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Principal Elastiac Equations
Axial Loading Mechanical Properties of Material
Normal stress Poisson’s ratio

ee Te= ene
E vat
seal E long
Displacement Generalized Hooke’s Law
Pie 1
INES
AE R €. = je [o, fe v(o, a o,)}, Vey = a

Torsion
Shear stress in a circular shaft
Gi, = = [o, - v(o,GO + sOm)|54,)]
E oy
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urG
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l,
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is E
(a
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aie
Pr
a bt? e= (o74 @, Fo)
Shear stress in a thin-walled tube
Bulk modulus
a oe
E
u@® LS SS
3
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20)
Stress Transformation
Principal normal stresses Deflection of Beams
Relations between q, V,M
Gy a Oy 0, — Dy 2
dV dM
Sees eA
Maximum and minimum shear stresses dx q(x), dx @)

Gi =e, ; Elastic curve,

Tmax — =i 5) ee
min
1 M diy
p = EI ’ El A = q(x)

Bending
Normal stress in a straight member d*v d*v
1 = =
dx? (x), Ee dx? mG)

Buckling
Unsymmetric bending Critical axial load
M.y M,z >. a°EI
= +
es I. i y
cr (KL)

Ih Critical axial stress

tanB = r.tana
IP weE

Shear
Shear flow and stress due to shear force
vO vo
Gi ie ; T=
I It
Roman Letter Symbols
area bounded by center line of the perimeter of a thin tube
area, area of cross section
distance from neutral axis or from center of twist to extreme fiber
modulus of elasticity in tension or compression
force
frequency, flexibility coefficient
modulus of elasticity in shear
moment of inertia of cross-sectional area
polar moment of inertia of circular cross-sectional area
stress concentration factor, effective length factor for columns
spring constant, constant; k = kilopound = kip = 1000 Ib.
length; L, = KL effective column length
moment, bending moment, mass
plastic moment
mass, moment caused by virtual unit force
force, concentrated load
pressure intensity, axial force due to unit force
first or statical moment of area Aj,,; around neutral axis
distributed load intensity, shear flow
reaction, radius
radius, radius of gyration
elastic section-modulus (S = I/c)
torque, temperature
thickness, width, tangential deviation
strain energy
internal force caused by virtual unit load, axial or radial displacement
shear force (often vertical), volume
deflection of beam, velocity
®+—e total weight, work
WINS
WES
Sh
Ss
So
LOG
eA
Os
GS
weight or load per unit of length
Plastic section modulus
> MNSAxial rigidity; E/ Flexural rigidity; G/, Torsional rigidity

Greek Letter Symbols

(alpha) Coefficient of thermal expansion, general angle
(gamma) shear strain, weight per unit volume
(delta) total deformation or deflection, change of any designated function
(epsilon) normal strain
(theta) slope angle for elastic curve, angle of inclination of line on body
(kappa) curvature
(lambda) eigenvalue in column buckling problems
oa
wean
ke2s2e (nu) Poisson’s ratio
(rho) radius, radius of curvature
(sigma) tensile or compressive stress (i.e., normal stress)
(tau) shear stress
ve
‘Gi
=)
“> (phi) total angle of twist, general angle
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Engineering Mechanics
of
SOLIDS

Egor P. Popov
Professor in the Graduate School
University of California—Berkeley
In collaboration with

Toader A. Balan
Professor of Structural Engineering
Technical University of Moldova, Chisinau

Prentice-Hall of India 2aivcte Lined

New Delhi - 110 001
2007
This Indian Reprint—Rs. 325.00 :
(Original U.S. Edition—Rs. 3319.00)

ENGINEERING MECHANICS OF SOLIDS, 2nd Ed.

by Egor P. Popov
4
y

© 1998 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, U.S.A. All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-2107-6

The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include
the development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author
and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the
documentation contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incidental
or consequential damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these
programs.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited,
New Delhi-110020.
To the memory of my dear
Irene
Contents

Preface,

1 Stress,
1-1. Introduction,
Part A General Concepts: Stress,
1-2. Method of Sections,
1-3. Definition of Stress,
1-4. Stress Tensor,
1-5. Differential Equations of Equilibrium,
Part B Stress Analysis of Axially Loaded Bars,
1-6. Maximum Normal Stress in Axially
Loaded Bars,
1-7. Stresses on Inclined Sections in Axially
Loaded Bars,
1-8. Shear Stresses,
1-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses,
1-10. Member Strength as a Design Criterion,
wr: Deterministic Design of Members: Axially
Loaded Bars,
1-12. Probabilistic Basis for Structural Design,
Problems,

2 Strain,
2-1. Introduction,
2-2. The Tension Test and the Normal Strain,
2-3. Stress-Strain Relationships,
2-4. Hooke’s Law,
 2-5. Further Remarks on Stress-Strain
Relationships, 68
2-6. Poisson’s Ratio, 70
2-7. Thermal Strain and Deformation, Th
2-8. Other Idealization of Constitutive Relations, AZ
2-9. Linearly Viscoelastic Materials, 76
2-10. Cyclic Loading: Fatigue, 81
Problems, 88

3 Axial Deformation of Bars: Statically

Determinate Systems, 91
3-1. Introduction, 91
3-2. Deformation of Axially Loaded Bars, 92
3-3. Saint-Venant’s Principle and Stress
Concentrations, 104
3-4. The Tension Text Revisited,
3-5. Elastic Strain Energy for Uniaxial Stress, 111
3-6. Deflections by the Energy Method, 115
3-7. Dynamic and Impact Loads, 116
Problems, 120

4 Axial Deformation of Bars: Statically

Indeterminate Systems, 1
4-1. Introduction, Sill
4-2. General Considerations, Sil
4-3. Force Method of Analysis,
4-4. Introduction to the Displacement Method, 138
4-5. Displacement Method with Several Degrees
of Freedom, 141
4-6. Statically Indeterminate Nonlinear
Problems, 144
4-7. Differential Equation Approach for
Deflections, £5y,
Problems, 161

Vi
5 Generalized Hooke’s Law:
Pressure Vessels, 169
5-1. Introduction, 169
Part A Constitutive Relationships for Shear, 170
5-2. Stress-Strain Relationships for Shear, 170
5-3. Elastic Strain Energy for Shear Stresses, ly
Part B Generalized Concepts of Strain
and Hooke’s Law, 173
5-4. Mathematical Definition of Strain, 173
5-5. Strain Tensor, 176
5-6. Generalized Hooke’s Law for Isotropic
Materials, 177
5-7. E, G, and v Relationships, 181
5-8. Dilatation and Bulk Modulus, 183
Part C Thin-walled Pressure Vessels, 184
5-9. Cylindrical and Spherical Pressure Vessels, 184
5-10. Remarks on Thin-walled Pressure Vessels, 188
Part D Thick-walled Cylinders, 190
5-11. Introduction, 190
5-12. Solution of the General Problem, 191
5-13. Special Cases, 196
5-14. Behavior of Ideally Plastic Thick-walled
Cylinders, 198
Problems, 202

6 Torsion, 207
6-1. Introduction, 207
6-2. Application of the Method of Sections, 208
Part A Torsion of Circular Elastic Bars,
6-3. Basic Assumptions for Circular Members, 210
6-4. The Torsion Formula, 211
6-5. Remarks on the Torsion Formula, 241
6-6. Design of Circular Members in Torsion
for Strength, 218
6-7. Stress Concentrations, pA

Vii
 6-8. Angle of Twist of Circular Members, 222
6-9. Statically Indeterminate Problems, 228
6-10. Alternative Differential Equation
Approach for Torsion Problems, 231
6-11. Energy and Impact Loads, oo
6-12. Shaft Couplings, a
Part B Torsion of Inelastic Circular Bars, 237
6-13. Shear Stresses and Deformations in
Circular Shafts in the Inelastic Range, 23d,
Part C Torsion of Solid Noncircular Members, 242
6-14. Solid Bars of Any Cross Section, 242
6-15. Warpage of Thin-walled Open Sections, 247
Part D Torsion of Thin-walled Tubular Members, 248
6-16. Thin-walled Hollow Members, 248
Problem, 259

Beam Statics, 267

ele Introduction, 267
Part A Calculation of Reactions, 268
T=). Diagrammatic Conventions for Supports
and Loads, 268
7-3. Calculations of Beam Reactions, 270
Part B Direct Approach for P, V, and M, 275:
7-4. Application of the Method of Sections, 275
7-5. Axial Force in Beams, 276
7-6. Shear in Beams, Pah
7-7. Bending Moment in Beams, 278
7-8. P,V,and M Diagrams, 281
Part C V and M by Integration, 291
7-9. Differential Equations of Equilibrium
for a Beam Element, 291
7-10. Shear Diagrams by Integration of
the Load, 293
Pld, Moment Diagrams by Integration
of the Shear, 2

Vili
 7-12. Effect of Concentrated Moment on Moment
Diagrams, 301
7-13. Moment Diagrams and the Elastic Curve, 305
Part D V and M by Singularity Functions, 306
7-14. Applications of Singularity Functions, 307
Problems, 313

8 Symmetric Beam Bending, 325

8-1. Introduction, 325
8-2. Basic Kinematic Assumption, 326
8-3. The Elastic Flexure Formula, 328
8-4. Computation of the Moment of Inertia, 335
8-5. Applications of the Elastic Flexure Formula, 338
8-6. Stress Concentrations, 344
8-7. Elastic Strain Energy in Pure Bending, 347
8-8. Inelastic Bending of Beams, 348
8-9. Beams of Composite Cross Section, 356
8-10. Curved Bars, 361
Problems, 367

9 Unsymmetric (Skew) Beam Bending, 379

9-1. Introduction, O19
Part A Doubly Symmetric Cross Sections, 380
9-2. Bending About Both Principal Axes, 380
9-3. Elastic Bending with Axial Loads, 384
9-4. Inelastic Bending with Axial Loads, 394
Part B Beams with Arbitrary Cross Section, 397
9-5. Preliminary Remarks, ag?
9-6. Area Moments and Products of Inertia, 397
9-7. Principal Axes of Inertia, 398
9-8. Bending of Beams with Arbitrary Cross
Sections, 401
Problems, 407
10 Shear Stresses in Beams,
10-1. Introduction,
10-2. Preliminary Remarks,
10-3. Shear Flow,
10-4. The Shear Stress Formula for Beams,
10-5. Warpage of Plane Sections Due to Shear,
10-6. Some Limitations of the Shear Stress
Formula,
10-7. Shear Stress in Beam Flanges,
10-8. Shear Center,
10-9. Combined Direct and Torsional Shear
Stresses,
10-10. Stresses in Closely Coiled Helical Springs,
10-11. Deflection of Closely Coiled Helical
Springs,
Problems,

11 Stress and Strain Transformation,

11-1. Introduction,
Part A Transformation of Stress,
11-2. The Basic Problem,
11-3. Transformation of Stresses in
Two-dimensional Problems,
. Principal Stresses in Two-dimensional
Problems,
. Maximum Shear Stresses in
Two-dimensional Problems,
. Mohr’s Circle of Stress for
Two-dimensional Problems,
. Construction of Mohr’s Circle for Stress
Transformation,
. Principal Stresses for a General State
of Stress,
. Mohr’s Circle of Stress for a General
State of Stress,
 Part B Transformation of Strain, 498
11-10. Strains in Two Dimensions, 498
11-71. Transformation of Strain in Two
Dimensions:Geometric Approach, 499
11-12. Transformation of Strain in Two
Dimensions:Analytic Approach, 502
11-13. Mohr’s Circle for Two-dimensional Strain, 504
11-14. Strain Rosettes, 507
Problems, iid

12 Yield and Fracture Criteria, 519

12-1. Introductory Remarks, ey
12-2. Maximum Shear-stress Theory, 521
12-3. Maximum Distortion-energy Theory, 23
12-4. Comparison of Maximum-shear and
Distortion-energy theories for Plane Stress, 527
12-5. Maximum Normal-stress Theory, 528
12-6. Comparison of Yield and Fracture Criteria, 528
12-7. Failure Surface for Brittle Materials, 532
Problems, 535

13 Elastic Stress Analysis, 537

13-1. Introduction, 537
Part A Elastic Stress Analysis, 539
13-2. State of Stress for Some Basic Cases, 539
13-3. Comparative Accuracy of Beam Solutions, 546
13-4. Experimental Methods of Stress Analysis, 549
Part B Elastic Design for Strength, 551
13-5. Design of Axially Loaded Members, S51
13-6. Design of Torsion Members, yey!
13-7. Design Criteria fro Prismatic Beams, 352.
13-8. Design of Prismatic Beams, aye)s)
13-9. Design of Nonprismatic Beams, 561

Xl
 13-10. Design of Complex Members, 563
Problems, 567

14 Beam Deflections by Direct Integration, 582

14-1. Introduction, 582
14-2. Moment-curvature Relation, 583
14-3. Governing Differential Equation, 585
14-4, Alternative Derivation of the Governing
Equation, 587
14-5. Alternative Forms of the Governing
Equation, 588
14-6. Boundary Conditions, 589
14-7. Direct Integration Solutions, Sot
14-8. Singularity Functions for Beams, 608
14-9. Deflections by Superposition, 610
14-10. Deflections in Unsymmetric bending, 615
14-11. Energy Method for Deflections and
Impact, 617
14-12. Inelastic Deflection of Beams, 620
Problems, 624

15 Beam Deflections by the Moment-area

Method, 635
15-1. General Remarks, 635
15-2. Introduction to the Moment-area Method, 636
15-3. Moment-area Theorems, 636
15-4. Statically Indeterminate Beams, 650
Problems, 660
16 Columns, 667
16-1. Introduction, 667
16-2. Examples of Instability, 669
16-3. Criteria for Stability of Equilibrium, 672
Part A Column Buckling Theory, 677
16-4. Euler Load for Columns with Pinned Ends, 677
16-5. Euler Load for Columns with Different
End Restraints, 679

Xii
 16-6. Limitations of the Euler Formulas, 682
16-7. Generalized Euler Buckling-load Formulas, 684
16-8. Eccentric Loads and the Secant Formula, 687
16-9. Beam-Columns, 690
16-10.Alternative Differential Equations
for Beam-Columns, 694
Part B Design of Columns, 699
16-11. General Considerations, 699
16-12. Concentrically Loaded Columns, 702
16-13. Eccentrically Loaded Columns, 710
16-14. Lateral Stability of Beams, aM
Problems, 718

17 Energy and Virtual Work, 732

17-1. Introduction, oe,
Part A Elastic Strain Energy and External Work, 733
17-2. Elastic Strain Energy, 733
17-3. Displacements by Conservation of Energy, os
Part B Virtual Work Methods, 736
17-4. Virtual Work Principle, 736
17-5. Virtual Forces for Deflections, 740
17-6. Virtual Force Equations for Elastic Systems, 742
17-7. Virtual Forces for Indeterminate Problems, 748
17-8. Virtual Displacements for Equilibrium, 751
17-9. Virtual Work for Discrete Systems, (ep
Problems, 760

18 Classical Energy Methods, 771

18-1. Introduction, 771
18-2. General Remarks, Wipe
18-3. Strain Energy and Complementary
Strain Energy Theorems, ils
18-4. Castigliano’s Theorems, 776
18-5. Statically Indeterminate Systems, 782
18-6. Elastic Energy for Buckling Loads, 786
Problems, 789

xiil
19 Elastic Analysis of Systems, 791
19-1. Introduction, 791,
19-2. Two Basic Methods for Elastic Analysis, 792
19-3. Force Method, 192
19-4, Flexibility Coefficients Reciprocity, 199
19-5. Introduction to the Displacement Method, 802
19-6. Further Remarks on the Displacement _
Method, ‘ 806
19-7. Stiffness Coefficients Reciprocity, 808
Problems, 815

20 Plastic Limit Analysis, 819

20-1. Introduction, 819
20-2. Plastic Limit Analysis of Beams, 821
20-3. Continuous Beams and Frames, 834
Problems, 837

Appendix: Tables, 841

Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems, 855

Index, 861

Xiv
Preface

The Second Edition of The Engineering Mechanics of Solids has been sig-
nificantly modified yet it retains its character as a complete traditional text
on mechanics of solids with advance overtones. For permitting a greater
flexibility in the selection of assignments, the text has been subdivided into
a larger number of chapters. In this manner it is convenient for the instruc-
tor to carefully omit unwanted material without losing continuity.
In the new revision a number of avant-garde topics are considered. An
advanced analytical expression for cyclic loading has been provided, and a
novel failure surface for brittle material has been introduced. The latter item
complements the famous van Mises yield surface for ductile materials. The
fundamentals of the probabilistic basis for structural design are included,
whereas the more specialized topics on this subject have been deleted from
this edition. The chapter on the mechanical properties of materials has been
substantially expanded. There is a more extensive treatment of the true
stress-strain diagrams, and there are new sections on fatigue and viscoelastic
behavior.
The text is written with a bias toward the SI system of units, especially
on the problems for the solution by the students. Numerical tables provide
a choice between the SI and the US customary units.
By virtue of the topics chosen, it is believed the text is sufficiently gen-
eral to be useful to civil, mechanical, and aeronautical engineers.
The new edition benefited from enthusiastic support of Dr. Toader A.
Balan, who was very helpful in offering useful suggestions throughout the
text. Specifically, he greatly contributed to the chapter on the mechanical
properties of materials, suggested introducing an elegant analytical formu-
lation for cyclic behavior of inelastic materials, and deduced a novel
expression for the failure surface of brittle materials.
I am indebted to Professors Keith Hjelmstad of the University of
Illinois-Urbana and Vassilis Panoskaltsis of the Case Western Reserve
University for meticulously examining the manuscript and offering
meaningful suggestions. Special gratitude is sincerely acknowledged to
the many colleagues at the University of California, Berkeley in the
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, who over the years
greatly influenced the development and growth of this book. Among these,
it is a particular pleasure to thank Professors A. C. Scordelis, R. W. Clough,

XV
XVi PREFACE

R. L Taylor, E. L. Wilson, and the late Professors H. D. Eberhart and

R. Seban from Mechanical Engineering.
It is also a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of Professor A. der
Kiureghian of UC Berkeley who offered useful suggestions with the sec-
tion on probabilistic basis for structural design, Professor J. L. Meek of the
University of Queensland, Australia, who influenced the development of
the section on virtual work of discrete systems, and Dr. S. Nagarajan, a
Research Scientist at the Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, who con-
tributed to the formulation of the displacement method in Chapter 19.
Rose Kernan of the Prentice Hall editorial staff offered competent help in
getting this book out in great shape.

Egor P. Popov
Berkeley

PS. The author is greatly grateful to the two BERKELEY colleagues,

Professors F. Armero and S. Govindjee, who kindly pointed out some typo-
graphical errors in the first printing of this book. These will be corrected in
the subsequent printings.
Stress

1-1. Introduction

In all engineering construction, the component parts of a structure or a

machine must be assigned definite physical sizes. Such parts must be prop-
erly proportioned to resist the actual or probable forces that may be
imposed upon them. Thus, the walls of a pressure vessel must be of ade-
quate strength to withstand the internal pressure; the floors of a building
must be sufficiently strong for their intended purpose; the shaft of a
machine must be of adequate size to carry the required torque; a wing of an
airplane must safely withstand the aerodynamic loads that may come upon
it in takeoff, flight, and landing. Likewise, the parts of a composite structure
must be rigid enough so as not to deflect or “sag” excessively when in oper-
ation under the imposed loads. A floor of a building may be strong enough
but yet may deflect excessively, which in some instances may cause mis-
alignment of manufacturing equipment, or in other cases result in the crack-
ing of a plaster ceiling attached underneath. Also a member may be so thin
or slender that, upon being subjected to compressive loading, it will collapse
through buckling (i-e., the initial configuration of a member may become
2- CH.1 STRESS

unstable). The ability to determine the maximum load that a slender col-
umn can carry before buckling occurs or the safe level of vacuum that can
be maintained by a vessel is of great practical importance.
In engineering practice, such requirements must be met with the mini-
mum expenditure of a given material. Aside from cost, at times—as in the
design of satellites—the feasibility and success of the whole mission may
depend on the weight of a package. The subject of mechanics ofmaterials, or
the strength of materials, as it has been traditionally called, involves analyti-
cal methods for determining the strength, stiffness (deformation character-
istics), and stability of the various load-carrying members. Alternately, the
subject may be called the mechanics of solid deformable bodies, or simply
mechanics of solids.
Mechanics of solids is a fairly old subject, generally dated from the
work of Galileo in the early part of the seventeenth century. Prior to his
investigations into the behavior of solid bodies under loads, constructors
followed precedents and empirical rules. Galileo was the first to attempt to
explain the behavior of some of the members under load on a rational
basis. He studied members in tension and compression, and notably beams
used in the construction of hulls of ships for the Italian navy. Of course,
much progress has been made since that time, but it must be noted in pass-
ing that much is owed in the development of this subject to the French
investigators, among whom a group of outstanding men such as Coulomb,
Poisson, Navier, St. Venant, and Cauchy, who worked at the break of the
nineteenth century, have left an indelible impression on this subject.
The subject of mechanics of solids cuts broadly across all branches of
the engineering profession with remarkably many applications. Its meth-
ods are needed by designers of offshore structures; by civil engineers in the
design of bridges and buildings; by mining engineers and architectural
engineers, each of whom is interested in structures; by nuclear engineers in
the design of reactor components; by mechanical and chemical engineers,
who rely upon the methods of this subject for the design of machinery and
pressure vessels; by metallurgists, who need the fundamental concepts of
this subject in order to understand how to improve existing materials fur-
ther; and finally by electrical engineers, who need the methods of this sub-
ject because of the importance of the mechanical engineering phases of
many portions of electrical equipment. Engineering mechanics of solids,
contrasted with the mathematical theory of continuum mechanics, has
characteristic methods all its own, although the two approaches overlap. It
is a definite discipline and one of the most fundamental subjects of an
engineering curriculum, standing alongside such other basic subjects as
fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, as well as electrical theory.
The behavior of a member subjected to forces depends not only on the
fundamental laws of Newtonian mechanics that govern the equilibrium of
the forces, but also on the mechanical characteristics of the materials of
which the member is fabricated. The necessary information regarding the
latter comes from the laboratory, where materials are subjected to the
 SEC. 1-2. METHOD OF SECTIONS 3
action of accurately known forces and the behavior of test specimens is
observed with particular regard to such phenomena as the occurrence of
breaks, deformations, etc. Determination of such phenomena is a vital part
of the subject, but this branch is left to other books.! Here the end results of
such investigations are of interest, and this book is concerned with the ana-
lytical or mathematical part of the subject in contradistinction to experi-
mentation. For these reasons, it is seen that mechanics of solids is a blended
science of experiment and Newtonian postulates of analytical mechanics. It
is presumed that the reader has some familiarity with both of these areas. In
the development of this subject, statics plays a particularly dominant role.
This text will be limited to the simpler topics of the subject. In spite of
the relative simplicity of the methods employed here, the resulting tech-
niques are unusually useful as they apply to a vast number of technically
important problems.
The subject matter can be mastered best by solving numerous problems.
The number of basic formulas necessary for the analysis and design of
structural and machine members by the methods of engineering mechanics
of solids is relatively small; however, throughout this study, the reader must
develop an ability to visualize a problem and the nature of the quantities
being computed. Complete, carefully drawn diagrammatic sketches of prob-
lems to be solved will pay large dividends in a quicker and more complete
mastery of this subject.
There are three major parts in this chapter. The general concepts of
stress are treated first. This is followed with a particular case of stress dis-
tribution in axially loaded members. Strength design criteria based on
stress are discussed in the last part of the chapter.

Part A GENERAL CONCEPTS: STRESS

1-2. Method of Sections

One of the main problems of engineering mechanics of solids is the investi-

gation of the internal resistance of a body; that is, the nature of forces set up
within a body to balance the effect of the externally applied forces. For this
purpose, a uniform method of approach is employed. A complete diagram-
matic sketch of the member to be investigated is prepared, on which all of
the external forces acting on a body are shown at their respective points of
application. Such a sketch is called a free-body diagram. All forces acting on

'W. D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering (New York: Wiley, 1985). J. F.
Shackelford, /ntroduction to Materials Science for Engineers (New York: Macmillan, 1985). L. H.
Van Vlack, Materials Science for Engineers, 5th ed. (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1985).
4 CH.1 STRESS

a body, including the reactive forces caused by the supports and the weight?
of the body itself due to its mass, are considered external forces. Moreover,
since a stable body at rest is in equilibrium, the forces acting on it satisfy the
equations of static equilibrium. Thus, if the forces acting on a body such as
shown in Fig. 1-1(a) satisfy the equations of static equilibrium and are all
shown acting on it, the sketch represents a free-body diagram. Next, since a
determination of the internal forces caused by the external ones is one of
the principal concerns of this subject, an arbitrary section is passed through
the body, completely separating it into two parts. The result of such a process
can be seen in Figs. 1-1(b) and (c), where an arbitrary plane ABCD sepa-
rates the original solid body of Fig. 1-1(a) into two distinct parts. This process
will be referred to as the method of sections. Then, if the body as a whole is (a)
in equilibrium, any part of it must also be in equilibrium. For such parts of a
body, however, some of the forces necessary to maintain equilibrium must
act at the cut section. These considerations lead to the following fundamen-
tal conclusion: The externally applied forces to one side of an arbitrary cut
must be balanced by the internal forces developed at the cut, or, briefly, the
external forces are balanced by the internal forces. Later it will be seen that
the cutting planes will be oriented in particular directions to fit special
requirements. However, the method of sections will be relied upon as a first
step in solving all problems where internal forces are being investigated.
In discussing the method of sections, it is significant to note that some
moving bodies, although not in static equilibrium, are in dynamic equilib- (b)
rium. These problems can be reduced to problems of static equilibrium.
First, the acceleration a of the part in question is computed; then it is multi-
plied by the mass m of the body, giving a force F = ma. If the force so com-
puted is applied to the body at its mass center in a direction opposite to the
acceleration, the dynamic problem is reduced to one of statics. This is the
so-called d’Alembert principle. With this point of view, all bodies can be
thought of as being instantaneously in a state of static equilibrium. Hence,
for any body, whether in static or dynamic equilibrium, a free-body dia-' Pe
Py
gram can be prepared on which the necessary forces to maintain the body
as a whole in equilibrium can be shown. From then on, the problem is the (c)
same as discussed before. Fig. 1-1 Sectioning of a body.

1-3. Definition of Stress

In general, the internal forces acting on infinitesimal areas of a cut are

of varying magnitudes and directions, as was shown earlier in Figs. 1-1(b)
and (c), and as is again shown in Fig. 1-2(a). These forces are vectorial in
nature and they maintain the externally applied forces in equilibrium. In

Strictly speaking, the weight of the body, or, more generally, the inertial forces due to
acceleration, etc., are “body forces” and act throughout the body in a manner associated with
the units of volume of the body. However, in most instances, these body forces can be consid-
ered as external loads acting through the body’s center of mass.
 SEC. 1-3. DEFINITION OF STRESS 5

P,

(a) (b)
Fig. 1-2 Sectioned body: (a) free body with some internal forces,
(b) enlarged view with components of AP.

mechanics of solids it is particularly significant to determine the intensity

of these forces on the various portions of a section as resistance to defor-
mation and to forces depends on these intensities. In general, they vary
from point to point and are inclined with respect to the plane of the sec-
tion. It is advantageous to resolve these intensities perpendicular and par-
allel to the section investigated. As an example, the components of a force
vector AP acting on an area AA are shown in Fig. 1-2(b). In this particular
diagram, the section through the body is perpendicular to the x axis, and
the directions of AP, and of the normal to AA coincide. The component
parallel to the section is further resolved into components along the y and
z axes. In this text since the directions of force vectors and their compo-
nents are generally known, their scalar representation employing italicized
rather than bold-faced letters is commonly used.
Since the components of the intensity of force per unit area—that is, of
stress—hold true only at a point, the mathematical definition? of stress is

el
AP
x = fy
AP,
a = ij
AP.
BEALS
Tax im, AA Ty Pee AA and Txz Aes AA

where, in all three cases, the first subscript of t (tau) indicates that the
plane perpendicular to the x axis is considered, and the second designates
the direction of the stress component. In the next section, all possible com-
binations of subscripts for stress will be considered.
The intensity of the force perpendicular to or normal to the section is
called the normal stress at a point. It is customary to refer to normal stresses
that cause traction or tension on the surface of a section as tensile stresses.
On the other hand, those that are pushing against it are compressive Stresses.

3As AA > 0, some question from the atomic point of view exists in defining stress in this
manner. However, a homogeneous (uniform) model for nonhomogeneous matter appears to
have worked well.
6 CH.1 STRESS

In this book, normal stresses will usually be designated by the letter o

(sigma) instead of by a double subscript on t. A single subscript then suffices
to designate the direction of the axis. The other components of the intensity
of force act parallel to the plane of the elementary area. These components
are called shear or shearing stresses. Shear stresses will be always designated
by t.
The reader should form a clear mental picture of the stresses called
normal and those called shearing. To repeat, normal stresses result from
force components perpendicular to the plane of the cut, and shear stresses
result from components tangential to the plane of the cut. ~*
It is seen from the definitions that since they represent the intensity of
force on an area, stresses are measured in units of force divided by units of
area. In the U.S. customary system, units for stress are pounds per square
inch, abbreviated psi. In many cases, it will be found convenient to use as a
unit of force the coined word kip, meaning kilopound, or 1000 lb. The stress
in kips per square inch is abbreviated ksi. It should be noted that the unit
pound referred to here implies a pound-force, not a pound-mass. Such
ambiguities are avoided in the modernized version of the metric system
referred to as the International System of Units or SI units.4 SI units are
being increasingly adopted and will largely be used in this text along with
the U.S. customary system of units . The base units in SI are meters (m) for
length, kilogram (kg) for mass, and second (s) for time. The derived unit for
area is a square meter (m*), and for acceleration, a meter per second
squared (m/s*). The unit of force is defined as a unit mass subjected to a
unit acceleration—that is, kilogram-meter per second squared (kg - m/s*)—
and is designated a newton (N). The unit of stress is the newton per square
meter (N/m/°), also designated a pascal (Pa). Multiple and submultiple pre-
fixes representing steps of 1000 are recommended. For example, force can
be shown in millinewtons (1 mN = 0.001 N), newtons, or kilonewtons
(1 KN = 1000 N), length in millimeters (1 mm = 0.001 m), meters, or kilo-
meters (1 km = 1000 m), and stress in kilopascals (1 kPa = 10° Pa), mega-
pascals (1 MPa = 10° Pa), or gigapascals (1 GPa = 10° Pa), etc.
The stress expressed numerically in units of N/m? may appear to be
unusually small to those familiar with the U.S. customary system of units.
This is because the force of 1 newton is small in relation to a pound-force,
and 1 square meter is associated with a much larger area than 1 square
inch. Therefore, it is often more convenient in most applications to think in
terms of a force of 1 newton acting on 1 square millimeter. The units for
such a quantity are N/mm’, which corresponds to megapascals (MPa).

4From the French, Systéme International d’Unités.

SAlso spelled metre.
6A detailed discussion of SI units, including conversion factors, rules for SI style, and
usage, can be found in a comprehensive guide published by the American Society for Testing
and Materials as ASTM Standard for Metric Practice E-380-86. For convenience, a short table
of conversion factors is included on the inside back cover.
 SEC. 1-4. STRESSTENSOR 7

Some conversion factors from U.S. customary to SI units are given on

the inside of the back cover. It may be useful to note that approximately 1 in
~ 25 mm, | pound-force ~ 4.4 newtons, | psi ~ 7000 Pa,or 1 ksi = 7 MPa.
It should be emphasized that stresses multiplied by the respective areas
on which they act give forces. At an imaginary section, a vector sum of
these forces, called stress resultants, keeps a body in equilibrium. In engi-
neering mechanics of solid, the stress resultants at a selected section are
generally determined first, and then, using established formulas, stresses
are determined.

1-4. Stress Tensor

If, in addition to the section implied in the free body of Fig. 1-2, another
plane an infinitesimal distance away and parallel to the first were passed
through the body, an elementary slice would be isolated. Then, if an addi-
tional two pairs of planes were passed normal to the first pair, a cube of
infinitesimal dimensions would be isolated from the body. Such a cube is
shown in Fig. 1-3(a). All stresses acting on this cube are identified on the
diagram. As noted earlier, the first subscripts on the t’s associate the stress
with a plane perpendicular to a given axis; the second subscripts designate
the direction of the stress. On the near faces of the cube (i.e., on the faces
away from the origin), the directions of stress are positive if they coincide
with the positive directions of the axes. On the faces of the cube toward the
origin, from the action-reaction equilibrium concept, positive stresses act
in the direction opposite to the positive directions of the axes. (Note that
for normal stresses, by changing the symbol for the normal stress from t

(a) (b)
Fig. 1-3 (a) General state of stress acting on an infinitesimal element in the initial
coordinate system. (b) General state of stress acting on an infinitesimal element
defined in a rotated system of coordinate axes. All stresses have positive sense.
8 CH.1 STRESS

to o,a single subscript on o suffices to define this quantity without ambigu-

ity.) The designations for stresses shown in Fig. 1-3(a) are widely used in
the mathematical theories of elasticity and plasticity.
If at a point in question a different set of axes are chosen, the correspond-
ing stresses are as shown in Fig. 1-3(b). These stresses are related, but are not
generally equal, to those shown in Fig. 1-3(a). The process of changing
stresses from one set of coordinate axes to another is termed stress transfor-
mation. The state of stress at a point that can be defined by three compo-
nents on each of the three mutually perpendicular (orthogonal) axes in
mathematical terminology is called a tensor. Precise mathematical processes
apply for transforming tensors, including stresses, from one set of axes to
another. A more complete discussion of this problem is given in Chapter 11.
An examination of the stress symbols in Fig. 1-3(a) shows that there are
three normal stresses: T,, = 0,,T,, = Oy,T,, = ,; and six shearing stresses: T,,,
Tem
yxr 'yz> ‘zy T 'zx9 T,,- By contrast, a force vector P has only three components:
P,, P,,and P,. These can be written in an orderly manner as a column vector:

Jey (1-1a)
lzzz

Analogously, the stress components can be assembled as follows:

xx xy XZ a xy XZ

Tyy yy ye | yx Oy yz (1-1b)
Toy zy ZZ zx zy oO,

This is a matrix representation of the stress tensor. It is a second-rank ten-

sor requiring two indices to identify its elements or components. A vector
is a first-rank tensor, and a scalar is a zero-rank tensor. Sometimes, for
brevity, a stress tensor is written in indicial notation as 7, where it is under-'s
stood that i and jcan assume designations x, y, and z as noted in Eq. 1-1b.
Next, it will be shown that the stress tensor is symmetric (i.e., 7 = 7;).
This follows directly from the equilibrium requirements for an element.
For this purpose, let the dimensions of the infinitesimal element be dx, dy,
and dz, and sum the moments of forces about an axis such as the z axis in
Fig. 1-4. Only the stresses entering the problem are shown in the figure. By
neglecting the infinitesimals of higher order,’ this process is equivalent to
taking the moment about the z axis in Fig. 1-4(a) or about point C in its
two-dimensional representation in Fig. 1-4(b). Thus,

Mc =00% + + (1,,)(dx dz)(dy) — (1,,)(dy dz)(dx) = 0

’The possibility of an infinitesimal change in stress from one face of the cube to another
and the possibility of the presence of body (inertial) forces exist. By first considering an ele-
ment Ax Ay Az and proceeding to the limit, it can be shown rigorously that these quantities
are of higher order and therefore negligible.
 SEC. 1-4. STRESSTENSOR 9

— ioe
B A

I c oe
—
Tyx

(a) (b)
Fig. 1-4 Elements in pure shear.

where the expressions in parentheses correspond respectively to stress,

area, and moment arm. Simplifying,

Tyee Tap (1-2)

Similarly, it can be shown that 1,, = 1, and t,, = T,,. Hence, the subscripts
for the shear stresses are commutative (1.e., their order may be inter-
changed), and the stress tensor is symmetric.
The implication of Eq. 1-2 is very important. The fact that subscripts are
commutative signifies that shear stresses on mutually perpendicular planes
of an infinitesimal element are numerically equal, and 2 M, = Ois not sat-
isfied by a single pair of shear stresses. On diagrams, as in Fig. 1-4(b), the
arrowheads of the shear stresses must meet at diametrically opposite cor-
ners of an element to satisfy equilibrium conditions.
In most subsequent situations considered in this text, more than two
pairs of shear stresses will seldom act on an element simultaneously.
Hence, the subscripts used before to identify the planes and the directions
of the shear stresses become superfluous. In such cases, shear stresses will
be designated by t without any subscripts. However, one must remember
that shear stresses always occur in two pairs.
This notation simplification can be used to advantage for the state of
stress shown in Fig. 1-5. The two-dimensional stress shown in the figure is
referred to as plane stress. In matrix representation such a stress can be
written as
ip are al)
7 ta (1-3)
0. (080
10 CH.1 STRESS

(a) (b)
Fig. 1-5 Elements in plane stress.

It should be noted that the initially selected system of axes may not
yield the most significant information about the stress at a point. Therefore,
by using the procedures of stress transformation, the stresses are examined
on other planes. Using such procedures, it will be shown later that a partic-
ular set of coordinates exists that diagonalize the stress tensor to read

or OY tl,
0 @ (1-4)
OFF 0) ics

Note the absence of shear stresses. For the three-dimensional case, the
stresses are said to be triaxial, since three stresses are necessary to describe
the state of stress completely. ,
For plane stress 0; = 0 and the state of stress is biaxial. Such stresses *
occur, for example, in thin sheets stressed in two mutually perpendicular
directions. For axially loaded members, discussed in the next section, only
one element of the stress tensor survives; such a state of stress is referred to
as uniaxial. In Chapter 11, an inverse problem will be discussed: how this
one term can be resolved to yield four or more elements of a stress tensor.

1-5. Differential Equations of Equilibrium

An infinitesimal element of a body must be in equilibrium. For the two-
dimensional case, the system of stresses acting on an infinitesimal element
(dx)(dy)(1) is shown in Fig. 1-6. In this derivation, the element is of unit thick-

8Some readers may prefer at this time to study the first several sections in Chapter 11.
 SEC. 1-5. DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 11

0 x
Fig. 1-6 Infinitesimal element with stresses and body forces.

ness in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Note that the
possibility of an increment in stresses from one face of the element to another
is accounted for. For example, since the rate of change of o, in the x direction
is do,/dx and a step of dx is made, the increment is (d0,/ax) dx. The partial
derivative notation has to be used to differentiate between the directions.
The inertial or body forces, such as those caused by the weight or the
magnetic effect, are designated X and Y and are associated with the unit
volume of the material. With these notations,
do,
2F.=0—>.+, (>.+ dx)(dy X 1) ~ o,(dy x1)
Ox

OT,
+ (*.+ oe dy)(dx X 1) — 1,fax x 1) + Alara ty = 0

Simplifying and recalling that t,, = 1,, holds true, one obtains the basic
equilibrium equation for the x direction. This equation, together with an
analogous one for the y direction, reads
rom if OT
——
+t X=
Ox oy (1-5)
Ohi 00,
=i 2: fatyarsi()
Ox oy

The moment equilibrium of the element requiring > M, = Ois assured by

having T,, = Ty,.
It can be shown that for the three-dimensional case, a typical equation
from a set of three is
0 OTe OT
sa as ed Ee A)
Ox oy Oz
12 CH.1 STRESS

Note that in deriving the previous equations, mechanical properties of

the material have not been used. This means that these equations are
applicable whether a material is elastic, plastic, or viscoelastic. Also it is
very important to note that there are not enough equations of equilibrium
to solve for the unknown stresses. In the two-dimensional case, given by
Eq. 1-5, there are three unknown stresses, o,, Oy, and ee and only two
equations. For the three-dimensional case, there are six stresses, but only
three equations. Thus, all problems in stress analysis are internally stati-
cally intractable or indeterminate. A simple example as to how a static equi-
librium equation is supplemented by kinematic requirements and
mechanical properties of a material for the solution of a problem is given in
Section 5-14. In engineering mechanics of solids, such as that presented in
this text, this indeterminacy is eliminated by introducing appropriate
assumptions, which is equivalent to having additional equations.
A numerical procedure that involves discretizing a body into a large
number of small finite elements, instead of the infinitesimal ones as before,
is now often used in complex problems. Such finite element analyses rely
on high-speed electronic computers for solving large systems of simultane-
ous equations. In the finite element method, just as in the mathematical
approach, the equations of statics are supplemented by the kinematic rela-
tions and mechanical properties of a material. A few examples given later
in this book show comparisons among the “exact” solutions of the mathe-
matical theory of elasticity and those found using the finite element tech-
nique and/or conventional solutions based on the methods of engineering
mechanics of solids.

Part B Stress Analysis of Axially

Loaded Bars
1-6. Maximum Normal Stress in Axially
Loaded Bars
In most practical situations with axially loaded bars, it is expedient to
determine directly the maximum normal stress. These stresses develop on
sections perpendicular to the bar axis. For such sections, the cross-sectional
area of a bar is a minimum and the applied force component is a maxi-
mum, resulting in a maximum normal stress. The procedure for determin-
ing this stress is shown in Fig. 1-7.
Here, as shown in Fig. 1-7(a), the axial force P is applied to the prismatic
bar on the right. For equilibrium, an equal but opposite force P must act on
the left end. To distinguish between the applied force and the reaction, a
 ‘SEC. 1-6. MAXIMUM NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BARS’ 13

Centroid
(b)

(c) (d) (e) (f)

Fig. 1-7 Successive steps in determining the largest normal stress in an axially loaded bar.

slash is drawn across the reaction force vector P. This form of identification
will be used frequently in this text. Finding the reactions is usually the first
essential step in solving a problem.
To determine the stresses, a free-body diagram is prepared either for the
left or the right part of the bar, divided by the cutting plane, as in Fig. 1-7(b).
At any section, the force vector P passes through the bar’s centroid. As
shown in Fig. 1-7(c), the reaction on the left end is equilibrated at section
-a—a by a uniformly distributed normal stress o. The sum of these stresses
multiplied by their respective areas generate a stress resultant that is stati-
cally equivalent to the force P. A thin slice of the bar with equal uniformly
distributed normal stresses of opposite sense on the two parallel sections is
shown in Fig. 1-7(d). This uniaxial state of stress may be represented on an
infinitesimal cube, as shown in Fig. 1-7(e). However, a simplified diagram
such as shown in Fig. 1-7(f) is commonly used.
The basic equation for determining directly the maximum normal
stress in an axially loaded bar is given here in customary form without any
subscript on o. Subscripts, however, are frequently added to indicate the
direction of the bar axis. This equation gives the largest normal stress at a
section taken perpendicular to the axis of a member. Thus,

BJe[B] os
where P is the applied axial force, and A is the cross-sectional area of the
member. In calculations, it is usually convenient to use N/mm? = MPa in
the SI system of units and ksi in the U.S: customary system.
14 CH.1 STRESS

It is instructive to note that the normal stress o given by Eq. 1-6, and
schematically represented in Fig. 1-7(e), is a complete description of the
state of stress in an axially loaded bar. Only one diagonal term, o,, remains
in the matrix representation of the stress tensor given by Eq. 1-1b. This P

remaining term is associated with the direction of the bar axis. as a

Equation 1-6 strictly applies only to prismatic bars (i.e., to bars having a
constant cross-sectional area). However, the equation is reasonably accu-
rate for slightly tapered members.’ For a discussion of situations where an (
abrupt change in the cross-sectional area occurs, causing severe perturba-
tion in stress, see Section 3-3. (a)
As noted before, the stress resultant for a uniformly distributed stress
Section
acts through the centroid of a cross-sectional area and assures the equilib- a-a
rium of an axially loaded member. If the loading is more complex, such as
that for the machine part shown in Fig. 1-8, the stress distribution is nae
e

nonuniform. Here, at section a—a, in addition to the axial force P, a bending

couple, or moment, M must also be developed. Such problems will be a a

treated in Chapter 8. M= Pe “i
Similar reasoning applies to axially loaded compression members and
Eq. 1-6 can be used. However, one must exercise additional care when
compression members are investigated. These may be so slender that they
may not behave in the fashion considered. For example, an ordinary fishing (bj
rod under a rather small axial compression force has a tendency to buckle Fig. 1-8 A member with a nonuni-
sideways and could collapse. The consideration of such instability of com- form stress distribution at section a—a.
pression members is deferred until Chapter 16. Equation 1-6 is applicable
only for axially loaded compression members that are rather chunky (i.e., to
short blocks). As will be shown in Chapter 16, a block whose /east dimen-
sion is approximately one-tenth of its length may usually be considered a
short block. For example, a 50 X 100 mm wooden piece may be 500 mm
long and still be considered a short block.
Sometimes compressive stresses arise where one body is supported by
another. If the resultant of the applied forces coincides with the centroid of
the contact area between the two bodies, the intensity of force, or stress,
between the two bodies can again be determined from Eq. 1-6. It is cus-
tomary to refer to this normal stress as a bearing stress. Figure 1-9, where a
short block bears on a concrete pier and the latter bears on the soil, illus-
trates such a stress. Numerous similar situations arise in mechanical prob-
lems under washers used for distributing concentrated forces. These
bearing stresses can be approximated by dividing the applied force P by
the corresponding contact area giving a useful nominal bearing stress.
In accepting Eq. 1-6, it must be kept in mind that the material’s behavior Fig. 1-9 Bearing stresses occur
is idealized. Each and every particle of a body is assumed to contribute between the block and pier, as well as
equally to the resistance of the force. A perfect homogeneity of the material between the pier and soil.

9For accurate solutions for tapered bars, see S. P.Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory of
Elasticity, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970), 109.
 SEC. 1-6. MAXIMUM NORMAL STRESS IN AXIALLY LOADED BARS 15

is implied by such an assumption. Real materials, such as metals, consist of a

great many grains, whereas wood is fibrous. In real materials, some particles
will contribute more to the resistance of a force than others. Ideal stress dis-
tributions such as shown in Figs. 1-7(d) and (e) actually do not exist if the
scale chosen is sufficiently small. The true stress distribution varies in each
particular case and is a highly irregular, jagged affair somewhat, as shown in
Fig. 1-10(a). However, on the average, statistically speaking, computations
based on Eq. 1-6 are correct, and, hence, the computed average stress repre-
sents a highly significant quantity.
It is also important to note that the basic equations for determining
stresses, such as given by Eq. 1-6, assume initially stress-free material.
However, in reality, as materials are being manufactured, they are often
rolled, extruded, forged, welded, peened, and hammered. In castings, mate-
rials cool unevenly. These processes can set up high internal stresses called
residual stresses. For example, hot steel plates during a rolling operation
are pulled between rollers, as shown schematically in Fig. 1-10(b). This
process causes the development of larger normal stresses near the outer
surfaces than in the middle of a plate. These stresses are equivalent to an
average normal stress o,, that may be considered to generate a force that
propels a plate through the rolls. On leaving the rolls, the plate shown in
Fig. 1-10(c) is relieved of this force, and as per Eq. 1-6, the o,,, is subtracted
from the stresses that existed during rolling. The stress pattern of the resid-
ual normal stresses is shown in Fig. 1-10(c). These residual stresses are self-
equilibrating (i.e., they are in equilibrium without any externally applied
forces). In real problems, such residual stresses may be large and should be
carefully investigated and then added to the calculated stresses for the ini-
tially stress-free material.

(b)

Fig. 1-10 (a) Schematic illustration of stress irregularity in material due to lack of homogeneity, (b) variation of
tensile stress across a plate during a rolling operation, and (c) residual stress in a rolled plate.
16 CH.1 STRESS

1.7. Stresses on Inclined Sections in Axially

Loaded Bars
The traditional approach of engineering mechanics of solids will be used
for determining the internal stresses on arbitrarily inclined sections in axi-
ally loaded bars. The first steps in this procedure are illustrated in Fig. 1-11.
Here, since an axial force P is applied on the right end of a prismatic bar,
for equilibrium, an equal but opposite force P must act on+the left end.
In the problem at hand, after the reactive force P is determined, free-
body diagrams for the bar segments, isolated by sections such as a—a or b-b,
are prepared. In both cases, the force P required for equilibrium is shown at
the sections. However, in order to obtain the conventional stresses, which
are the most convenient ones in stress analysis, the force P is replaced by its
components along the selected axes. A wavy line through the vectors P indi-
cates their replacement by components. For illustrative purposes, little is
gained by considering the case shown in Fig. 1-11(b) requiring three force
components. The analysis simply becomes more cumbersome. Instead, the
case shown in Fig. 1-11(c), having only two components of P in the plane of
symmetry of the bar cross section, is considered in detail. One of these com-
ponents is normal to the section; the other is in the plane of the section.

(b)
Fig. 1-11 Sectioning of a prismatic bar on arbitrary planes.
 SEC. 1-7. STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS IN AXIALLY LOADED BARS 17

As an example of a detailed analysis of stresses in a bar on inclined

planes, consider two sections 90 degrees apart perpendicular to the bar
sides, as shown in Fig. 1-12(a). The section a—a is at an angle @ with the
vertical. An isolated part of the bar to the left of this section is shown in
Fig. 1-12(b). Note that the normal to the section coinciding with the x axis
also forms an angle 8 with the x axis. The applied force, the reaction, as
well as the equilibrating force P at the section all act through the centroid
of the bar section. As shown in Fig. 1-12(b), the equilibrating force P is
resolved into two components: the normal force component, P cos 0, and
the shear component, P sin@. The area of the inclined cross section is
A/cos @. Therefore, the normal stress o, and the shear stress Tt), shown in
Figs. 1-12(c) and (d), are given by the following two equations:
_ force Pcos®@ A
= = 00578 1-7a
°° ‘area A/cos@ A pt oe

Centroid
of areaA

Cross section

(a)

P sin 6cos 6
A

(d) (e)
Fig. 1-12 Sectioning of a prismatic bar on mutually perpendicular planes.
18 CH.1 STRESS

and

== Te = ‘ sin @cos 0 (1-7b)

The negative sign in Eq. 1-7b is used to conform to the sign convention for
shear stresses introduced earlier. See, for example Fig. 1-11. The need for a
negative sign is evident by noting that the shear force P sin@ acts in the
direction opposite to that of the y’ axis.
It is important to note that the basic procedure of engineering mechan-
ics of solids used here gives the average or mean stress at a section. These
stresses are determined from the axial forces necessary for equilibrium at a
section. Therefore, they always satisfy statics. However, based on the addi-
tional requirements of kinematics (geometric deformations) and mechani-
cal properties of a material, large local stresses are known to arise in the
proximity of concentrated forces. This also occurs at abrupt changes in
cross-sectional areas. The average stresses at a section are accurate at a dis-
tance about equal to the depth of the member from the concentrated
forces or abrupt changes in cross-sectional area. The use of this simplified
procedure will be rationalized in Section 3-3 as Saint Venant’s principle.
Equations 1-7a and 1-7b show that the normal and shear stresses vary
with the angle 6. The sense of these stresses is shown in Figs. 1-12(d)
and (e). The normal stress o, reaches its maximum value for 6 = 0°
(i.e., when the section is perpendicular to the axis of the rod). The corre-
sponding shear stress is zero. This leads to the conclusion that the maxi-
mum normal stress o,,,, in an axially loaded bar can be simply determined
from the following equation:

Cee Oa oe (1-8)

where P is the applied force, and A is the cross-sectional area of the bar. This
precisely corresponds to Eq. 1-6 established earlier on a more intuitive basis.
Equations 1-7(a) and 1-7(b) also show that for @ = + 90°, both the nor-
mal and the shear stresses vanish. This is as it should be, since no stresses
act along the top and bottom free boundaries (surfaces) of the bar.
To find the maximum shear stress acting in a bar, one must differentiate
Eq. 1-7(b) with respect to @, and set the derivative equal to zero. On carry-
ing out this operation and simplifying the results, one obtains
tan@= +1 (1-9)
leading to the conclusion that 7,,,, occurs on planes of either +45° or —45°
with the axis of the bar. Since the sense in which a shear stress acts is usu-
ally immaterial, on substituting either one of the preceding values of 6 into
Eq. 1-7(b), one finds

ls (1-10)
 SEC. 1-8. SHEAR STRESSES 19
Therefore, the maximum shear stress in an axially loaded bar is only half as
large as the maximum normal stress.
Following the same procedure, the normal and shear stresses can be
found on the section b-b. On noting that the angle locating this plane
from the vertical is best measured clockwise instead of counterclockwise,
as in the former case, this angle should be treated as a negative quantity in
Eq. 1-7b. Hence, the subscript —(90° — @) = @ — 90° will be used in desig-
nating the stresses. From Fig. 1-12(e), one obtains
PsinOn waht
Tp-99° = Aran => _ sin
—_— in2 0 (1-11)
=

and

_ Pcosd yom:
Te_o9° = aiene k sin®@ cos@ (1-12)

Note that in this case, since the direction of the shear force and the y’ axis
have the same sense, the expression in Eq. 1-12 is positive. Equation 1-12
can be obtained from Eq. 1-7b by substituting the angle 6 — 90°. The sense
Of Gg_o9° ANd Ty_ 99° is shown in Fig. 1-12(f).
The combined results of the analysis for sections a—a and b—b are
shown on an infinitesimal element in Fig. 1-12(g). Note that the normal
stresses on the adjoining element faces are not equal, whereas the shear
stresses are. The latter finding is in complete agreement with the earlier
general conclusion reached in Section 1-4, showing that shear stresses on
mutually perpendicular planes must be equal.

1-8. Shear Stresses

Some engineering materials (for example, low-carbon steel) are weaker in

shear than in tension, and, at large loads, slip develops along the planes of
maximum shear stress. According to Eqs. 1-9 and 1-10, these glide or slip
planes in a tensile specimen form 45° angles with the axis of a bar, where
the maximum shear stress 7,,,, = P/2A occurs. On the polished surface of
a specimen, these lines can be readily observed and are called Liiders
lines.'° This kind of material behavior exhibits a ductile failure.
In many routine engineering applications, large shear stresses may
develop at critical locations. To determine such stresses precisely is often
difficult. However, by assuming that in the plane of a section a uniformly
distributed shear stress develops, a solution can readily be found. By using
this approach, the average shear stress T,, is determined by dividing the
shear force V in the plane of the section by the corresponding area A.

10Also know and Piobert lines. Named in honor, respectively, of German and French
nineteenth-century investigators.
20 CH.1 STRESS

Ta
= bee oY [3%Jor| &lb | (1-13)

Some examples as to where Eq. 1-13 can be used to advantage are

shown in Fig. 1-13. In Fig. 1-13(a), a small block is shown glued to a larger
one. By separating the upper block from the lower one by an imaginary
section, the equilibrium diagram shown in Fig. 1-13(b) is obtained. The
small applied couple Pe, causing small normal stresses acting perpendicu-
lar to the section a—a, is commonly neglected. On this basis T,,, shown in
Fig. 1-13(c), can be found using Eq. 1-13 by dividing P by the area A of the
section a—a. A similar procedure is used for determining t,, for the prob-
lem shown in Fig. 1-13(d). However, in this case, two glued surfaces are
available for transferring the applied force P The same approach, employ-
ing imaginary sections, is applicable to solid members.
Examples of two bolted connections are shown in Figs. 1-14(a) and (e).
These connections can be analyzed in two different ways. In one approach, it
is assumed that a tightened bolt develops a sufficiently large clamping force,
so that the friction developed between the faying (contacting) surfaces pre-
vents a joint from slipping. For such designs, high-strength bolts are com-
monly employed. An alternative widely used approach assumes enough
slippage occurs, such that the applied force is transferred first to a bolt and
then from the bolt to the connecting plate, as illustrated in Figs. 1-14(b)
and (f). To determine 7,, in these bolts, one simply uses the cross-sectional
area A of a bolt instead of the area of the joint contact surface to compute
the average shear stress. The bolt shown in Fig. 1-14(a) is said to be in single
shear, whereas the one in Fig. 1-14(e) is in double shear.
In bolted connections, another aspect of the problem requires consider-
ation. In cases such as those in Figs. 1-14(a) and (e), as the force P is
applied, a highly irregular pressure develops between a bolt and the plates.
The average nominal intensity of this pressure is obtained by dividing the
force transmitted by the projected area of the bolt onto the plate. This is
referred to as the bearing stress. The bearing stress in Fig. 1-14(a) is
o, = P/td, where tis the thickness of the plate and d is the diameter of the
bolt. For the case in Fig. 1-14(e), the bearing stresses for the middle plate
and the outer plates are o, = P/t,d and o, = P/2td, respectively.
The same procedure is also applicable for riveted assemblies.
In the previous design approach, the frictional resistance between the
faying surfaces at the connectors has been neglected. However, if the
clamping force developed by a connector is both sufficiently large and
reliable, the capacity of a joint can be determined on the basis of the fric-
tion force between the faying surfaces. This condition is illustrated in
Fig.1-15. With the use of high-strength bolts with yield strength on-the
order of 100 ksi (700 MPa), this is an acceptable method in structural
steel design. The required tightening of such bolts is usually specified to
be about 70% of their tensile strength. For the purposes of simplified
 SEC. 1-8. SHEAR STRESSES

(c) (f)
Fig. 1-13 Loading conditions causing shear stresses between interfaces of
glued blocks.

pest }
i iP
@
Tav

(b) (d)

P/2

‘ Pet —
Sab
P/2
P/2 Tav

(f) (g) (h)

Fig. 1-14 Loading conditions causing shear and bearing stress in bolts.

Washer Bolt grip

. ive > ii<<

Clamping yi Frictional
pressure on |. . resistance
the plate Initial to the
bolt force P
tension

(a) (b)
Fig. 1-15
22 CH.1 STRESS

a b
Section c-c

(a) (b) za

Fig. 1-16 Loading condition causing critical shear in two planes of

fillet welds.

analysis, an allowable shear stress based on the nominal area of a bolt is

specified. These stresses are based on experiments. This enables the
design of connections using high-strength bolts to be carried out in the
same manner as that for ordinary bolts or rivets.
Another manner of joining members together is welding. An example
of a connection with fillet welds is shown in Fig. 1-16. The maximum shear
stress occurs in the planes a—a and b—b, as shown in Fig. 1-16(b). The capac-
ity of such welds is usually given in units of force per unit length of weld.

1-9. Analysis for Normal and Shear Stresses

Once the axial force P or the shear force V, as well as the area A, are deter-
mined in a given problem, Eqs. 1-6 and 1-13 for normal and shear stresses
can be readily applied. These equations giving, respectively, the maximum
magnitudes of normal and shear stress are particularly important as they
appraise the greatest demand on the strength of a material. These greatest
stresses occur at a section of minimum cross-sectional area and/or the
greatest axial force. Such sections are called critical sections. In the simpler
problems, the critical section for the particular arrangement being ana-
lyzed can usually be found by inspection. In others, this may require an
extensive analysis, which now often is done with the aid of a computer. To
determine the force P or V that acts through a member is usually a more
difficult task. In the majority of problems treated in this text, the latter
information is obtained from statics.
For the equilibrium of a body in space, the equations of statics require
the fulfillment of the following conditions:

2F.=0 2M,=0
2F,=0 2M, =0 (1-14)
=F,=0. 2M, =0
 SEC. 1-9. ANALYSIS FOR NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES 23

The first column of Eq. 1-14 states that the sum of all forces acting on a
body in any (x, y, z) direction must be zero. The second column notes that
the summation of moments of all forces around any axis parallel to any
(x, y, Z) direction must also be zero for equilibrium. In a planar problem
(i.e., all members and forces lie in a single plane, such as the x-y plane),
relations f= 0, ey M, = 0, and PS M, = 0, while still valid, are trivial.
These equations of statics are directly applicable to deformable solid
bodies. The deformations tolerated in engineering structures are usually neg-
ligible in comparison with the overall dimensions of structures. Therefore,
for the purposes of obtaining the forces in members, the initial undeformed
dimensions of members are used in computations.
If the equations of statics suffice for determining the external reactions as
well as the internal stress resultants, a structural system is statically determi-
nate. An example is shown in Fig. 1-i7(a). However, if for the same beam and
Joading conditions, additional supports are provided, as in Figs. 1-17(b)
and (c), the number of independent equations of statics is insufficient to solve
for the reactions. In Fig. 1-17(b), any one of the vertical reactions can be
removed and the structural system remains stable and tractable. Similarly,
any two reactions can be dispensed with for the beam in Fig. 1-17(c). Both of
these beams are statically indeterminate. The reactions that can be removed
leaving a stable system statically determinate are superfluous or redundant.
Such redundancies can also arise within the internal system of forces
Depending on the number of the redundant internal forces or reactions, the
system is said to be indeterminate to the first degree, as in Fig. 1-17(b), to the
second degree, as in Fig. 1-17(c), etc. Multiple degrees of statical indetermi-
nacy frequently arise in practice, and one of the important objectives of this
subject is to provide an introduction to the methods of solution for such
problems. Procedures for solving such problems will be introduced gradually.
Equations 1-14 should already be familiar to the reader. However, sev-
eral examples where they are applied will now be given, emphasizing solu-
tion techniques generally used in engineering mechanics of solids. These
statically determinate examples will serve as an informal review of some of
the principles of statics and will show applications of Eqs. 1-6 and 1-13.

Ray Roy Ray Rey Rpy

(a) (b)
Fig. 1-17 Identical beam with identical loading having different support conditions: (a) statically determinate, (b) stat-
ically indeterminate to the first degree, (c) statically indeterminate to the second degree.
24 CH.1 STRESS

ELD ILAL ESS, REE IMEI IBD CEES LEE LAA IE TSAR LIE TINEA DE TD PLETE

Example 1-1

The beam BE in Fig. 1-18(a) is used for hoisting machinery. It is anchored by

two bolts at B, and at C it rests on a parapet wall. The essential details are
given in the figure. Note that the bolts are threaded, as shown in Fig. 1-18(d),
with d = 16 mm at the root of the threads. If this hoist can be subjected to a
force of 10 KN, determine the stress in bolts BD and the bearing stress at C.
Assume that the weight of the beam is negligible in comparison with the
loads handled.

SOLUTION
To solve this problem, the actual situation is idealized and a free-body dia-
gram is made on which all known and unknown forces are indicated. This is
shown in Fig. 1-18(b). The vertical reactions of B and C are unknown. They
are indicated, respectively, as Rg, and Rcy, where the first subscript identi-
fies the location, and the second the line of action of the unknown force. As
the long bolts BD are nat effective in resisting the horizontal force, only an
unknown horizontal! reaction at C is assumed and marked as Ro,. The

200 x 300 mm
finished timber

Two 20 mm bolts

(c)

y
esm = 2.5m >
B G E
x eee RE eR Saal ‘= Distributed force
—_— CQ} equivalent to F
Rex i
Rey Rey PR |
F

(b) (d)
Fig. 1-18
 SEC. 1-9. ANALYSIS FOR NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES 2

applied known force P is shown in its proper location. After a free-body

diagram is prepared, the equations of statics are applied and solved for the
unknown forces.
2K =0 Re) 0
= M,=0V+ 10(22.5+1)-
Ry, X1=0 Roy =35kNT
= M.=0V+ 10X25.—
Rp, X1=0 . Ry = 25kNT
Cidin > al + 4 25.435
=10 =0
These steps complete and check the work of determining the forces.
The various areas of the material that resist these forces are determined
next, and Eq. 1-6 is applied.
Cross-sectional area of one 20-mm bolt: A = 710? = 314 mm”. This is
not the minimum area of a bolt; threads reduce it.
The cross-sectional area of one 20-mm bolt at the root of the threads is
A, net = 7 8* = 201 mm?
Maximum normal tensile stress!! in each of the two bolts BD:

Rp, 25 X 109
ie a Nm: = 62 MP
i howe eee ¢
Tensile stress in the shank of the bolts BD:

DS Se10° ;
o =
ear —-S—C— 39.8
Fi
N/mm* == 39.89. MPa

Contact area at C:

A = 200 X 200 = 40 x 10? mm?

Bearing stress at C:
Bg
A
35 LP
= 40 x 10° = 0.875 N/mm? = 0.875 MPa
Cy

The calculated stress for the bolt shank can be represented in the manner
of Eq. 1-1b as

0 0 0
Om 39:5: S0niM Pal
0 0 0

where the y axis is taken in the direction of the applied load. In ordinary
problems, the complete result is implied but is seldom written down in such
detail.
peer tS ECE CL LEE ECL CENA ELS

11See also discussion on stress concentrations, Section 3-3.

26 CH.1 STRESS

Example 1-2

The concrete pier shown in Fig. 1-19(a) is loaded at the top with a uni-
formly distributed load of 20 kN/m?. Investigate the state of stress at a
level 1 m above the base. Concrete weighs approximately 25 kN/m?.

SOLUTION S
In this problem, the weight of the structure itself is appreciable and must
be included in the calculations.
Weight of the whole pier:
W = [(0.5 + 1.5)/2] X 0.5 X 2 X 25 = 25 kN
Total applied force:
P=20
X 0.5 X 0.5 = 5kN
From & F, = 0, reaction at the base:
R=W+P=30kN

Side view

(a) (c)
Fig. 1-19
 SEC. 1-9. ANALYSIS FOR NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES Desh
These forces are shown schematically in the diagrams as concentrated
forces acting through their respective centroids. Then, to determine the
stress at the desired level, the body is cut into two separate parts. A free-
body diagram for either part is sufficient to solve the problem. For compar-
ison, the problem is solved both ways.
Using the upper part of the pier as a free body, Fig. 1-19(b), the weight
of the pier above the section:
W, = (0.5 + 1) X 0.5 XK 1 X 25/2 = 9.4kN
From = F, = 0, the force at the section:
F,= P+ W, = 14.4kN
Hence, using Eq. 1-6, the normal stress at the level a—a is
Sidtehacns Bien 3
os Geena, Ge
This stress is compressive as F, acts on the section.
Using the lower part of the pier as a free body, Fig. 1-19(c), the weight
of the pier below the section:
W, = (1+ 15) x 0.5 X 1 X 25/2 = 15.6kN
From > F, = 0, the force at the section:
Fi = R—- W, = 14.4kN
The remainder of the problem is the same as before. The pier considered here
has a vertical axis of symmetry, making the application of Eq. 1-6 possible.!2

GAEL LILLE LA ELODIE LODDDE EL ED EED DOLE LLIN LEE LEE EER EDDA! LEE EE LE LIE INE,

Example 1-3

A bracket of negligible weight shown in Fig. 1-20(a) is loaded with a vertical

force P of 3 kips. For interconnection purposes, the bar ends are clevised
(forked). Pertinent dimensions are shown in the figure. Find the axial
stresses in members AB and BC and the bearing and shear stresses for pin C.
All pins are 0.375 in in diameter.

SOLUTION
First, an idealized free-body diagram consisting of the two bars pinned at the
ends is prepared; see Fig. 1-20(b). As there are no intermediate forces acting
on the bars and the applied force acts through the joint at B, the forces in the

2Strictly speaking, the solution obtained is not exact, as the sides of the pier are sloping. If the
included angle between these sides is large, this solution is inadequate. For further details, see
S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill,
1970), 110.
28 CH.1 STRESS

0.875”

(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 1-20

bars are directed along the lines AB and BC, and the bars AB and BC are
loaded axially. The magnitudes of the forces are unknown and are labeled F,
and F; in the diagram.' These forces can be determined graphically by com-
pleting a triangle of forces FA, FC, and P. These forces may also be found
analytically from two simultaneous equations F, = 0 and > F, = 0, writ-
ten in terms of the unknowns F, and Fc, a known force P, and two known

'3In frameworks it is convenient to assume that all unknown forces are tensile. A negative
answer in the solution then indicates that the bar is in compression.
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signal-fires and gleam the tomahawks of the savages—Kootenays,
Pen d'Oreilles, Cœur d'Alenes, Blackfeet, Flat-heads, Spokanes,
Pelouses, Bannocks, and Shoshones will be involved."
This disaffection, says the agent, "began to show itself soon after
the visit of George C. Haigh, Esq., special agent, last December, to
obtain their assent to the amendments to the treaty of June 9th,
1863—the non-ratification of that treaty had gone on so long, and
promises made them by Governor Lyon that it would not be ratified,
and that he was authorized to make a new treaty with them by
which they would retain all of their country, as given them under the
treaty of 1851, except the site of the town of Lewiston. They had
also been informed in March, 1866, that Governor Lyon would be
here in the June following, to pay them back-annuities due under the
treaty of 1855. The failure to carry out these promises, and the idea
they have that the stipulations of the treaty of 1863 will be carried
out in the same manner, is one of the causes of their bad feeling. It
showed itself plainly at the council lately held, and is on the
increase. If there is the same delay in carrying out the stipulations of
the treaty of 1863 that there has been in that of 1855, some of the
chiefs with their bands will join the hostile Indians. There are many
things it is impossible to explain to them. They cannot understand
why the $1185 that was promised by Governor Lyon to the Indian
laborers on the church is not paid. He told them when the walls
were up they should receive their pay. These laborers were poor
men, and such inducements were held out to them that they
commenced the work in good faith, with the full expectation of
receiving their pay when their labors ceased."
The head chief Sawyer's pay is still in arrears. For the last quarter of
1863, and the first and second of 1864, he has received no pay. No
wonder he has ceased to be the "apologist" of the Government,
which four years ago promised him an annuity of $500 a year.
Spite of this increasing disaffection the Nez Percés are industrious
and prosperous. They raised in this year 15,000 bushels of wheat.
"Many of them carried their wheat to be ground to the mills, while
many sold the grain to packers for feed, while much of it is boiled
whole for food. Some few of the better class have had their wheat
ground, and sold the flour in the mining-camps at lower prices than
packers could lay it down in the camps. Some have small pack-trains
running through the summer; one in particular, Cru-cru-lu-ye, runs
some fifteen animals; he sometimes packs for whites, and again
runs on his own account. A Clearwater Station merchant a short time
ago informed me of his buying some oats of Cru-cru-lu-ye last fall.
After the grain had been weighed, and emptied out of the sacks, the
Indian brought the empty sacks to the scales to have them weighed,
and the tare deducted, saying he only wanted pay for the oats. Their
sales of melons, tomatoes, corn, potatoes, squashes, green pease,
etc., during the summer, in the different towns and mining-camps,
bring in some $2000 to $3000. Their stock of horses and cattle is
increasing fast, and with the benefits to be derived from good
American stallions, and good bulls and cows, to be distributed to
them under the stipulations of the treaty of 1863, they will rapidly
increase in wealth."
In 1869 their reservation is still unsurveyed, and when the Indians
claim that white settlers are establishing themselves inside the lines
there is no way of proving it, and the agent says all he can do is to
promise that "the white man's heart shall be better;" and thus the
matter will rest until another disturbance arises, when the same
complaints are made, and the same answers given as before—that
"the white man's heart shall be better, and the boundary-line shall
be surveyed."
Other treaty stipulations are still unfulfilled; and the non-treaty party,
while entirely peaceable, is very strong, and immovably opposed to
treaties.
In 1870, seven years after it was promised, the long deferred survey
of the reservation was made. The superintendent and the agent
both remonstrated, but in vain, against the manner in which it was
done; and three years later a Board of Special Commissioners,
appointed to inquire into the condition of the Indians in Idaho,
examined the fence put up at that time, and reported that it was "a
most scandalous fraud. It is a post-and-board fence. The posts are
not well set. Much of the lumber is deficient in width and length. The
posts are not dressed. The lumber laps at any joint where it may
chance to meet, whether on the posts or between them, and the
boards are not jointed on the posts where they meet; they are
lapped and fastened generally with one nail, so that they are falling
down rapidly. The lumber was cut on the reservation. The contract
price of the fence was very high; the fencing done in places of no
value to any one, for the reason that water cannot be had for
irrigation. The Government cannot be a party to such frauds on the
people who intrust it with their property."
In this year a commission was sent to Oregon to hold council with
the band of Nez Percés occupying Wallowa Valley, in Oregon, "with a
view to their removal, if practicable, to the Nez Percé Reservation in
Idaho. They reported this removal to be impracticable, and the
Wallowa Valley has been withdrawn from sale, and set apart for their
use and occupation by Executive order."[14]
This commission report that one of the most troublesome questions
in the way of the Government's control of Indian affairs in Idaho is
the contest between the Catholic and Protestant churches. This strife
is a great detriment to the Indians. To illustrate this, they quote
Chief Joseph's reason for not wishing schools on his reservation. He
was the chief of the non-treaty band of Nez Percés occupying the
Wallowa Valley, in Oregon:
"Do you want schools and school-houses on the Wallowa
Reservation?" asked the commissioners.
Joseph. "No, we do not want schools or school-houses on the
Wallowa Reservation."
Com. "Why do you not want schools?"
Joseph. "They will teach us to have churches."
Com. "Do you not want churches?"
Joseph. "No, we do not want churches."
Com. "Why do you not want churches?"
Joseph. "They will teach us to quarrel about God, as the Catholics
and Protestants do on the Nez Percé Reservation, and at other
places. We do not want to learn that. We may quarrel with men
sometimes about things on this earth, but we never quarrel about
God. We do not want to learn that."
Great excitement prevailed among the settlers in Oregon at the
cession of the Wallowa Valley to the Indians. The presence of United
States soldiers prevented any outbreak; but the resentment of the
whites was very strong, and threats were openly made that the
Indians should not be permitted to occupy it; and in 1875 the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs writes:
"The settlements made in the Wallowa Valley, which has for years
been the pasture-ground of the large herds of horses owned by
Joseph's band, will occasion more or less trouble between this band
and the whites, until Joseph is induced or compelled to settle on his
reservation."
It is only two years since this valley was set apart by Executive order
for the use and occupation of these Indians; already the Department
is contemplating "compelling" them to leave it and go to the
reservation in Idaho. There were stormy scenes there also during
this year. Suits were brought against all the employés of the Lapwai
Agency, and a claim set up for all the lands of the agency, and for
many of the Indian farms, by one Langford, representing the old
claim of the missionaries, to whom a large tract of ground had been
ceded some thirty years before. He attempted to take forcible
possession of the place, and was ejected finally by military force,
after the decision of the Attorney-general had been given that his
claim was invalid.
The Indian Bureau recommended a revocation of the executive order
giving the Wallowa Valley to Joseph and his band. In June of this
year President Grant revoked the order, and in the autumn a
commission was sent out "to visit these Indians, with a view to
secure their permanent settlement on the reservation, their early
entrance on a civilized life, and to adjust the difficulties then existing
between them and the settlers."
It is worth while to study with some care the reasons which this
commission gave to Chief Joseph why the Wallowa Valley, which had
been given to him by Executive order in 1873, must be taken away
from him by Executive order in 1875:
"Owing to the coldness of the climate, it is not a suitable location for
an Indian reservation. *** It is now in part settled by white
squatters for grazing purposes. *** The President claimed that he
extinguished the Indian title to it by the treaty of 1863. *** It is
embraced within the limits of the State of Oregon. *** The State of
Oregon could not probably be induced to cede the jurisdiction of the
valley to the United States for an Indian reservation. *** In the
conflicts which might arise in the future, as in the past, between him
and the whites, the President might not be able to justify or defend
him. *** A part of the valley had already been surveyed and opened
to settlement: *** if, by some arrangement, the white settlers in the
valley could be induced to leave it, others would come."
To all these statements Joseph replied that he "asked nothing of the
President. He was able to take care of himself. He did not desire
Wallowa Valley as a reservation, for that would subject him and his
band to the will of, and dependence on, another, and to laws not of
their own making. He was disposed to live peaceably. He and his
band had suffered wrong rather than do wrong. One of their number
was wickedly slain by a white man during the last summer, but he
would not avenge his death."
"The serious and feeling manner in which he uttered these
sentiments was impressive," the commissioners say, and they
proceeded to reply to him "that the President was not disposed to
deprive him of any just right, or govern him by his individual will, but
merely subject him to the same just and equal laws by which he
himself as well as all his people were ruled."
What does it mean when commissioners sent by the President to
induce a band of Indians to go on a reservation to live, tell them
that they shall be subjected on that reservation "merely to the same
just and equal laws" by which the President and "all his people are
ruled?" And still more, what is the explanation of their being so
apparently unaware of the enormity of the lie that they leave it on
official record, signed by their names in full? It is only explained, as
thousands of other things in the history of our dealings with the
Indians are only to be explained, by the habitual indifference,
carelessness, and inattention with which questions relative to Indian
affairs and legislation thereon are handled and disposed of, in
whatever way seems easiest and shortest for the time being. The
members of this commission knew perfectly well that the instant
Joseph and his band moved on to the reservation they became
subject to laws totally different from those by which the President
and "all his people were ruled," and neither "just" nor "equal:" laws
forbidding them to go beyond certain bounds without a pass from
the agent; laws making them really just as much prisoners as
convicts in a prison—the only difference being that the reservation is
an unwalled out-of-door prison; laws giving that agent power to
summon military power at any moment, to enforce any command he
might choose to lay on them, and to shoot them if they refused to
obey.[15] "The same just and equal laws by which the President
himself and all his people are ruled!" Truly it is a psychological
phenomenon that four men should be found willing to leave it on
record under their own signatures that they said this thing.
Farther on in the same report there is an enumeration of some of
the experiences which the Nez Percés who are on the Idaho
Reservation have had of the advantages of living there, and of the
manner in which the Government has fulfilled its promises by which
it induced them to go there; undoubtedly these were all as well
known to Chief Joseph as to the commissioners. For twenty-two
years he had had an opportunity to study the workings of the
reservation policy. They say:
"During an interview held with the agent and the treaty Indians, for
the purpose of ascertaining whether there were sufficient
unoccupied tillable lands for Joseph's band on the reservation, and
for the further purpose of securing their co-operation to aid us in
inducing Joseph to come upon the reservation, facts were brought to
our attention of a failure on the part of the Government to fulfil its
treaty stipulations with these Indians. The commission therefore
deem it their duty to call the attention of the Government to this
subject.
"1st. Article second of the treaty of June 9th, 1863, provides that no
white man—excepting such as may be employed by the Indian
Department—shall be permitted to reside upon the reservation
without permission of the tribe, and the superintendent and the
agent. Nevertheless, four white men are occupying or claiming large
tracts on the reservation.
"It is clearly the duty of the Government to adjust and quiet these
claims, and remove the parties from the reservation. Each day's
delay to fulfil this treaty stipulation adds to the distrust of the
Indians in the good faith of the Government.
"2d. Article third of the same treaty of 1863 provides for the survey
of the land suitable for cultivation into lots of twenty acres each;
while a survey is reported to have been early made, no measures
were then, or have been since, taken to adjust farm limits to the
lines of the surveyed lots.
"3d. Rules and regulations for continuing the possession of these
lots and the improvements thereon in the families of deceased
Indians, have not been prescribed, as required by the treaty.
"4th. It is also provided that certificates or deeds for such tracts shall
be issued to individual Indians.
"The failure of the Government to comply with this important
provision of the treaty causes much uneasiness among the Indians,
who are little inclined to spend their labor and means in improving
ground held by the uncertain tenure of the pleasure of an agent.
"5th. Article seventh of the treaty provides for a payment of four
thousand six hundred and sixty-five dollars in gold coin to them for
services and horses furnished the Oregon Mounted Volunteers in
1856. It is asserted by the Indians that this provision of the treaty
has hitherto been disregarded by the Government."
The commissioners say that "every consideration of justice and
equity, as well as expediency, demands from the Government a
faithful and literal compliance with all its treaty obligations toward
the Indians. A failure to do this is looked upon as bad faith, and can
be productive of only bad results."
At last Chief Joseph consented to remove from the Wallowa Valley
with his band, and go to the Lapwai Reservation. The incidents of
the council in which this consent was finally wrung from him, are left
on record in Chief Joseph's own words, in an article written by him
(through an interpreter) and published in the North American Review
in 1874. It is a remarkable contribution to Indian history.
It drew out a reply from General O. O. Howard, who called his paper
"The true History of the Wallowa Campaign:" published in the North
American Review two months after Chief Joseph's paper.
Between the accounts given by General Howard and by Chief Joseph
of the events preceding the Nez Percé war, there are noticeable
discrepancies.
General Howard says that he listened to the "oft-repeated dreamer
nonsense of the chief, 'Too-hool-hool-suit,' with no impatience, but
finally said to him: 'Twenty times over I hear that the earth is your
mother, and about the chieftainship of the earth. I want to hear it no
more.'"
Chief Joseph says: "General Howard lost his temper, and said 'Shut
up! I don't want to hear any more of such talk.'
"Too-hool-hool-suit answered, 'Who are you, that you ask us to talk,
and then tell me I sha'n't talk? Are you the Great Spirit? Did you
make the world?'"
General Howard, quoting from his record at the time, says: "The
rough old fellow, in his most provoking tone, says something in a
short sentence, looking fiercely at me. The interpreter quickly says:
'He demands what person pretends to divide this land, and put me
on it?' In the most decided voice I said, 'I am the man. I stand here
for the President, and there is no spirit, bad or good, that will hinder
me. My orders are plain, and will be executed.'"
Chief Joseph says: "General Howard replied, 'You are an impudent
fellow, and I will put you in the guard-house,' and then ordered a
soldier to arrest him."
General Howard says: "After telling the Indians that this bad advice
would be their ruin, I asked the chiefs to go with me to look at their
land. 'The old man (Too-hool-hool-suit) shall not go. I will leave him
with Colonel Perry.' He says, 'Do you want to scare me with
reference to my body?' I said, 'I will leave your body with Colonel
Perry.' I then arose and led him out of the council, and gave him into
the charge of Colonel Perry."
Chief Joseph says: "Too-hool-hool-suit made no resistance. He asked
General Howard, 'Is that your order? I don't care. I have expressed
my heart to you. I have nothing to take back. I have spoken for my
country. You can arrest me, but you cannot change me, or make me
take back what I have said.' The soldiers came forward and seized
my friend, and took him to the guard—house. My men whispered
among themselves whether they should let this thing be done. I
counselled them to submit. *** Too-hool-hool-suit was prisoner for
five days before he was released."
General Howard, it will be observed, does not use the word
"arrested," but as he says, later, "Too-hool-hool-suit was released on
the pledge of Looking-glass and White Bird, and on his own earnest
promise to behave better," it is plain that Chief Joseph did not
misstate the facts. This Indian chief, therefore, was put under
military arrest, and confined for five days, for uttering what General
Howard calls a "tirade" in a council to which the Indians had been
asked to come for the purpose of consultation and expression of
sentiment.
Does not Chief Joseph speak common-sense, as well as natural
feeling, in saying, "I turned to my people and said, 'The arrest of
Too-hool-hool-suit was wrong, but we will not resent the insult. We
were invited to this council to express our hearts, and we have done
so.'"
If such and so swift penalty as this, for "tirades" in council, were the
law of our land, especially in the District of Columbia, it would be
"no just cause of complaint" when Indians suffer it. But considering
the frequency, length, and safety of "tirades" in all parts of America,
it seems unjust not to permit Indians to deliver them. However, they
do come under the head of "spontaneous productions of the soil;"
and an Indian on a reservation is "invested with no such
proprietorship" in anything which comes under that head.[16]
Chief Joseph and his band consented to move. Chief Joseph says: "I
said in my heart that, rather than have war, I would give up my
country. I would give up my father's grave. I would give up
everything rather than have the blood of white men upon the hands
of my people."
It was not easy for Joseph to bring his people to consent to move.
The young men wished to fight. It has been told that, at this time,
Chief Joseph rode one day through his village, with a revolver in
each hand, saying he would shoot the first one of his warriors that
resisted the Government. Finally, they gathered all the stock they
could find, and began the move. A storm came, and raised the river
so high that some of the cattle could not be taken across. Indian
guards were put in charge of the cattle left behind. White men
attacked these guards and took the cattle. After this Joseph could no
longer restrain his men, and the warfare began, which lasted over
two months. It was a masterly campaign on the part of the Indians.
They were followed by General Howard; they had General Crook on
their right, and General Miles in front, but they were not once
hemmed in; and, at last, when they surrendered at Bear Paw
Mountain, in the Montana Hills, it was not because they were
beaten, but because, as Joseph says, "I could not bear to see my
wounded men and women suffer any longer; we had lost enough
already. *** We could have escaped from Bear Paw Mountain if we
had left our wounded, old women and children, behind. We were
unwilling to do this. We had never heard of a wounded Indian
recovering while in the hands of white men. *** I believed General
Miles, or I never would have surrendered. I have heard that he has
been censured for making the promise to return us to Lapwai. He
could not have made any other terms with me at that time. I could
have held him in check until my friends came to my assistance, and
then neither of the generals nor their soldiers would ever have left
Bear Paw Mountain alive. On the fifth day I went to General Miles
and gave up my gun, and said, 'From where the sun now stands, I
will fight no more.' My people needed rest; we wanted peace."
The terms of this surrender were shamefully violated. Joseph and his
band were taken first to Fort Leavenworth and then to the Indian
Territory. At Leavenworth they were placed in the river bottom, with
no water but the river water to drink.
"Many of my people sickened and died, and we buried them in this
strange land," says Joseph. "I cannot tell how much my heart
suffered for my people while at Leavenworth. The Great Spirit Chief
who rules above seemed to be looking some other way, and did not
see what was being done to my people."
Yet with a marvellous magnanimity, and a clear-headed sense of
justice of which few men would be capable under the circumstances,
Joseph says: "I believe General Miles would have kept his word if he
could have done so. I do not blame him for what we have suffered
since the surrender. I do not know who is to blame. We gave up all
our horses, over eleven hundred, and all our saddles, over one
hundred, and we have not heard from them since. Somebody has
got our horses."
This narrative of Chief Joseph's is profoundly touching; a very Iliad
of tragedy, of dignified and hopeless sorrow; and it stands supported
by the official records of the Indian Bureau.
"After the arrival of Joseph and his band in Indian Territory, the bad
effect of their location at Fort Leavenworth manifested itself in the
prostration by sickness at one time of two hundred and sixty out of
the four hundred and ten; and 'within a few months' in the death of
'more than one-quarter of the entire number.'"[17]
"It will be borne in mind that Joseph has never made a treaty with
the United States, and that he has never surrendered to the
Government the lands he claimed to own in Idaho. *** Joseph and
his followers have shown themselves to be brave men and skilful
soldiers, who, with one exception, have observed the rules of
civilized warfare. *** These Indians were encroached upon by white
settlers, on soil they believed to be their own, and when these
encroachments became intolerable, they were compelled in their
own estimation to take up arms."[18]
Chief Joseph and a remnant of his band are still in Indian Territory,
waiting anxiously the result of the movement now being made by
the Ponca chief, Standing Bear, and his friends and legal advisers, to
obtain from the Supreme Court a decision which will extend the
protection of the civil law to every Indian in the country.
Of the remainder of the Nez Percés (those who are on the Lapwai
Reservation), the report of the Indian Bureau for 1879 is that they
"support themselves entirely without subsistence from the
Government; procure of their own accord, and at their own expense,
wagons, harness, and other farming implements beyond the amount
furnished by the Government under their treaty," and that "as many
again as were taught were turned away from school for lack of
room."
The Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions has contributed during
this year $1750 for missionary work among them, and the Indians
themselves have raised $125.
Their reservation is thus described: "The majority of land comprising
the reservation is a vast rolling prairie, affording luxuriant pasturage
for thousands of their cattle and horses. The Clearwater River,
flowing as it does directly through the reserve, branching out in the
North, Middle, and South Forks, greatly benefits their locations that
they have taken in the valleys lying between such river and the
bluffs of the higher land, forming in one instance—at Kaimaih—one
of the most picturesque locations to be found in the whole North-
west. Situated in a valley on either side of the South Fork, in length
about six miles, varying in width from one-half to two miles; in form
like a vast amphitheatre, surrounded on all sides by nearly
perpendicular bluffs rising two thousand feet in height, it forms one
of the prettiest valleys one can imagine. A view from the bluff
reveals a living panorama, as one sees the vast fields of waving
grain surrounding well-built and tasty cottages adorned with
porches, and many of the conveniences found among industrious
whites. The sight would lead a stranger, not knowing of its
inhabitance by Indians, to inquire what prosperous white settlement
was located here. It is by far the most advanced in the ways of
civilization and progress of any in the Territory, if not on the coast."
How long will the white men of Idaho permit Indians to occupy so
fair a domain as this? The small cloud, no larger than a man's hand,
already looms on their horizon. The closing paragraph of this (the
last) report from the Nez Percés is:
"Some uneasiness is manifest about stories set afloat by renegade
whites, in relation to their treatment at the expiration of their treaty
next July, but I have talked the matter over, and they will wait
patiently to see the action on the part of the Government. They are
well civilized; but one mistake on the part of the Government at this
time would destroy the effects of the past thirty years' teachings.
Give them time and attention; they will astonish their most zealous
friends in their progress toward civilization."
 CHAPTER V.

THE SIOUX.

The word Sioux is a contraction from the old French word

"Nadouessioux," or "Enemies," the name given by the French traders
to this most powerful and warlike of all the North-western tribes.
They called themselves "Dakota," or "many in one," because so
many bands under different names were joined together. At the time
of Captain Carver's travels among the North American Indians there
were twelve known bands of these "Nadouwessies." They
entertained the captain most hospitably for seven months during the
winter of 1766-'7; adopted him as one of their chiefs; and when the
time came for him to depart, three hundred of them accompanied
him for a distance on his journey, and took leave with expressions of
friendship for him, and good-will toward the Great Father, the
English king, of whom he had told them. The chiefs wished him to
say to the king "how much we desire that traders may be sent to
abide among us with such things as we need, that the hearts of our
young men, our wives, and children may be made glad. And may
peace subsist between us so long as the sun, the moon, the earth,
and the waters shall endure;" and "acquaint the Great King how
much the Nadouwessies wish to be counted among his good
children."
Nothing in all the history of the earliest intercourse between the
friendly tribes of North American Indians and the Europeans coming
among them is more pathetic than the accounts of their simple
hospitality, their unstinted invitations, and their guileless expressions
of desire for a greater knowledge of the white men's ways.
When that saintly old bigot, Father Hennepin, sailed up the Illinois
River, in 1680, carrying his "portable chapel," chalice, and chasuble,
and a few holy wafers "in a steel box, shut very close," going to
teach the savages "the knowledge of the Captain of Heaven and
Earth, and to use fire-arms, and several other things relating to their
advantage," the Illinois were so terrified that, although they were
several thousand strong, they took to flight "with horrid cries and
howlings." On being reassured by signs and words of friendliness,
they slowly returned—some, however, not until three or four days
had passed. Then they listened to the good man's discourses with
"great attention; afterward gave a great shout for joy," and
"expressed a great gratitude;" and, the missionaries being footsore
from long travel, the kindly creatures fell to rubbing their legs and
feet "with oil of bears, and grease of wild oxen, which after much
travel is an incomparable refreshment; and presented us some flesh
to eat, putting the three first morsels into our mouths with great
ceremonies."
It was a pity that Father Hennepin had no more tangible benefit than
the doctrine of the "efficacy of the Sacraments" to communicate to
the hospitable Illinois in return for their healing ointments. Naturally
they did not appreciate this, and he proceeded on his way
disheartened by their "brutish stupidity," but consoling himself,
however, with the thought of the infants he had baptized. Hearing of
the death of one of them, he says he is "glad it had pleased God to
take this little Christian out of the world," and he attributed his own
"preservation amidst the greatest dangers" afterward to "the care he
took for its baptism." Those dangers were, indeed, by no means
inconsiderable, as he and his party were taken prisoners by a
roaming party of these Indians, called in the Father's quaint old book
"Nadouwessians." He was forced to accompany them on their
expeditions, and was in daily danger of being murdered by the more
riotous and hostile members of the band. He found these savages on
the whole "good-natured men, affable, civil, and obliging," and he
was indebted for his life to the good-will of one of the chiefs, who
protected him again and again at no inconsiderable danger to
himself. The only evidence of religion among the Nadouwessies
which he mentions is that they never began to smoke without first
holding the pipe up to the sun, saying, "Smoke, sun!" They also
offered to the sun the best part of every beast they killed, carrying it
afterward to the cabin of their chief; from which Father Hennepin
concluded that they had "a religious veneration for the sun."
The diplomatic relations between the United States Government and
the Sioux began in the year 1815. In that year and the year
following we made sixteen "treaties" of peace and friendship with
different tribes of Indians—treaties demanding no cessions of land
beyond the original grants which had been made by these tribes to
the English, French, or Spanish governments, but confirming those
to the United States; promising "perpetual peace," and declaring
that "every injury or act of hostility committed by one or other of the
contracting parties shall be mutually forgiven and forgot." Three of
these treaties were made with bands of the Sioux—one of them with
"the Sioux of the Leaf, the Sioux of the Broad Leaf, and the Sioux
who shoot in the Pine-tops."
In 1825 four more treaties were made with separate Sioux bands. By
one of those treaties—that of Prairie du Chien—boundaries were
defined between the Chippewas and the Sioux, and it was hoped
that their incessant feuds might be brought to an end. This hostility
had continued unabated from the time of the earliest travellers in
the country, and the Sioux had been slowly but steadily driven south
and west by the victorious Chippewas. A treaty could not avail very
much toward keeping peace between such ancient enemies as
these. Fighting went on as before; and white traders, being exposed
to the attacks of all war-parties, suffered almost more than the
Indians themselves. The Government consoled itself for this
spectacle of bloody war, which it was powerless to prevent, by the
thought that the Indians would "probably fight on until some one or
other of the tribes shall become too reduced and feeble to carry on
the war, when it will be lost as a separate power"—an equivocal bit
of philosophizing which was unequivocally stated in these precise
words in one of the annual reports of the War Department.
In the third Article of the next treaty, also at Prairie du Chien, in
1830, began the trouble which has been from that day to this a
source of never ending misunderstanding and of many fierce
outbreaks on the part of the Sioux. Four of the bands by this article
ceded and relinquished to the United States "forever" a certain tract
of country between the Mississippi and the Des Moines River. In this,
and in a still further cession, two other bands of Sioux, who were
not fully represented at the council, must join; also, some four or
five other tribes. Landed and "undivided" estate, owned in common
by dozens of families, would be a very difficult thing to parcel out
and transfer among white men to-day, with the best that fair
intentions and legal skill combined could do; how much more so in
those days of unsurveyed forests, unexplored rivers, owned and
occupied in common by dozens of bands of wild and ignorant
Indians, to be communicated with only by interpreters.
Misconstructions and disputes about boundaries would have been
inevitable, even if there had been all possible fairmindedness and
good-will on both sides; but in this case there was only
unfairmindedness on one side, and unwillingness on the other. All
the early makers of treaties with the Indians congratulated
themselves and the United States on the getting of acres of valuable
land by the million for next to nothing, and, as years went on,
openly lamented that "the Indians were beginning to find out what
lands were worth;" while the Indians, anxious, alarmed, hostile at
heart, seeing themselves harder and harder pressed on all sides,
driven "to provide other sources for supplying their wants besides
those of hunting, which must soon entirely fail them,"[19] yielded mile
after mile with increasing sense of loss, which they were powerless
to prevent, and of resentment which it would have been worse than
impolitic for them to show.
The first annuities promised to the Sioux were promised by this
treaty—$3000 annually for ten years to the Yankton and Santee
bands; to the other four, $2000. The Yankton and Santee bands
were to pay out of their annuity $100 yearly to the Otoes, because
part of some land which was reserved for the half-breeds of the tribe
had originally belonged to the Otoes. "A blacksmith, at the expense
of the United States; also, instruments for agricultural purposes; and
iron and steel to the amount of $700 annually for ten years to some
of the bands, and to the amount of $400 to the others; also, $3000
a year 'for educational purposes,' and $3000 in presents distributed
at the time," were promised them.
It was soon after these treaties that the artist Catlin made his
famous journeys among the North American Indians, and gave to
the world an invaluable contribution to their history, perpetuating in
his pictures the distinctive traits of their faces and their dress, and
leaving on record many pages of unassailable testimony as to their
characteristics in their native state. He spent several weeks among
the Sioux, and says of them: "There is no tribe on the continent of
finer looking men, and few tribes who are better and more
comfortably clad and supplied with the necessaries of life. *** I
have travelled several years already among these people, and I have
not had my scalp taken, nor a blow struck me, nor had occasion to
raise my hand against an Indian; nor has my property been stolen
as yet to my knowledge to the value of a shilling, and that in a
country where no man is punishable by law for the crime of stealing.
*** That the Indians in their native state are drunken, is false, for
they are the only temperance people, literally speaking, that ever I
saw in my travels, or expect to see. If the civilized world are startled
at this, it is the fact that they must battle with, not with me. These
people manufacture no spirituous liquor themselves, and know
nothing of it until it is brought into their country, and tendered to
them by Christians.
"That these people are naked, is equally untrue, and as easily
disproved with the paintings I have made, and with their beautiful
costumes which I shall bring home. I shall be able to establish the
fact that many of these people dress not only with clothes
comfortable for any latitude, but that they dress also with some
considerable taste and elegance. *** Nor am I quite sure that they
are entitled to the name of 'poor' who live in a country of boundless
green fields, with good horses to ride; where they are all joint
tenants of the soil together; where the Great Spirit has supplied
them with an abundance of food to eat."
Catlin found six hundred families of the Sioux camped at one time
around Fort Pierre, at the mouth of the Teton River, on the west
bank of the Missouri. There were some twenty bands, each with
their chief, over whom was one superior chief, called Ha-won-je-tah
(the One Horn), whose portrait is one of the finest in Catlin's book.
This chief took his name, "One Horn," from a little shell which he
wore always on his neck. This shell had descended to him from his
father, and he said "he valued it more than anything which he
possessed:" affording a striking instance of the living affection which
these people often cherish for the dead, inasmuch as he chose to
carry this name through life in preference to many others and more
honorable ones he had a right to have taken from different battles
and exploits of his extraordinary life. He was the fleetest man in the
tribe; "could run down a buffalo, which he had often done on his
own legs, and drive his arrow to the heart."
This chief came to his death, several years later, in a tragic way. He
had been in some way the accidental cause of the death of his only
son—a very fine youth—and so great was the anguish of his mind at
times that he became insane. In one of these moods he mounted his
favorite war-horse, with his bow and arrows in his hand, and dashed
off at full speed upon the prairies, repeating the most solemn oath
that he would slay the first living thing that fell in his way, be it man
or beast, friend or foe. No one dared follow him, and after he had
been absent an hour or two his horse came back to the village with
two arrows in its body covered with blood. Fears of the most serious
kind were now entertained for the fate of the chief, and a party of
warriors immediately mounted their horses and retraced the animal's
tracks to the place of the tragedy, where they found the body of
their chief horribly mangled and gored by a buffalo-bull, whose
carcass was stretched by the side of him.
A close examination of the ground was then made by the Indians,
who ascertained by the tracks that their unfortunate chief, under his
unlucky resolve, had met a buffalo-bull in the season when they are
very stubborn, and unwilling to run from any one, and had incensed
the animal by shooting a number of arrows into him, which had
brought him into furious combat. The chief had then dismounted
and turned his horse loose, having given it a couple of arrows from
his bow, which sent it home at full speed, and then had thrown
away his bow and quiver, encountering the infuriated animal with his
knife alone, and the desperate battle had resulted in the death of
both. Many of the bones of the chief were broken, and his huge
antagonist lay dead by his side, weltering in blood from a hundred
wounds made by the chief's long and two-edged knife.
Had the provisions of these first treaties been fairly and promptly
carried out, there would have been living to-day among the citizens
of Minnesota thousands of Sioux families, good and prosperous
farmers and mechanics, whose civilization would have dated back to
the treaty of Prairie du Chien.
In looking through the records of the expenditures of the Indian
Bureau for the six years following this treaty, we find no mention of
any specific provisions for the Sioux in the matter of education. The
$3000 annually which the treaty promised should be spent "on
account of the children of the said tribes and bands," is set down as
expended on the "Choctaw Academy," which was in Kentucky. A very
well endowed institution that must have been, if we may trust to the
fiscal reports of the Indian Bureau. In the year 1836 there were set
down as expended on this academy: On account of the Miamis,
$2000; the Pottawattomies, $5000; the Sacs, Foxes, and others,
$3000; the Choctaws, $10,000; the Creeks, east, $3000; the
Cherokees, west, $2000; the Florida Indians, $1000; the Quapaws,
$1000; the Chickasaws, $3000; the Creeks, $1000: being a total of
$31,000.
There were in this year one hundred and fifty-six pupils at the
Choctaw Academy, sixteen of them being from the Sacs, Foxes,
Sioux, and others represented in the Treaty of Prairie du Chien of
1830. For the education of these sixteen children, therefore, these
tribes paid $3000 a year. The Miamis paid more in proportion, having
but four youths at school, and $2000 a year charged to them. The
Pottawattomies, on a treaty provision of $5000, educated twenty.
In 1836 Congress appropriated $2000 "for the purpose of
extinguishing the Indian title between the State of Missouri and the
Missouri River. The land owned here by the Indians was a long,
narrow belt of country, separated from the rest of the Indian country
by the Missouri River. The importance of it to the State of Missouri
was evident—an "obvious convenience and necessity." The citizens
of Missouri made representations to this effect; and though the
President is said to have been "unwilling to assent, as it would be in
disregard of the guarantee given to the Indians in the Treaty of
Prairie du Chien, and might be considered by them as the first step
in a series of efforts to obtain possession of their new country," he
nevertheless consented that the question of such a cession should
be submitted to them. Accordingly, negotiations were opened, and
nearly all the Indians who had rights in these lands, "seeing that
from their local position they could never be made available for
Indian purposes," relinquished them.[20]
In 1837 the Government invited deputations of chiefs from many of
the principal tribes to come to Washington. It was "believed to be
important to exhibit" to them "the strength of the nation they would
have to contend with" if they ventured to attack our borders, "and at
the same time to impress upon them the advantages which flow
from civilization." Among these chiefs came thirty chiefs and
headmen of the Sioux; and, being duly "impressed," as was most
natural, concluded treaties by which they ceded to the United States
"all their land east of the Mississippi River, and all their islands in the
same." These chiefs all belonged to the Medawakanton band,
"community of the Mysterious Lakes."
The price of this cession was $300,000, to be invested for them, and
the interest upon this sum, at five per cent., to be paid to them
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