Faculty of Engineering

Computer and Systems Engineering Department

CSE 371s: Control Engineering

Topic#3 System Representation

Prof. Wahied Gharieb Ali Abdelaal
 Topics

• Transfer Functions
• Block Diagram of Control Systems
• Signal Flow Graphs
• Mason’s Gain Formula
• Examples
• Block Diagram to Signal Flow Graph
• State Diagram
• Sensitivity Analysis

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 Transfer Functions
Definition:

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 Transfer Functions

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 Transfer Functions
Definitions
• The transfer function G(s) of an LTI system is defined as the Laplace
transform of the impulse response with all initial conditions set to zero.
U(s) G(s) Y(s)

Consider the transfer function G(s) is related to the Laplace transform of the
input and the output through the following relation:
G (s ) =
Y (s)
U (s)

 (t ) = 1 t = 0
If u(t) = (t) = impulse Function = 
 (t ) = 0 t  0
• U(s)=L[(t)]=1 G(s)=Y(s). Therefore, the transfer function G(s) can
also be considered as the Laplace transform of the output when the input
is the unit impulse function (t). Because this fact, the transfer function is
also called impulse response.

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 Transfer Functions
The transfer function G(s) can also be derived from the system
differential equation as follows:

dn d n -1 d dm d m-1
n
y(t ) + an −1 n -1 y(t ) + ... + a1 y(t ) + a0 y(t ) = bm m u (t ) + bm −1 n -1 u (t ) + ... + b0 u (t )
dt dt dt dt dt

Assuming zero initial conditions and taking the Laplace transforms of

both sides, we get:

s n
+ an −1 s n−1 + ... + a0 Y ( s ) = bm s m + bm −1 s m−1 + ... + b0 U ( s )

Y ( s) bm s m + bm −1s m−1 + ... + b0

G( s) = = n
U ( s) s + an −1s n−1 + ... + a0
Remember that :
L[f’(t)]=SF(s)-f(0+)
L[fn(t)]=SnF(s) – Sn-1f(0) – Sn-2f’(0) - …. – fn-1(0)
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 Transfer Functions
Properties

1. Transfer functions are defined only for a linear Time-Invariant (LTI)

Systems. They are not defined for non-linear systems.

2. The transfer function between the input and the output is the
Laplace transform of the impulse response. Also, it is the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the
input.

3. All initial conditions of the system are zero.

4. The transfer function is dependent only on the system parameters

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 Transfer Functions
Properties

5. The transfer function depends only the complex variable s and no

other variables

6. If the order of the transfer function’s numerator is equal to that of

the denominator, the transfer function is called proper.

7. If the order of the numerator is less than that of the denominator, the
transfer function is called strictly proper transfer function.

8. If the order of the numerator is greater than that of the

denominator, the transfer function is called improper.

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 Transfer Functions

The characteristic equation of a linear system is defined as the equation

obtained by setting the denominator polynomial of the transfer function
to zero: s n + a s n−1 + ... + a s + a = 0
n −1 1 0

Example
Consider the following differential equation:
d3 d2 d d2 d
y(t) + 2 y(t) + 5 y(t) + 8 y(t) = 5 u(t) + u (t ) + 7u (t )
dt 3 dt 2 dt dt 2 dt

By taking the Laplace transform (assuming zero initial conditions)

[s 3 + 2s 2 + 5s + 8]Y (s) = [5s 2 + s + 7]U (s)

5s 2 + s + 7
G(s) = 3
s + 2 s 2 + 5s + 8

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 Transfer Functions
This transfer function is strictly proper and its characteristic equation is :
s 3 + 2s 2 + 5s + 8 = 0
The zeros are the roots of the numerator
The poles are the roots of the denominator

Examples
s +1
G(s) = Proper transfer function:
s+5

2 s 2 + 5s + 1 Improper transfer
G(s) =
s+2 function:

s 3 + 2s 2 + s + 3 Strictly proper transfer function:

G( s) =
( s + 1) 2 ( s + 2) 2

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems
The block diagram is obtained after obtaining the differential equation &
Transfer function of all components of a control system.
➢ The arrowhead pointing towards the block indicates the i/p &
➢ The arrowhead pointing away from the block indicates the o/p.

Suppose G(S) is the Transfer function then

G(S) = C(S) / R(S)

After obtaining the block diagram for each & every component, all
blocks are combined to get a complete representation. It is then reduced
to a simple form with the help of block diagram algebra.

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

Basic elements of a block diagram

•Blocks
•Transfer functions of elements inside the blocks
•Summing points
•Take off points
•Arrow

A control system may consist of several components. A block diagram of

a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each
component and of the flow of signals. The elements of a block diagram
are block, branch point and summing point.
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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

1- Block: In a block diagram all system

variables are linked to each other through
functional blocks. The blocks are used to
identify many types of mathematical
operations like integration, amplification,
…etc.

2- Summing point: Addition/subtraction is

represented by a circle, called a summing
point. As shown below, a summing point
may have one or several inputs. Each input
has its own appropriate plus or minus sign.
A summing point has only one output and is
equal to the algebraic sum of the inputs.

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

Advantages of Block Diagram Representation :

• It is always easy to construct the block diagram even
for a complicated system
• Function of individual element can be visualized
• Individual & Overall performance can be studied
• Overall transfer function can be calculated easily

Limitations of a Block Diagram Representation

• No information can be obtained about the physical
construction
• Source of energy is not shown

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

Block diagram reduction technique: Because of the simplicity and

versatility, the block diagrams are often used by control engineers to describe
all types of systems. A block diagram can be used simply to represent the
composition and interconnection of a system. Also, it can be used, together
with transfer functions, to represent the cause-and-effect relationships
throughout the system. Transfer Function is defined as the relationship
between an input signal and an output signal to a device.

Procedure to solve Block Diagram Reductions:

Step 1: Reduce the blocks connected in series
Step 2: Reduce the blocks connected in parallel
Step 3: Reduce the minor feedback loops
Step 4: Move the take off points and summing point for simplification
Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 till simple form is obtained
Step 6: Obtain the Transfer Function for the overall system

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

Block diagram rules

(1) Blocks in Cascade [Series]: When two blocks are connected in series
,their resultant transfer function is the product of two individual transfer
functions.

(2) Combining blocks in Parallel: When two blocks are connected parallel
as shown below ,the resultant transfer function is equal to the algebraic sum
(or difference) of the two transfer functions. This is shown in the diagram
below.

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

(3) Eliminating a feed back loop: The following diagram shows how to
eliminate the feed back loop in the resultant control system.

(4) Moving a take-off point beyond a block: The effect of moving the
takeoff point beyond a block is shown below.

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

(5) Moving a Take-off point ahead of a block: The effect of moving

the takeoff point ahead of a block is shown below.

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems
Examples
e(t)=r(t)-y(t) r(t) + e(t)=r(t).y(t)
r(t) +
R(s) R(s)
- -
y(t) y(t)
Y(s) Y(s)

R(s) + U(s) Y(s)

G(s) Y ( s)
=?
- R(s)
B(s)

H(s)

B(s)= H(s).Y(s)
U(s)=R(s)-B(s)
Y(s)=G(s)U(s)=G(s)R(S)-G(s)R(s)  Y ( s)
=
G(s)
Y(s)[1+G(s)H(s)]=G(s)R(s) R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

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 Block Diagram of Control Systems
Example of system with two inputs R(s) and D(s)
(Superposition Theorem) H2
+
R(s) + + U(s) Y(s)
G1 G2
+ -
B(s)
D(s)
1.Find Y1(s)/D(s) when R(s)=0 H1
2.Find Y2(s)/R(s) when D(s)=0
3.Deduce the total response Y(s) of the control system when R(s) and
D(s)  0 Y1 ( s) G2
=
D( s ) R ( s ) = 0 1 + G2 ( H1 − H 2 )
Y2 ( s) G1G2
=
R( s) D ( s ) =0 1 + G2 ( H 1 − H 2 )
G2 G1G2
Y ( s) = Y1 ( s) + Y2 ( s) = D( s ) + R( s )
1 + G2 ( H1 − H 2 ) 1 + G2 ( H1 − H 2 )
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 Block Diagram of Control Systems

Exercise

-
U + G1(s) Y
G3(s) G2(s)
+
-

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 Signal Flow Graphs

Basic Elements of a Signal Flow Graph

Definition: A Signal Flow graph is a simplified version of block diagram. It

represents a graphical input-output relationships between the variables
of a set of linear algebraic equation
Node: A Junction point to represent the variable

Branch: A line segment to connect two nodes

The branch is associated with a gain and a direction arrow

Example: y2 = a12 y1
y1 a12 y2

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 Signal Flow Graphs

Basic Elements of a Signal Flow Graph

Input Node (source) : A node with only outgoing branches.

Output Node : A node with only incoming branches.

Path: Any collection of continuous succession of branches traversed in

the same direction.
Forwarded Path: A path that starts at the input node and ends at the
output node without passing any node more than once.
Loop: A path that starts and ends at the same node (without passing any
node more than once).
Loop Gain : The product of the branch gains encountered in traversing a
path.
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 Signal Flow Graphs
Mason’s Gain Formula

N : Total number of forwarded paths between yin and yout.

Mk : Gain of the kth forward path between yin and yout.
 = 1- (sum of all different loop gains)
+ (sum of the gain products of all combinations of 2 possible non touching loops)
– (sum of the gain products of all combinations of 3 possible non touching loops)
+…
 is called the determinant of the graph
k:  for the part of the SFG with the loops touching the kth path removed (that is
non touching with the kth forward path)

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 Signal Flow Graphs
Examples
R(s) E(s) Y(s)
+
G(s)

-
H(s)

R(s) 1 E(s) G(s) 1 Y(s)

-H(s)

From R to Y there is only One forward path M1=G(s)

There are no non touching loops. Also, the forward path is touch
with the only loop
1=1 , M1 = G(s), and  = 1+G(s)H(s)
TF= Y(s)/R(s)=M1 1/  = G(s)/1+G(s)H(s)
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 Signal Flow Graphs
Examples (contd.)
-1/R1 -R3 -1/R2

1/R1 1
R3 1/R2 R4

v1 i1 v2 i2 v3 v3

There is one forward path : M1= R3R4/R1R2 ; N=1

There are 3 feedback loops with gains : -R3/R1, -R3/R2 and –R4/R2
There are 2 non-touching loops with a gain R3R4/R1R2
All loops touch the forward path  1=1

TF=M1 1/
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 Signal Flow Graphs
Examples (contd.)
G6

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
Y(s)
R(s)
-H1 -H2

There are 2 forward paths ; N=2

M1= G1G2G3G4G5 , M2= G6G4G5
All loops touch the first forward path 1=1
The first loop doesn’t touch the second path 2=1 +G2H1

There are two non touching loops

=1+ G2H1 +G4H2+G2G4H1H2
TF= (M11+ M22)/ 
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 Signal Flow Graphs
Examples (contd.)
Consider a complex system that would be difficult to reduce by block diagram
techniques G8
G7

R(s) G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 Y(s)
1 1

-H4 -H1
-H2

-H3

There are 3 forward paths:

M1= G1G2G3G4G5G6; M2= G1G2G7G6; M3= G1G2G3G4G8
The gain of the feedback loops are (8 loops):
L1= -G2G3G4G5H2; L2= -G5G6H1; L3= -G8H1; L4= -G7H2G2; L5= -G4H4
L6= -G1G2G3G4G5G6H3; L7= -G1G2G7G6H3; L8= -G1G2G3G4G8H3
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 Signal Flow Graphs

Examples (contd.)

The cofactors are:

1= 3=1 and 2= 1-L5=1+G4H4

L5 does not touch loop L7 & L5 does not Loop L4 & L3 does not touch loop
L4 and all other loops touch
The determinant  is:
 = 1 –(L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6+L7+L8) + (L5L7+L5L4+L3L4)

TF(s)= Y(s)/R(s)= (M1 1+ M2 2+ M3 3)/ 

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 Block Diagram to Signal Flow Graph
The SFG can be constructed from the block diagram as show in the
following example:
H2 G3

R(s) - +
+ + Y3 Y2 Y(s)
G1 +
G2
E
-

H1

-H2
G3

1 1 G1 G2 1
Y
R E Y3 Y2 Y

-H1

To get the transfer function, we use the Mason’s Gain Formula.

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 State Diagram
Consider the following equation:

dx1 (t )
= x2 (t )
dt

t
x1 (t ) =  x2 ( )d + x1 (t0 ) X1(t0)
0

1
1 S-1
X ( s ) x (t )
X 1 (s) = 2 + 1 0
s s X2(s)
X1(s)

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 State Diagram
Consider the following differential equation and assume zero initial
conditions : d2 d
2
y (t ) + 3 y (t ) + 2 y (t ) = R(t )
dt dt
Taking the Laplace transform, we get :

s 2Y (s) + 3sY (s) + 2Y (s) =R(s)

s 2Y (s) = R(s) − 3sY (s) − 2Y (s)

1 S-1 S-1 1

R sY Y Y
s2Y(s) -3
-2

To get the transfer function, we use the Mason’s Gain Formula.

1
T ( s) =
s 2 + 3s + 2
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 Sensitivity Analysis

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 Sensitivity Analysis

A change in the transfer function G(s) therefore causes a

proportional change in the transform of the output Yo(s).

This requires that the performance specifications of G(s) be

such that any variation still results in the degree of accuracy
within the prescribed limits. If we used open-loop control, G(s)
must be accurate without any variations
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 Sensitivity Analysis

The effect of changes of G(s) upon the transform of the output of

the closed-loop control is reduced by the factor 1/[1+ G(s)]
compared to the open-loop control. This is an important reason
why feedback systems are used to decrease the sensitivity to
forward gain G(s).
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 Sensitivity Analysis

The closed-loop variation is reduced by the factor 1/[1+G(s)H(s)], if the

term 1/[1+G(s)H(s)] is larger than the term 1/[1+G(s)], then there is an
advantage to use a non-unity feedback system. Further, H(s) may be
introduced both to provide an improvement in system performance
and to reduce the effect of parameter variations within G(s).
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 Sensitivity Analysis

The approximation applies for those cases where [G(s)H(s)]>>1. It is

seen that a variation in the feedback function has approximately a direct
effect upon the output, the same as for the open-loop case.

Thus, the components of H(s) must be selected as precision fixed

elements to maintain the desired degree of accuracy and stability
in the transform Y(s).
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 Sensitivity Analysis

Summary:

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 Sensitivity Analysis

Comment on the above results?

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 Remember That!

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