves.

Method of fastening film on a developing hanger. Bottom clips are

fastened first, followed by top clips.
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Cleanliness
Processing tanks should be scrubbed thoroughly and then well rinsed with
fresh water before fresh solutions are put into them. In warm weather
especially, it is advisable to sterilize the developer tanks occasionally. The
growth of fungi can be minimized by filling the tank with an approximately
0.1 percent solution of sodium hypochlorite (Clorox, "101," Sunny Sol
bleaches, etc, diluted 1:30), allowing it to stand several hours or
overnight, and then thoroughly rinsing the tank. During this procedure,
rooms should be well ventilated to avoid corrosion of metal equipment
and instruments by the small concentrations of chlorine in the air. Another
method is to use a solution of sodium pentachlorphenate, such as
Dowicide G fungicide, at a strength of 1 part in 1,000 parts of water. This
solution has the advantage that no volatile substance is present and it will
not corrode metals. In preparing the solution, avoid breathing the dust
and getting it or the solution on your skin or clothing or into your eyes.
Development
Developer Solutions
Prepared developers that are made ready for use by dissolving in water or
by dilution with water provide a carefully compounded formula and
uniformity of results. They are comparable in performance and effective
life, but the liquid form offers greater convenience in preparation, which
may be extremely important in a busy laboratory. Powder chemicals are,
however, more economical to buy.
When the exposed film is placed in the developer, the solution penetrates
the emulsion and begins to transform the exposed silver halide crystals to
metallic silver. The longer the development is carried on, the more silver
is formed and hence the denser the image becomes.
The rate of development is affected by the temperature of the solution--as
the temperature rises, the rate of development increases. Thus, when the
developer temperature is low, the reaction is slow, and the development
time recommended for the normal temperature would result in
underdevelopment. When the temperature is high, the reaction is fast,
and the same time would result in over development. Within certain
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limits, these changes in the rate of development can be compensated for
by increasing or decreasing the time of development.
The time-temperature system of development should be used in all
radiographic work. In this system, the developer temperature is always
kept within a small range and the time of development is adjusted
according to the temperature in such a way that the degree of
development remains the same. If this procedure is not carefully
observed, the effects of even the most accurate exposure technique will
be nullified. Films cannot withstand the effects of errors resulting from
guesswork in processing.
In particular, "sight development" should not be used; that is, the
development time for a radiograph should not be decided by examining
the film under safelight illumination at intervals during the course of
development. It is extremely difficult to judge from the appearance of a
developed but unfixed radiograph what its appearance will be in the dried
state. Even though the final radiograph so processed is apparently
satisfactory, there is no assurance that development was carried far
enough to give the desired degree of film contrast. (See "EFFECT OF
DEVELOPMENT TIME ON SPEED AND CONTRAST".) Further, "sight
development" can easily lead to a high level of fog caused by excessive
exposure to safelights during development.
An advantage of standardized time-temperature processing is that by
keeping the degree of development constant a definite check on exposure
time can always be made. This precludes many errors that might
otherwise occur in the production of radiographs. When the processing
factors are known to be correct but the radiographs lack density,
underexposure can be assumed; when the radiographic image is too
dense, overexposure is, indicated. The first condition can be corrected by
increasing the exposure time; and the second, by decreasing it. The
methods for calculating the required changes in exposure are given in
detail.
Control of Temperature and Time
Because the temperature of the processing solutions has a decided
influence on their activity, careful control of this factor is very important. It
should be a rule that the developer be stirred and the temperature be
checked immediately before films are immersed in it so that they can be
left in the solution for the proper length of time.
Ideally, the temperature of the developer solution should be 68°F (20°C).
A temperature below 60°F (16°C) retards the action of the chemical and is
likely to result in underdevelopment, whereas an excessively high
temperature not only may destroy the photographic quality by producing
fog but also may soften the emulsion to the extent that it separates from
the base.
When, during extended periods, the tap water will not cool the solutions to
recommended temperatures, the most effective procedure is to use
mechanical refrigeration. Conversely, heating may be required in cold
climates. Under no circumstances should ice be placed directly in
processing solutions to reduce their temperature because, on melting, the
water will dilute them and possibly cause contamination.
Because of the direct relation between temperature and time, both are of
equal importance in a standardized processing procedure. So, after the
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temperature of the developer solution has been determined, films should
be left in the solution for the exact time that is required. Guesswork
should not be tolerated. Instead, when the films are placed in the solution,
a timer should be set so that an alarm will sound at the end of the time.
Agitation
It is essential to secure uniformity of development over the whole area of
the film. This is achieved by agitating the film during the course of
development.
If a radiographic film is placed in a developer solution and allowed to
develop without any movement, there is a tendency for each area of the
film to affect the development of the areas immediately below it. This is
because the reaction products of development have a higher specific
gravity than the developer and, as these products diffuse out of the
emulsion layer, they flow downward over the film surface and retard the
development of the areas over which they pass. The greater the film
density from which the reaction products flow, the greater is the
restraining action on the development of the lower portions of the film.
Thus, large lateral variations in film density will cause uneven
development in the areas below, and this may show up in the form of
streaks. The figure below illustrates the phenomena that occur when a
film having small areas whose densities are widely different from their
surroundings is developed without agitation of film or developer.

An example of streaking that can result when a film has been

allowed to remain in the solution without agitation during the
entire development period.

Agitation of the film during development brings fresh developer to the

surface of the film and prevents uneven development. In small
installations, where few films are processed, agitation is most easily done
by hand. Immediately after the hangers are lowered smoothly and
carefully into the developer, the upper bars of the hangers should be
tapped sharply two or three times on the upper edge of the tank to
dislodge any bubbles clinging to the emulsion. Thereafter, films should be
agitated periodically throughout the development.
Acceptable agitation results if the films are shaken vertically and
horizontally and moved from side to side in the tank for a few seconds
every minute during the course of the development. More satisfactory
renewal of developer at the surface of the film is obtained by lifting the
film clear of the developer, allowing it to drain from one corner for 2 or 3
seconds, reinserting it into the developer, and then repeating the
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procedure, with drainage from the other lower corner. The whole cycle
should be repeated once a minute during the development time.
Another form of agitation suitable for manual processing of sheet films is
known as "gaseous burst agitation." It is reasonably economical to install
and operate and, because it is automatic, does not require the full-time
attention of the processing room operator. Nitrogen, because of its inert
chemical nature and low cost, is the best gas to use.
Gaseous burst agitation consists of releasing bursts of gas at controlled
intervals through many small holes in a distributor at the bottom of the
processing tank. When first released, the bursts impart a sharp
displacement pulse, or piston action, to the entire volume of the solution.
As the bubbles make their way to the surface, they provide localized
agitation around each small bubble. The great number of bubbles, and the
random character of their paths to the surface, provide effective agitation
at the surfaces of films hanging in the solution (See the figure below.)

Distribution manifold for gaseous burst agitation.

If the gas were released continuously, rather than in bursts, constant flow
patterns would be set up from the bottom to the top of the tank and cause
uneven development. These flow patterns are not encountered, however,
when the gas is introduced in short bursts, with an interval between
bursts to allow the solution to settle down.
Note that the standard sizes of x-ray developing tanks will probably not be
suitable for gaseous burst agitation. Not only does the distributor at the
bottom of the tank occupy some space, but also the tank must extend
considerably above the surface of the still developer to contain the froth
that results when a burst of bubbles reaches the surface. It is therefore
probable that special tanks will have to be provided if the system is
adopted.
Agitation of the developer by means of stirrers or circulating pumps
should be discouraged. In any tank containing loaded film hangers, it is
almost impossible to prevent the uniform flow of developer along certain
paths. Such steady flow conditions may sometimes cause more uneven
development than no agitation at all.
Activity of Developer Solutions
As a developer is used, its developing power decreases, partly because of
the consumption of the developing agent in changing the exposed silver
bromide to metallic silver, and also because of the restraining effect of the
accumulated reaction products of the development. The extent of this
decrease in activity will depend on the number of films processed and
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their average density. Even when the developer is not used, the activity
may decrease slowly because of aerial oxidation of the developing agent.
Some compensation must be made for the decrease in developing power
if uniform radiographic results are to be obtained over a period of time.
The best way to do this is to use the replenisher system, in which the
activity of the solution is not allowed to diminish but rather is maintained
by suitable chemical replenishment.
In reference to the replenisher method or replenishment, the following
should be understood. As used here, replenishment means the addition of
a stronger-than-original solution, to revive or restore the developer to its
approximate original strength. Thus, the replenisher performs the double
function of maintaining both the liquid level in the developing tank and
the activity of the solution. Merely adding original-strength developer
would not produce the desired regenerating effect; development time
would have to be progressively increased to achieve a constant degree of
development.
The quantity of replenisher required to maintain the properties of the
developer will depend on the average density of the radiographs
processed. It is obvious that if 90 percent of the silver in the emulsion is
developed, giving a dense image over the entire film, more developing
agent will be consumed. Therefore, the developer will be exhausted to a
greater degree than if the film were developed to a low density. The
quantity of replenisher required, therefore, depends on the type of subject
radiographed. In the processing of industrial radiographs that have a
relatively large proportion of dense background, some of the original
developer must be discarded each time replenisher is added. The exact
quantity of replenisher can be determined only by trial and by frequent
testing of the developer.
The replenisher should be added at frequent intervals and in sufficient
quantity to maintain the activity reasonably constant for the types of
radiographs processed. It is obvious that if replenisher is added only
occasionally, there will be a large increase in density of the film after
replenishing. By replenishing frequently, these density increases after
replenishing are kept at a minimum. The quantity of the replenisher
added each time preferably should not exceed 2 or 3 percent of the total
volume of the developer in the tank.
It is not practical to continue replenishment indefinitely, and the solution
should be discarded when the replenisher used equals two to three times
the original quantity of the developer. In any case, the solution should be
discarded after three months because of aerial oxidation and the buildup
of gelatin, sludge, and solid impurities.

Arresting Development
After development is complete, developer remaining in the emulsion must
be deactivated by an acid stop bath or, if this is not feasible, by prolonged
rinsing in clean running water.
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If this step is omitted, development continues for the first minute or so of
fixation and, unless the film is agitated almost continuously during this
period, uneven development will occur, resulting in streakiness.
In addition, if films are transferred to the fixer solution without the use of
an acid stop bath or thorough rinsing, the alkali from the developer
solution retained by the gelatin neutralizes some of the acid in the fixer
solution. After a certain quantity of acid has been neutralized, the
chemical balance of the fixer solution is upset and its usefulness is greatly
impaired--the hardening action is destroyed and stains are likely to be
produced in the radiographs. Removal of as much of the developer
solution as possible before fixation prolongs the life of the fixer solution
and assures the routine production of radiographs of better quality.
Stop Bath
A stop bath consisting of 16 fluidounces of 28 percent acetic acid per
gallon of bath (125 mL per litre) may be used. If the stop bath is made
from glacial acetic acid, the proportions should be 4 1/2 fluidounces of
glacial acetic acid per gallon of bath, or 35 mL per litre.

Warning
Glacial acetic acid should be handled only under adequate ventilation, and
great care should be taken to avoid injury to the skin or damage to
clothing. Always add the glacial acetic acid to the water slowly, stirring
constantly, and never water to acid; otherwise, the solution may boil and
spatter acid on hands and face, causing severe burns.
When development is complete, the films are removed from the
developer, allowed to drain 1 or 2 seconds (not back into the developer
tank), and immersed in the stop bath. The developer draining from the
films should be kept out of the stop bath. Instead of draining, a few
seconds' rinse in fresh running water may be used prior to inserting the
films in the stop bath. This will materially prolong the life of the bath.
Films should be immersed in the stop bath for 30 to 60 seconds (ideally,
at 65 to 70°F or 18 to 21°C) with moderate agitation and then transferred
to the fixing bath. Five gallons of stop bath will treat about 100 14 x 17-
inch films, or equivalent. If a developer containing sodium carbonate is
used, the stop bath temperature must be maintained between (65 and
70°F or 18 to 21°C); otherwise, blisters containing carbon dioxide may be
formed in the emulsion by action of the stop bath.
Rinsing
If a stop bath cannot be used, a rinse in running water for at least
2 minutes should be used. It is important that the water be running and
that it be free of silver or fixer chemicals. The tank that is used for the
final washing after fixation should not be used for this rinse.
If the flow of water in the rinse tanks is only moderate, it is desirable to
agitate the films carefully, especially when they are first immersed.
Otherwise, development will be uneven, and there will be streaks in areas
that received a uniform exposure.
Fixing
The purpose of fixing is to remove all of the undeveloped silver salt of the
emulsion, leaving the developed silver as a permanent image. The fixer
has another important function--hardening the gelatin so that the film will
withstand subsequent drying with warm air. The interval between placing
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the film in the fixer solution and the disappearance of the original diffuse
yellow milkiness is known as the clearing time. It is during this time that
the fixer is dissolving the undeveloped silver halide. However, additional
time is required for the dissolved silver salt to diffuse out of the emulsion
and for the gelatin to be hardened adequately. Thus, the total fixing time
should be appreciably greater than the clearing time. The fixing time in a
relatively fresh fixing bath should, in general, not exceed 15 minutes;
otherwise, some loss of low densities may occur. The films should be
agitated vigorously when first placed in the fixer and at least every
2 minutes thereafter during the course of fixation to assure uniform action
of the chemicals.
During use, the fixer solution accumulates soluble silver salts which
gradually inhibit its ability to dissolve the unexposed silver halide from the
emulsion. In addition, the fixer solution becomes diluted by rinse water or
stop bath carried over by the film. As a result, the rate of fixing decreases,
and the hardening action is impaired. The dilution can be reduced by
thorough draining of films before immersion in the fixer and, if desired,
the fixing ability can be restored by replenishment of the fixer solution.
The usefulness of a fixer solution is ended when it has lost its acidity or
when clearing requires an unusually long interval. The use of an
exhausted solution should always be avoided because abnormal swelling
of the emulsion often results from deficient hardening and drying is
unduly prolonged; at high temperatures reticulation or sloughing away of
the emulsion may take place. In addition, neutralization of the acid in the
fixer solution frequently causes colored stains to appear on the processed
radiographs.
Washing
X-ray films should be washed in running water so circulated that the entire
emulsion area receives frequent changes. For a proper washing, the bar of
the hanger and the top clips should always be covered completely by the
running water, as illustrated in the figure below.

Water should flow over the tops of the hangers in the washing
compartment. This avoids streaking due to contamination of the
developer when hangers are used over again.

Efficient washing of the film depends both on a sufficient flow of water to

carry the fixer away rapidly and on adequate time to allow the fixer to
diffuse from the film. Washing time at 60 to 80° F (15.5 to 26.5° C) with a
rate of water flow of four renewals per hour is 30 minutes.
The films should be placed in the wash tank near the outlet end. Thus, the
films most heavily laden with fixer are first washed in water that is
somewhat contaminated with fixer from the films previously put in the
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wash tank. As more films are put in the wash tank, those already partially
washed are moved toward the inlet, so that the final part of the washing
of each film is done in fresh, uncontaminated water.
The tank should be large enough to wash films as rapidly as they can be
passed through the other solutions. Any excess capacity is wasteful of
water or, with the same flow as in a smaller tank, diminishes the
effectiveness with which fixer is removed from the film emulsion.
Insufficient capacity, on the other hand, encourages insufficient washing,
leading to later discoloration or fading of the image.
The "cascade method" of washing is the most economical of water and
results in better washing in the same length of time. In this method, the
washing compartment is divided into two sections. The films are taken
from the fixer solution and first placed in Section A. (See the figure
below.) After they have been partially washed, they are moved to
Section B, leaving Section A ready to receive more films from the fixer.
Thus, films heavily laden with fixer are washed in somewhat contaminated
water, and washing of the partially washed films is completed in fresh
water.

Schematic diagram of a cascade washing unit.

Washing efficiency decreases rapidly as temperature decreases and is

very low at temperatures below 60°F (15.5°C). On the other hand, in
warm weather, it is especially important to remove films from the tank as
soon as washing is completed, because gelatin has a natural tendency to
soften considerably with prolonged washing in water above 68°F (20°C).
Therefore, if possible the temperature of the wash water should be
maintained between 65 and 70°F or 18 and 21°C).
Formation of a cloud of minute bubbles on the surfaces of the film in the
wash tank sometimes occurs. These bubbles interfere with washing the
areas of emulsion beneath them, and can subsequently cause a
discoloration or a mottled appearance of the radiograph. When this
trouble is encountered, the films should be removed from the wash water
and the emulsion surfaces wiped with a soft cellulose sponge at least
twice during the washing period to remove the bubbles. Vigorous tapping
of the top bar of the hanger against the top of the tank rarely is sufficient
to remove the bubbles.

Prevention of Water Spots

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When films are removed from the wash tanks, small drops of water cling
to the surfaces of the emulsions. If the films are dried rapidly, the areas
under the drops dry more slowly than the surrounding areas. This uneven
drying causes distortion of the gelatin, changing the density of the silver
image, and results in spots that are frequently visible and troublesome in
the finished radiograph.
Such "water spots" can be largely prevented by immersing the washed
films for 1 or 2 minutes in a wetting agent, then allowing the bulk of the
water to drain off before the films are placed in the drying cabinet. This
solution causes the surplus water to drain off the film more evenly,
reducing the number of clinging drops. This reduces the drying time and
lessens the number of water spots occurring on the finished radiographs.
Drying
Convenient racks are available commercially for holding hangers during
drying when only a small number of films are processed daily. When the
racks are placed high on the wall, the films can be suspended by inserting
the crossbars of the processing hangers in the holes provided. This
obviates the danger of striking the radiographs while they are wet, or
spattering water on the drying surfaces, which would cause spots on
them. Radiographs dry best in warm, dry air that is changing constantly.
When a considerable number of films are to be processed, suitable driers
with built-in fans, filters, and heaters or desiccants are commercially
available.
Marks in Radiographs
Defects, spots, and marks of many kinds may occur if the preceding
general rules for manual processing are not carefully followed. Perhaps
the most common processing defect is streakiness and mottle in areas
that receive a uniform exposure. This unevenness may be a result of:
 Failure to agitate the films sufficiently during development or the presence of too
many hangers in the tank, resulting in inadequate space between neighboring films.
 Insufficient rinsing in water or failure to agitate the films sufficiently before fixation.
 The use of an exhausted stop bath or failure to agitate the film properly in the stop
bath.
 In the absence of satisfactory rinsing--insufficient agitation of the films on first
immersing them in the fixing bath.

Other characteristic marks are dark spots caused by the spattering of

developer solution, static electric discharges, and finger marks; and dark
streaks occurring when the developer-saturated film is inspected for a
prolonged time before a safelight lamp. If possible, films should never be
examined at length until they are dry.
A further trouble is fog - that is, development of silver halide grains other
than those affected by radiation during exposure. It is a great source of
annoyance and may be caused by accidental exposure to light, x-rays, or
radioactive substances; contaminated developer solution; development at
too high a temperature; or storing films under improper storage conditions
(see "STORAGE OF EXPOSED AND PROCESSED FILM") or beyond the
expiration dates stamped on the cartons.
Accidental exposure of the film to x-radiation or gamma radiation is a
common occurrence because of insufficient protection from high-voltage
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tubes or stored radioisotopes; films have been fogged through 1/8 inch of
lead in rooms 50 feet or more away from an x-ray machine.
AUTOMATED FILM PROCESSING
Automated processing requires a processor (see the figure below),
specially formulated chemicals and compatible film, all three of which
must work together to produce high-quality radiographs. This section
describes how these three components work together.

An automated processor has three main sections: a film-feeding

section; a film-processing section (developer, fixer, and wash);
and a film-drying section.

Processing Control
The essence of automated processing is control, both chemical and
mechanical. In order to develop, fix, wash, and dry a radiograph in the
short time available in an automated processor, specifically formulated
chemicals are used. The processor maintains the chemical solutions at the
proper temperatures, agitates and replenishes the solutions
automatically, and transports the films mechanically at a carefully
controlled speed throughout the processing cycle. Film characteristics
must be compatible with processing conditions, shortened processing
times and the mechanical transport system. From the time a film is fed
into the processor until the dry radiograph is delivered, chemicals,
mechanics, and film must work together.
Automated Processor Systems
Automated processors incorporate a number of systems which transport,
process, and dry the film and replenish and recirculate the processing
solutions. A knowledge of these systems and how they work together will
help in understanding and using automated processing equipment.
Transport System
The function of the transport system (see the figure below) is to move film
through the developer and fixer solutions and through the washing and
drying sections, holding the film in each stage of the processing cycle for
exactly the right length of time, and finally to deliver the ready-to-read
radiograph.

The roller transort system is the backbone of an automated

processor. The arrangement and number of its components vary,
but the basic plan is virtually the same.
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In most automated processors now in use, the film is transported by a

system of rollers driven by a constant speed motor. The rollers are
arranged in a number of assemblies--entrance roller assembly, racks,
turnarounds (which reverse direction of film travel within a tank),
crossovers (which transfer films from one tank to another), and a
squeegee assembly (which removes surface water after the washing
cycle). The number and specific design of the assemblies may vary from
one model of processor to another, but the basic design is the same.
It is important to realize that the film travels at a constant speed in a
processor, but that the speed in one model may differ from that in
another. Processing cycles--the time interval from the insertion of an
unprocessed film to the delivery of a dry radiograph--in general range
downward from 15 minutes. Because one stage of the cycle may have to
be longer than another, the racks may vary in size--the longer the
assembly, the longer the film takes to pass through a particular stage of
processing.
Although the primary function of the transport system is to move the film
through the processor in a precisely controlled time, the system performs
two other functions of importance to the rapid production of high-quality
radiographs. First, the rollers produce vigorous uniform agitation of the
solutions at the surfaces of the film, contributing significantly to the
uniformity of processing. Second, the top wet rollers in the racks and the
rollers in the crossover assemblies effectively remove the solutions from
the surfaces of the film, reducing the amount of solution carried over from
one tank to the next and thus prolonging the life of the fixer and
increasing the efficiency of washing. Most of the wash water clinging to
the surface of the film is removed by the squeegee rollers, making it
possible to dry the processed film uniformly and rapidly, without
blemishes.
Water System
The water system of automated processors has two functions - to wash
the films and to help stabilize the temperature of the processing solutions.
Hot and cold water are blended to the proper temperature and the
tempered water then passes through a flow regulator which provides a
constant rate of flow. Depending upon the processor, part or all of the
water is used to help control the temperature of the developer. In some
processors, the water also helps to regulate the temperature of the fixer.
The water then passes to the wash tank where it flows through and over
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the wash rack. It then flows over a weir (dam) at the top of the tank and
into the drain.
Sometimes the temperature of the cold water supply may be higher than
required by the processor. In this situation, it is necessary to cool the
water before piping it to the processor.
This is the basic pattern of the water system of automated processors; the
details of the system may vary slightly, however.
Recirculation Systems
Recirculation of the fixer and developer solutions performs the triple
functions of uniformly mixing the processing and replenisher solution,
maintaining them at constant temperatures, and keeping thoroughly
mixed and agitated solutions in contact with the film.
The solutions are pumped from the processor tanks, passed through
devices to regulate temperature, and returned to the tanks under
pressure. This pressure forces the solutions upward and downward, inside,
and around the transport system assemblies. As a result of the vigorous
flow in the processing tanks, the solutions are thoroughly mixed and
agitated and the films moving through the tanks are constantly bathed in
fresh solutions.
Replenishment Systems
Accurate replenishment of the developer and fixer solutions is even more
important in automated processing than in manual processing. In both
techniques, accurate replenishment is essential to proper processing of
the film and to long life of the processing solutions; but, if the solutions
are not properly replenished in an automated processor, the film may
swell too much and become slippery, with the result that it might get
stuck in the processor.
When a film is fed into the processor, pumps are activated, which pump
replenisher from storage tanks to the processing tanks. As soon as the
film has passed the entrance assembly, the pumps stop--replenisher is
added only during the time required for a sheet of film to pass through the
entrance assembly. The amount of replenisher added is thus related to
the size of the sheet of film. The newly added replenisher is blended with
the processor solutions by the recirculation pumps. Excess processing
solutions flow over a weir at the top of the tanks into the drain.
Different types of x-ray films require different quantities of processing
chemicals. It is, therefore, important that the solutions be replenished at
the rate proper for the type or types of film being processed and the
average density of the radiographs.
Replenishment rates must be measured accurately and checked
periodically. Overreplenishment of the developer is likely to result in lower
contrast; slight underreplenishment results in gain of speed and contrast,
but severe underreplenishment results in a loss of both. Severe
underreplenishment of developer can cause not only loss of density and
contrast but also failure of the film to transport at any point in the
transport system. Overreplenishment of the fixer does not affect good
operation, but is wasteful. However, underreplenishment results in poor
fixation, insufficient hardening, inadequate washing, and possible failure
of the film to be transported in the fixer rack or at any point beyond.
Dryer System
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Rapid drying of the processed radiograph depends on proper conditioning
of the film in the processing solutions, effective removal of surface
moisture by the squeegee rollers, and a good supply of warm air striking
both surfaces of the radiograph.
Heated air is supplied to the dryer section by a blower. Part of the air is
recirculated; the rest is vented to prevent buildup of excessive humidity in
the dryer. Fresh air is drawn into the system to replace that which is
vented.
Rapid Access to Processed Radiographs
Approximately twelve or fourteen minutes after exposed films are fed into
the unit, they emerge processed, washed, dried, and ready for
interpretation. Conservatively, these operations take approximately
1 hour in hand processing. Thus, with a saving of at least 45 minutes in
processing time, the holding time for parts being radiographed is greatly
reduced. It follows that more work can be scheduled for a given period
because of the speed of processing and the consequent reduction in
space required for holding materials until the radiographs are ready for
checking.
Uniformity of Radiographs
Automated processing is very closely controlled time-temperature
processing. This, combined with accurate automatic replenishment of
solutions, produces day-after-day uniformity of radiographs rarely
achieved in hand processing. It permits the setting up of exposure
techniques that can be used with the knowledge that the films will receive
optimum processing and be free from processing artifacts. Processing
variables are virtually eliminated.
Small Space Requirements
Automated processors require only about 10 square feet of floor space.
The size of the processing room can be reduced because hand tanks and
drying facilities are not needed. A film loading and unloading bench, film
storage facilities, plus a small open area in front of the processor feed tray
are all the space required. The processor, in effect, releases valuable floor
space for other plant activities. If the work load increases to a point where
more processors are needed, they can be added with minimal additional
space requirements. Many plants with widely separated exposure areas
have found that dispersed processing facilities using two or more
processors greatly increase the efficiency of operations.
Chemistry of Automated Processing
Automated processing is not just a mechanization of hand processing, but
a system depending on the interrelation of mechanics, chemicals, and
film. A special chemical system is therefore required to meet the
particular need of automated processing.
When, in manual processing, a sheet of x-ray film is immersed in
developer solution, the exposed silver halide grains are converted to
metallic silver, but, at the same time, the emulsion layer swells and
softens. The fixer solution removes the underdeveloped silver halide
grains and shrinks and hardens the emulsion layer. Washing removes the
last traces of processing chemicals and swells the film slightly. Drying
further hardens and shrinks the emulsion. Therefore, the emulsion
changes in thickness and in hardness as the film is moved from one step
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to the next in processing. In manual processing, these variations are of no
importance because the films are supported independently and do not
come in contact with other films or any other surfaces.
Automated processing, however, places an additional set of demands on
the processing chemicals. Besides developing and fixing the image very
quickly, the processing chemicals must prevent the emulsion from
swelling or becoming either slippery, soft, or sticky. Further, they must
prepare the processed film to be washed and dried rapidly.
In automated processors, if a film becomes slippery, it could slow down in
the transport system, so that films following it could catch up and overlap.
Or it might become too sticky to pass come point and get stuck or even
wrap around a roller. If the emulsion becomes too soft it could be
damaged by the rollers. These occurrences, of course, cannot be
tolerated. Therefore, processing solutions used in automated processors
must be formulated to control, within narrow limits, the physical
properties of the film. Consequently, the mixing instructions with these
chemicals must be followed exactly.
This control is accomplished by hardener in the developer and additional
hardener in the fixer to hold the thickness and tackiness of the emulsion
within the limits required for reliable transport, as well as for rapid
washing and drying.
It is also desirable that automated processing provide rapid access to a
finished radiograph. This is achieved in part by the composition of the
processing solutions and in part by using them at temperatures higher
than those suitable for manual processing of film.
The hardening developer develops the film very rapidly at its normal
operating temperature. Moreover, the formulation of the solution is
carefully balanced so that optimum development is achieved in exactly
the time required for the hardener to harden the emulsion. If too much
hardener is in a solution, the emulsion hardens too quickly for the
developer to penetrate sufficiently, and underdevelopment results. If too
little hardener is in the solution, the hardening process is slowed,
overdevelopment of film occurs, and transport problems may be
encountered. To maintain the proper balance, it is essential that
developer solution be replenished at the rate proper for the type or types
of film being processed and the average density of the radiographs.
Because washing, drying, and keeping properties of the radiograph are
closely tied to the effectiveness of the fixation process, special fixers are
needed for automatic processing. Not only must they act rapidly, but they
must maintain the film at the proper degree of hardness for reliable
transport. Beyond this, the fixer must be readily removed from the
emulsion so that proper washing of the radiograph requires only a short
time. A hardening agent added to the fixer solution works with the fixing
chemicals to condition the film for washing and for rapid drying without
physical damage to the emulsion.
Experience has shown that the solutions in this chemical system have a
long life. In general, it is recommended that the processor tanks be
emptied and cleaned after 50,000 films of mixed sizes have been
processed or at the end of 3 months, whichever is sooner. This may vary
somewhat depending on local use and conditions; but, in general, this
schedule will give very satisfactory results.
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Film-Feeding Procedures
Sheet Film
The figure below shows the proper film-feeding procedures. The arrows
indicate the direction in which films are fed into the processor. Wherever
possible, it is advisable to feed all narrower films side by side so as to
avoid overreplenishment of the solutions. This will aid in balanced
replenishment and will result in maximum economy of the solutions used.
Care should be taken that films are fed into the processor square with the
edge of a side guide of the feed tray, and that multiple films are started at
the same time.
In no event should films less than 7 inches long be fed into the processor.

Film-feeding procedures for KODAK PROFESSSIONAL INDUSTREX

Processors.

Roll Film

Roll films in widths of 16 mm to 17 inches and long strips of film may be

processed in a KODAK PROFESSSIONAL INDUSTREX Processor. This
requires a somewhat different procedure than is used when feeding sheet
film. Roll film in narrow widths and many strips have an inherent curl
because they are wound on spools. Because of this curl, it is undesirable
to feed roll or strip film into the processor without attaching a sheet of
leader film to the leading edge of the roll or strip. Ideally, the leader
should be unprocessed radiographic film. Sheet film that has been spoiled
in exposure or accidentally light-fogged can be preserved and used for
this purpose.
The leader film should be at least as wide as, and preferably wider than,
the roll film and be a minimum of 10 inches long. It is attached to the roll
film with a butt joint using pressure-sensitive polyester tape, such as
SCOTCH Brand Electrical Tape No. 3, one inch in width. (Other types of
tape may not be suitable due to the solubility of their bases in the
processing solutions.) Care should be taken that none of the adhesive side
of the tape is exposed to the processing solutions. Otherwise, the tape
may stick to the processor rollers or bits of adhesive may be transferred
to the rollers, resulting in processing difficulties.
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If narrow widths of roll or strip films are being fed, they should be kept as
close as possible to one side guide of the feed tray. This will permit the
feeding of standard-size sheet films at the same time. Where quantities of
roll and strip films are fed, the replenisher pump should be turned off for a
portion of the time. This will prevent overreplenishment and possible
upset of the chemical balance in the processor tanks.
FILING RADIOGRAPHS
After the radiograph is dry, it must be prepared for filing. With a manually
processed radiograph, the first step is the elimination of the sharp
projections that are caused by the film-hanger clips. Use of film corner
cutters will enhance the appearance of the radiograph, preclude its
scratching others with which it may come in contact, facilitate its insertion
into an envelope, and conserve filing space.
The radiograph should be placed in a heavy manila envelope of the proper
size, and all of the essential identification data should be written on the
envelope so that it can be easily handled and filed. Envelopes having an
edge seam, rather than a center seam, and joined with a nonhygroscopic
adhesive are preferred, since occasional staining and fading of the image
is caused by certain adhesives used in the manufacture of envelopes.
Ideally, radiographs should be stored at a relative humidity of 30 to
50 percent. See "American Standard Requirement for Photographic Filing
Enclosures for Storing Processed Photographic Films, Plates and Papers,"
PH1.53-1978. ----- End -----