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Water pollution

Water pollution is any contamination of water bodies with chemicals or other foreign
substances detrimental to humans, plants, or animal health. These pollutants include
fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural runoff; sewage and food processing waste;
lead, mercury and other heavy metals; chemical wastes from industrial discharges and
chemical contamination from hazardous waste sites. Human activities very often add
these contaminants. Worldwide, nearly 2 billion people drink contaminated water that
could be harmful to their health. Water pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or
indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove toxic
compounds. Water pollution is a major global problem that requires ongoing evaluation
and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual
aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of
deaths and diseases and accounts for more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated
580 people in India die of water pollution related sickness every day. About 90%
of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution, and nearly 500 million
people lack access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water
pollution in developing countries, developed countries continue to struggle with
pollution problems.

Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

Rivers eventually carry most water pollutants into the oceans. In some areas of the
world, the influence can be traced a hundred miles from the mouth by studies using
hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as S.W.M.M. or the
D.S.S.A.M. Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine pollutants'
fate in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also
been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight. The highest toxin loads are
not directly at the Hudson River's mouth, but 100 kilometres south, since several days
are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows
south along the coast due to Coriolis force.
Further south then is oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen and
by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition.
Fish and shellfish kills have been reported; because toxins climb the food chain after
small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish. Each successive step
up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy
metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as D.D.T. This is known
as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation.
The giant gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The North Pacific
Gyre, for example, has collected the so-called "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" that is
now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Plastic debris can absorb toxic
chemicals from ocean pollution; potentially poisoning anything that eats it. Many of
these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This
results in obstruction of digestive pathways that leads to reduced appetite or even
starvation. Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change, especially
over long periods in groundwater reservoirs. A particular class of such chemicals is
the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal
degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry
cleaning industry. These chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo
partial decomposition reactions leading to new hazardous chemicals (including
dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride). Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to
abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through
unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria
by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and in some cases, chemical
reactions and biological activity; however, in some cases, the pollutants merely
transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns
is not filtered and can be transported as quickly as surface water. This can be
aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in Karst
topography areas. There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the
original pollutant but a derivative condition. An example is a silt-bearing surface runoff,
which can inhibit sunlight's penetration through the water column, hampering
photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

Measurement of water pollution

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods, i.e.,
physical, chemical and biological. Most involve the collection of samples, followed by
specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without
sampling, such as temperature. Government agencies and research organizations
have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the
comparability of results from disparate testing events.
Sampling: Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several
methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the contaminant's characteristics.
Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in
association with rain events. For this reason, grab samples are often inadequate for
fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ
auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or
discharge intervals.
Physical testing: Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids
concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (T.S.S.)) and turbidity.
Chemical testing: Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical
chemistry. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic
compounds. Frequently used techniques include pH, biochemical oxygen demand
(B.O.D.), chemical oxygen demand (C.O.D.), nutrients (nitrate
and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead
and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (T.P.H.) and pesticides.
Biological testing: Biological testing involves using plant, animal, and microbial
indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. Depending on the type of
assessment, the organisms may be identified for bio surveys (population counts) and
returned to the water body, or dissect them for bioassays to determine toxicity.

Control of water pollution

1. Domestic sewage: Domestic sewage is typically 99.9 per cent water with 0.1
per cent pollutants. Although found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose
a risk on a large scale. In urban areas, centralized sewage treatment plants
typically treat domestic sewage. Well-designed and operating systems (i.e.,
secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 per cent or more of these
pollutants. Some plants have different approaches to extract nutrients and
pathogens. Most municipal plants are not specifically designed to treat toxic
pollutants found in industrial wastewater. Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or
 combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to
reduce discharges of untreated sewage including:
I. Utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management
capacity throughout the system and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the
treatment plant
II. Repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
III. Increasing the overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system.

A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an

individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on-site and discharges into the soil.
Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment
system (e.g. in a rural community).

2. Industrial wastewater: Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic

sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate
wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and
grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other
nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment
systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove
the toxic components and then send the partially treated wastewater to the
municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically
operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some initiatives have
been thriving at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate
pollutants through pollution prevention. Heated water generated by power plants
or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:
I. cooling ponds, human-made bodies of water designed for cooling by
evaporation, convection and radiation
II. cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to
the atmosphere through evaporation and heat transfer cogeneration, a process
where waste heat is recycled for domestic and industrial heating purposes.

3. Agriculture wastewater
• Nonpoint source wastewater treatment: Sediment washed off fields is the
largest agricultural pollution source in the United States. Farmers may utilize
erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Standard
techniques include contour ploughing, crop mulching, crop rotation,
 planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. Nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as
commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial
wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop
residues, irrigation water, wildlife and atmospheric deposition. Farmers can
develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce the excess
application of nutrients and reduce the potential for nutrient pollution. To
minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management
(I.P.M.) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain
control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides and protect water
quality.
• Point source wastewater treatment: Farms with large livestock and poultry
operations, such as factory farms, are called concentrated animal feeding
operations or feedlots in U.S. Animal slurries are usually treated by
containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle
application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate
treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing
with straw and composted at high temperature to produce bacteriologically
sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.
4. Construction site storm water: Sediment from construction sites is managed
by installing erosion controls such as mulching and hydro seeding and sediment
controls such as sediment basins and silt fences. Using spill prevention prevents
discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout and
control plans and specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and
structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms.
5. Urban runoff (storm water): Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing
the velocity and flow of storm water and reducing pollutant discharges. Local
governments use a variety of storm water management techniques to minimize
the effects of urban runoff. These techniques called best management practices
(B.M.P.s) in U.S. may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on
improving water quality, and some perform both functions. Pollution prevention
practices include low impact development techniques, installation of green
roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil,
fertilizers and pesticides). Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration
 basins, bio retention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar
devices. Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water
management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such
as bio retention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less
effective at reducing the temperature, as may heat the sun's water before being
discharged to a receiving stream.

What can we do to minimize water pollution?

• Fertilize garden and yard plants with manure or compost instead of commercial
inorganic fertilizer.
• Minimize your use of pesticides.
• Do not apply fertilizer or pesticides near a body of water.
• Grow or buy organic foods.
• Do not drink bottled water unless tests show that your tap water is
contaminated. Merely refill and reuse plastic bottles with tap water.
• Compost your food wastes.
• Do not use water fresheners in toilets.
• Do not flush unwanted medicines down the toilet.
• Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oil, antifreeze, or other products
containing harmful chemicals down the drain or onto the ground.

Governments, local councils and laws

Many governments have stringent laws that help minimize water pollution. These laws
are usually directed to industries, hospitals, schools and market areas to dispose of,
treat and manage sewage. In many developed cities, waste or sewage treatment is
very efficient and designed to minimize water bodies' pollution. There are also lots of
organizations and groups that help educate people about the dangers of water
pollution. It is always great to join these groups because they regularly encourage
other community members to have a better attitude towards water.

Several forms of legislation have been passed in recent decades to try to control water
pollution. The Clean Water Act (C.W.A.) is the primary federal law in the United States
governing water pollution. Passed in 1972, the act established the goals of eliminating
releases of high amounts of toxic substances into water, eliminating additional water
pollution by 1985 and ensuring that surface waters would meet standards necessary
for human sports and recreation by 1983. In effect, the principal body of law is based
on the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972 that was a significant
expansion of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948. Consequential
amendments were enacted in the Clean Water Act of 1977 and the Water Quality Act
of 1987. The Clean Water Act does not directly address groundwater contamination.
Groundwater protection provisions are included in the Safe Drinking Water Act,
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Superfund act.

WATER POLLUTION - CASE STUDIES

The Love Canal Tragedy: This occurred in the Suburb of Niagara falls, New York.
Love canal was built by William Love that was later dug up and was used to dump
sealed steel drums of chemical wastes by Hooker Chemicals and Plastic Co. between
1942-53. In 1953, the dumpsite was covered with clay and topsoil by the company
and sold to the City Board of Education, which built an elementary school on this site.
Houses were also built near to the school. In 1976, the residents started complaining
of foul smell. Children playing in the canal area received chemical burns. In 1977, the
corroded steel containers started leaking the chemicals into storm sewers, the
basement of homes and the school playground. About 26 toxic organic compounds
were identified. The dumpsite was covered with clay, and the leaking wastes were
pumped to the new treatment plant. The affected families were relocated.
Arsenic pollution in groundwater: the toxic heavy metal arsenic severely
contaminates West Bengal & Bangladesh. The first report of arsenic pollution in West
Bengal came in 1975 and that in Bangladesh in 1993. Familiar people were found to
be ingesting low doses of arsenic for 10-14 years after which white or black spots
called melanosis started mottling the skin. Later on, these spots converted into leprosy
like skin lesions, eventually rotting into gangrenous ulcers. Long exposures often lead
to bladder and lung cancer. In West Bengal, 40 million out of 90 million people have
exposure to arsenic threat due to contaminated water. The 24 Parganas, Hooghly and
Murshidabad districts and Behala and S. Eastern fringes of Kolkata lie in Arsenic Risk
Zone. Excessive use of lead arsenate and Cu arsenite as pesticides in great yielding
varieties of summer paddy and jute crops are the significant causes of arsenic
pollution. Arsenic contaminated tube wells in the state are being painted red while safe
water tube wells are painted green for use.
CONCLUSION
To combat water pollution, we must understand the problems and become part of the
solution. The issues associated with water pollution can disrupt life on our planet to a
great extent. Congress has passed laws to combat water pollution, thus
acknowledging that water pollution is, indeed, a severe issue. But the government
alone cannot solve the entire problem. It is ultimately up to us, to be informed,
responsible and involved when it comes to the issues we face with our water. We
must become familiar with our local water resources and learn about disposing of
harmful household wastes to not end up in sewage treatment plants that can't handle
them or landfills not designed to receive hazardous materials. In our yards, we must
determine whether additional nutrients are needed before fertilizers are applied and
look for alternatives where fertilizers might runoff into surface waters. We have to
preserve existing trees and plant new trees and shrubs to help prevent soil erosion
and promote infiltration of water into the soil.