N A S A T E C H N I C A L N A S A TT F - 1 1 9

PROBLEMS OF COSMOGONY
4

VOL. VIII

by V A . Ambartsumyan et al. ,
A kadem iya N atik SSSR, A stronotnicheskiy Sovet,
Izd a tel’
stvo A k a dem ii N auk SSSRf M oscow, 1962

N A T I O N A L A E R O N A U T I C S A N D S PACE A D M I N I S T R A T I O N W A S H I N G T O N , D. C. MAY 1 9 6 5
 PROBLEMS OF COSMOGONY

VOL. VHI

By V. A. Ambartsumyan, et al.

Translation of "Voprosy kosmogonii, Tom VIII."

Akademiya Nauk SSSR, Astronomicheskiy Sovet,
Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, Moscow, 1962.

Electro-Optical Systems, Inc. translated and prepared

the reproducible copy for this publication and is respon­
sible for the accuracy and fidelity of the translation and
editorial quality of the contents.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Selections of Papers, Delivered at Conference on Extragalactic

Astronomy, Moscow, June 1961

1. V. A. Ambartsumyan. Problems of Extragalactic Research . . . . 2

2. B. A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov. On Some Aspects of

Ambartsumyan's Hypothesis on the Origin of Galaxies .......... 27

3. Yu. P. Pskovskiy. Investigation of Distances, Motions

and Distribution of Galaxies in a Sphere with a Radius
of 15 M e g a p a r s e c s ................................................. 32

4. N. S. Kardashev. The Interaction of the Gaseous Components

of Galaxies and Radio Galaxies with an Intergalactic
M e d i u m ........................................................... 48

5. A. Ya. Kipper. On the Gravitational P a r a d o x .................... 63

Articles and Surveys (Reviews)

6. E. A. Lubimova. Concerning the Sources of the Inner Heat

of the E a r t h .................................................... Ill

7. B. Yu. Levin and Ye. L. Ruskol. Review of Contemporary

Data Concerning the M o o n ....................................... 127

8. S. V. Kozlovskaya. On the Problem of the Moon's Inner

S t r u c t u r e ........................................................ 170

9. V. S. Safronov. On the Problem of the Rotation of

P l a n e t s .......................................................... 177

10. V. S. Safronov. On the Dispersion of Velocities in

Rotating Systems Gravitating Bodies with Inelastic
Collisions .......................................... . . . . . 198

11. R. Ye. Gershberg. A Brief Review of Research on Morphological

Characteristics of Diffuse Nebulae ............................ 212

12. V. I. Pronik. Electron Temperature of Gaseous Nebulae and

Methods of its D e t e r m i n a t i o n ................................... 228
 SELECTIONS OF PAPERS DELIVERED AT CONFERENCE
ON EXTRAGALACTIC ASTRONOMY
Moscow, June 1961

PROBLEMS OF EXTRAGALACTIC RESEARCH dL

By

V. A. Ambartsumyan

Basic results of recent studies of extragalactic objects are

reported. The phenomenon of superposition of subsystems inside galaxies
has been considered in detail in connection with a cosmogonical inter­
pretation.

Attention is paid to the role of galactic nuclei as the centers of

cosmogonical activity. Extremely high cosmogonical activity of central
nuclei in super giant galaxies is emphasized. One of the phenomena which
resulted from this activity is the radio galaxies. The superposition of
subsystems in clusters of galaxies is also discussed. A number of
problems with which astronomers are faced in the field of extragalactic
research are enumerated.

In this report, basic facts of extragalactic astronomy are dis­

cussed. Since the valid concept of outer stellar systems, or galaxies,
was established scientifically only about 40 years ago, many fundamental
problems concerning the universe outside our galaxy remain unsolved.
Therefore, only the problems which seem to be essential for further
extragalactic research are presented. We shall try not to stray too far
from the facts while touching briefly on those problems whose solution
seem feasible in the future with the help of available means.

As is known, extragalactic astronomy borders on cosmology which

attempts to describe the universe as a whole by means of theories. These
theories have undoubtedly been beneficial since certain solutions
to the equations of the general theory of Einsteinian gravity have JJj^
been investigated using these theories, and the problem has been posed
of comparing these solutions with the characteristics of an observed
part of the universe. At the same time, the solutions have often served
as the arena for very rough simplifications and hasty extrapolations.

In this report we will not consider the analysis of these theories

or the problem of their further development, although we realize that a
critical review of the work being accomplished in this region would be

Numbers given in the margin indicate the pagination in the original

foreign text.
 3

extremely valuable. Nevertheless, the facts and problems which are

approached below should be of value also for cosmological theories.

I. Principal Facts Concerning the Distribution of Matter

One of the properties of the universe that surrounds us is the

fact that the greatest portion of matter that we have observed is
centered in the stars. Other objects contain only a small part of the
total observed m ass.

The most important fact of extragalactic astronomy is that an

overwhelming majority of the observed stars enters into the composition
of giant stellar systems which bear the name galaxies.

The dimensions of the galaxies and the number of their star

population are extremely varied. The super giant galaxies of the type
of two of the brightest galaxies, which are found in the center of the
cluster of Coma Berenices (NGC 4874 and NGC 4889), have photographic
absolute magnitudes approaching -22m and contain hundreds of billions of
stars, while the dwarf systems of the type of galaxy found in Sculptor
have absolute magnitudes on the order of -llm .O and evidently contain
only a few million stars. However, systems of a still lower illumina­
tion, which can be called sub-dwarf galaxies, border on the dwarf
galaxies. A good representative of such systems is the galaxy Capricorn,
discovered by Zwicky, and which has an absolute photographic magnitude
of-6m .5. It should be assumed that this system contains several tens of
thousands of stars at the most. Thus, this system is more than 10 million
times smaller than the super giant galaxies; furthermore, as far as the
number of stars is concerned, it remains far behind many globular stellar
clusters.

As a rule, the diameters of the galaxies lie between the limits

from 50,000 parsecs for the super giants and up to 500 parsecs for the
sub-dwarfs.

Giant and super giant galaxies with diameters of 5,000 to 50,000

parsecs invariably have a high surface brightness (more than /5
24m .O per square second of arc) and they also have a great concentration
of luminosity toward the center. Among dwarf galaxies, objects having
high surface brightness are found along with objects of low surface
brightness. Essentially however, there are among the dwarf galaxies
4

systems whose gradient is very small as well as systems having a large

surface brightness gradient from their borders to the center. On
photographs, such a system appears to be an almost uniform disc.*

The fact that the overwhelming majority of stars is included in

the contents of the galaxies is of great significance, if we take into
consideration the fact that galactic systems appear to be isolated from
one another in the first approximation. Normally, the distance between
neighboring galaxies exceeds the diameters of their central, most dense
parts by many times. In addition, parts of the galaxies that are remote
from the center and extremely rarefied sometimes interpenetrate each
other. Along with this topographic isolation, a dynamic seclusion of the
galaxies as well as that of stellar systems should be noted. By dynamic
seclusion is meant that property by which the motion of the stars in
each galaxy is basically determined by the total combined interaction
with other members of the same galaxy. In addition, it should be noted
that this condition of dynamic seclusion is accomplished only in a
certain approximation. The mutual disturbances of stellar systems which
are close to one another and the ejections from central parts of galaxies
which will be discussed later are incidences where the dynamic seclusion of
the systems and galaxies appears to be violated, more or less.

The dwarf star systems of Sculptor and Fornax, discovered by

Shapley, proved to be examples of galaxies which possess a small density
gradient and enter into the Local Group. The surface brightnesses of
these systems are unusually low. Later on, Baade showed that the
galaxies NGC 147 and NGC 185, which belong to the Local Group, also have
a small density gradient. The surface brightness of this pair of
galaxies is significantly higher than that of the systems of Sculptor
and Fornax. The other two members of the Local Group have an inter­
mediate magnitude of surface brightness: B Sextantis (9^ 57m .3 + 5°34',1950)
and Leonis (10*1 05m . 8 + 12°33', 1950). In addition, their density
gradient is also very small. In the Virgo cluster, there are a large
number of objects of low surface brightness and small density gradient.
As far as linear dimensions are concerned, some of these approach the
average galaxies in size. For example, the galaxy IC 3475 in the cluster
of Virgo possesses an insignificant density gradient as well as an
extremely low surface brightness, and its diameter approaches 5,000
parsecs. Thus, this galaxy, as far as its dimensions are concerned, far
exceeds analogous objects of the Local Group. Nevertheless, it is
emphasized that objects which are relatively large and which have small
density gradients and low surface brightness are very rare. For example,
in the well known cluster of Cancer, the largest similar galaxy has a
linear diameter of about 2500 parsecs.
 5

Stars make up the composition of the galaxies and, in similar JJ>_

fashion, galaxies form the composition of such systems of galaxies as
the clusters of galaxies, groups of galaxies, and multiple galaxies.

If it had been assumed two decades ago that besides clusters and
groups of galaxies, there exists also a general field which includes a
majority of galaxies (similar to the general stellar field, which is
present in our stellar system, and which includes all clusters and
associations), then at the present time, the very existence of a general
field would be in great doubt.

The clusters which we have observed are divided into two types:
spherical clusters with a regular symmetrical distribution of the
galaxies near the center and clusters of an irregular form. The popu­
lation of spherical clusters consists basically of elliptical galaxies.
The distribution of this cluster contains a high percentage of spirals.
To the scattered clusters groups of galaxies which are similar to the
Local Group or Groups around M 101 and M 81 adhere closely.

Thus, for example, the groups of galaxies associated with M 101

amd M 81 in effect do not contain an elliptical galaxy. They are
composed only of spirals and irregular galaxies. The group of galaxies
in Sculptor, which was investigated by de Vaucouleurs, contains only
irregular gaalxies and those of the type Sc. Our Local Group also
contains no elliptical galaxies of high luminosity, but it does contain
some elliptical galaxies of low and moderate luminosity.

It is also interesting to note that our Local Group is essentially

composed of two very small groups approaching multiple galaxies in
size. The first group contains our galaxy, two Magellanic clouds, and
apparently certain galaxies of the type of system in Sculptor. The
second group contains the Andromeda nebula with its four satellites
and M 33. However, such a division can be established only for the
galaxies of a high and moderate luminosity. The possibility is not
excluded that all of the space of the Local Group is occupied by dwarf
galaxies. We should add that the entire mass of the Local Group is
determined mainly by two galaxies which are essentially the center of
these two sub-groups; that is,with a mass M 31 and the mass of our
galaxy. In turn, the rich clusters of galaxies containing a large
number of members sometimes are found in two's and three's, forming
multiple clusters of galaxies. It was previous indicated that /7
galaxies usually proved to be isolated from one another by stellar
systems. However, the case when this isolation is infringed merits
our attention. Let us mention three categories of similar objects:
6

(a) Interaction of the galaxy. Those cases when two galaxies

are found near one another, and the presence of one greatly influences
the structure of the other galaxy. Numerous examples of interacting
galaxies are given in the Vorontsov-Vel'yaminov Atlas. From this, two
interpretations of the observed interactions are possible: (1) the
tidal effect and (2) the division of two galaxies which developed
together. The "interaction" observed in the last case should be con­
sidered as results of the process of division.

(b) Pairs of galaxies connected by bridges or by crosspieces.

Numerous examples of this type are given in the articles of Zwicky.
Experiments conducted by the latter showed that the indicated cross­
pieces are composed of stars.

Together with the crosspieces, jets are observed leaving the

central regions of certain spherical galaxies which contain, in them­
selves, a bluish condensation appearing to be dwarf galaxies.* It is
established that the jet somehow connects a large galaxy with dwarf
galaxies resembling a crosspiece. In these cases it should not be
doubted that the dwarf galaxy separated from the central nucleus of
the main galaxy. Therefore, it seems more likely that the bridges and
crosspieces are, in general, the result of the genetic process of two
galaxies arising from one.

(c) Radio galaxies. The assumption has been expressed that

radio galaxies are the result of a random collision of a pair of
independent stellar systems. It was assumed that the energy of radio
emission has as its source the energy from the collision of two gaseous
masses respectively entering into each of the galaxies. However, the
facts contradict this hypothesis. All the data point toward the fact
that radio galaxies are certain very short stages in the process of
interdevelopment of galaxies of very high luminosity (super giant
galaxies).

Apparently the radio activity of the galaxies is closely related

to new formations of the type of condensations and jets (ejected ^8
from the center), spiral arms, and even of entire new galaxies. In
other words, in certain cases, the process of division of the nucleus
of the galaxy and the development of a new galaxy within the old occurs.

NGC 3561 and IC 1182 are attributed to a number of galaxies of

high luminosity from whose central regions the jets originate containing,
in itself, the bluish condensation.
 7

Therefore, radio galaxies are often over-crowded systems composed of

the old galaxies and the new formations. These new formations are
usually observed still submerged in the old galaxy. It should be
mentioned that the above ennumerated disruptions to the isolation of
the galaxies is observed only in the case of a small part of the total
number of galaxies. It is likely that these disruptions only occur in
the determined stage of the development of galaxies when new galaxies
arise.

In spite of the fact that real progress was accomplished in the

study of spatial distribution of galaxies, many basic questions remain
unanswered. We will mention some of them:

a) Do the clusters of galaxies, in turn, form systems of a

higher order of the type of super clusters or super galaxies?

It is certain that our Local Group is a component part of a

certain group of clusters in the center of which, as a part of its
nucleus, is the large aggregation in Virgo. This large spatial grouping
was called a super galaxy by de Vaucouleurs. Its dimensions are on the
order of 20 million parsecs. In the meantime, however, we can say
nothing about the dynamic unity of this system or of the presence of
forces which might support this unity.

In addition, it is very interesting to note that there is no

evidence of the existence of a large number of similar super galaxies
from the study of the distribution of galaxies on the celestial sphere.
In the examination of this problem it is necessary to consider the
existence of two possibilities: 1) the intervals between super galaxies
are great as compared with the diameters of the super galaxies them­
selves. 2) These distances are of the same order as the diameters of
the super galaxies.

In the first case, many such super galaxies must be precisely

observed as isolated formations in their projection on the celestial
sphere. In the second case, only a small number of similar formations
will be observed from their projection as isolated systems. Since we
can only scratch the surface of the problem, it will be difficult to
draw a conclusion concerning the existence of distant super galaxies.

The observations give a direct indication of the irregularity

in the distribution of the clusters and groups of galaxies. To a
certain degree these can be explained by the existence of super galaxies.
In addition, it is possible to consider that we observe not far from
8

us only a few isolated clouds consisting of a great number of conden­

sations. Thereby it was established reliably that only the existence
of the large cloud in the southern sky ranges from I = 160° to 240° when
b = -40° .*

From these two facts we assume the second alternative; i.e., super
galaxies exist but the distance between them is approximately the /9
same as their diameters.

The irregularity in the distribution of galaxies throughout the

sky, apart from that which is caused by the absorption in our galaxy,
is clearly shown in the case of galaxies of the catalogue of Shapley
and Ames (specific magnitude 13™.0). This irregularity is primarily
connected with the existence of a local super galaxy. The irregularity
is even more clearly expressed in the results of the calculations of
Shane and Wirtanen (specific magnitude 18™.4). Thereby, the non­
homogeneities are stipulated on a small scale by a concentration of
galaxies in clusters. However, there are larger homogeneities which
are caused by a tendency of the clusters to form groups which are
similar to the super galaxies previously discussed.

In accordance with the data of Zwicky and other authors, irregu­

larities in the distribution of galaxies are extended to the limits
that are attainable with the help of the Palomar Schmidt type telescope
(almost to 20m ) . It is possible, as an example, to point out large
clouds of galaxies in the region of the cluster of Corona Borealis.
However, for the study of the tendency of clusters to congregate, the
research on the distribution of the centers of galactic clusters is of
great interest. Such research was conducted by Able according to
photographs of the Palomar Atlas. His results confirmed the non­
homogeneity in the distribution of clusters.

Zwicky considers the main cause of the non-homogeneity

observed in the distribution of clusters, i.e., the flocculent structure
of the absorbent intergalactic dust. His arguments in favor of its
presence in specific directions of intergalactic absorption evidently
were convincing. However, not all of the deviation from homogeneity
can be explained by this. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the
true Irregularity in the distribution of galaxies farthest away from
us.
 9

Although the existence of individual galaxies must be accepted,

the following questions remain unclarified: What percentage of the
clusters of galaxies enters into these systems of higher order? Is the
tendency of two known types of clusters (spherical and diffuse) to
congregate identically strong? It will be possible to answer these
questions only on the basis of more detailed photometric and statistical
investigations.

b) To what degree do galaxies of low luminosity duplicate the

spatial distribution of galaxies of high luminosity? As was previously
indicated, the concentration of galaxies in clusters is well established
for objects of high luminosity. However, objects of low luminosity,
beginning with distances of several million parsecs, will definitely
be lost among galaxies in the remote background, and the solution of 710
the problem relative to them encounters known difficulties. However,
concerning one class of objects of low luminosity, primarily galaxies
of a low surface brightness, there are some things that can be concluded
on the basis of the results of the work of Reyves who established that
the distribution of objects of low surface brightness in the cluster
Virgo roughly duplicates the distribution of galaxies of high luminosity.
On the other hand, we cannot say whether the galaxies of low surface
brightness (systems of the type in Sculptor or Zwicky's object in
Capricorn) contain a general Metagalactic field or are concentrated in
clusters and groups.

c) The super galaxies which were previously mentioned, are

objects with diameters of approximately 20,000,000 parsecs. If they
appear to be the largest inhomogeneities in the distribution of galaxies,
it might be expected that spatial cells with dimensions of 50 or
100,000,000 parsecs will be approximately equal in the quantity of
matter (galaxies) contained in them. However, it is possible that in­
homogeneities exist on a much larger scale. This problem can be
resolved only on the basis of research on the distribution of weak
clusters of galaxies (up to a magnitude of 21m ) or on the basis of
investigation on the distribution of extragalactic sources of radio
sources. The solution of this problem is extremely important for build­
ing the foundation for those other cosmological theories. At the present
time it is only possible to state that there are no indications that
the cosmologist's postulate concerning the homogeneity is justified.

d) It was previously mentioned that there is good evidence in

favor of the existence of intergalactic dust matter. In connection
with this, it follows that there it is desirable to investigate all
aspects of intergalactic matter. It is now possible to discuss the
reality of certain of these forms:

1. The bright intergalactic matter sometimes filling the

central portion of the space occupied by galactic
10

clusters. All data indicate that this bright substance,

as well as the bridges and crosspieces often observed in
pairs of galaxies, is composed of stars.

2. Intergalactic globular clusters. Certain of these were

observed at distances greater than 100,000 parsecs.

3. Giant clouds of relativistic electrons ejected from the

interiors of galaxies. For example, the radio source
CC-Centauri consists of three similar clouds and cn-Cygnus
consists of two. The dimensions of each of these clouds
exceeds the dimensions of normal galaxies. Many of these
clouds undoubtedly were dispersed in intergalactic space.

4. Absorbent dust matter. There are no data on the dimen­

sions of individual clouds of dust masses.

5. The neutral gaseous masses, which are however, present

in such small quantities that the radiation which they
emit (for example, in the line \ = 21 cm) has not been
successfully observed. /II

There is no doubt that each of these forms of inter­

galactic matter merits special investigation.

II. Principal Facts Concerning Kinematics and Dynamics

in the Systems of Galaxies

Our knowledge of motions in the universe of galaxies is limited

to information on the radial velocities of approximately 1,000 galaxies.
We have no information at all concerning tangential velocities. However,
existing data on radial velocities which have been obtained almost
entirely by the Mount Wilson, Palomar, and Lick Observatories, confronts
us with the most difficult problems ever encountered in astronomy.

The sum total of observed galaxies is a part of a more grandiose

system which we call the Metagalaxy. This concept of a Metagalaxy is
valid independently of the solution to the problem concerning the
existence of galaxies outside this system. The expansion of the Meta­
galaxy is the most important factor established on the basis of our
information concerning radial velocities of galaxies.

Hubble's law, derived from empirical data

 11

is maintained with accuracies to small deviations for the values

of r approaching almost 2 billion parsecs. This law relates the approx­
imate homogeneity of the observed expansion. All attempts to find some
other explanation (other than the Doppler effect) for the red shift
proved to be artificial and unsuccessful. Therefore, in the examination
of any problem concerning the nature, and especially the evolution, of
the Metagalaxy the expansion phenomenon must be taken into consideration.

Of course, Hubble's law is only valid on the average. In addition

to the velocity determined according to Hubble's formula, each cluster
of galaxies and each galaxy in relation to its center of gravity has
its own characteristic velocities.

Thus, in the Local Group where distances between galaxies are

small, relative velocities are determined mainly by the characteristic
motion of the individual members. However, the closest clusters of
galaxies and the closest outer groups recede from us. This testifies
to the small magnitude of characteristic velocities of these clusters
and groups as compared to the systematic velocities of their recession
according to Hubble's formula.

The numerical value of the constant, H, is quite significant /12

since the knowledge of it permits the determination of the distance to
the most remote clusters. Unfortunately, this value is not accurately
known. According to the results of Sandage (1958) the probability is
high that it lies somewhere within the limits of

60 km/sec • M parsecs < H < 140 km/sec ■ M parsecs

and with a certain risk that it is included between

70 km/sec • M parsecs < H < 100 km/sec • M parsecs

The problems related to the determination of H are not considered. It

is merely stated that, under all conditions, Hubble's law permits a
good evaluation of the relative distances.

The second important fact concerning the motion of galaxies is

the presence of some dispersion in the velocities of the galactic
clusters which is connected to the internal motions in these clusters.

If a cluster is found in a stationary state or, after the lapse

of a certain time, should enter a stationary state, then its total
energy, E, should be negative:
12

E = T + U < 0

where T and U are, respectively, the kinetic and the potential energy
of the system. If E > 0 then the system cannot enter into a stationary
state and at least part of its members must approach infinity.

Recent investigations have shown that, for certain groups and

multiple systems, the kinetic energy of internal motion, which is
determined according to the radial velocities exceeds many times the
probable value of the absolute magnitude of potential energy calculated
assuming that the fundamental mass of the cluster is concentrated in its
galaxies and that the relation of the mass to the luminosity is f = M/L
for a given type of galaxy of the same order as in those cases where
this relationship is determined on the basis of investigations of the
rotation of galaxies. From this came the conclusion that certain
groups and clusters have positive energy and should disperse in space.
It was necessary to make such a deduction, for example, relative to the
clusters of the galaxies in Virgo and Hercules, and for a comparatively
near group in Sculptor. The latter case, analyzed in detail by
de Vaucouleurs, was especially striking since the kinetic energy exceeded
the estimated absolute value of the potential energy by a factor of one
and a half or two. Since positive energy should lead to the /13
recession of a part of the members of the cluster, and sometimes the
complete dispersion of the cluster, it is plausible to imagine that
there is something in common between the phenomenon of non-stationary
clusters on one hand and the phenomenon of the expansion of Metagalaxies
on the other.

The systems of the type of the Local Supergalaxy should play an

intermediate role in this attitude. As is known, its component parts
recede from one another. For example, the cluster in Virgo, or a group
connected with M 81 is receding from the Local Group of galaxies.

What was said concerning the total inner energy of the clusters
of galaxies also remains correct relative to the multiple systems.
Evidently, some multiple systems have over-all positive energies. These
9 9
systems are from 10 to 5 ■ 10 years old.

However, regardless of the sign of the total energy, one more

peculiarity of all multiple (triple, quandruple, etc.) galaxies draws
attention to itself. As is known, an overwhelming majority of
multiple stars has configurations of the "ordinary" type, while the
configurations of the "Trapezium of Orion" type comprise an insignif­
icant percentage (about 10$). Among the multiple galaxies approxi­
mately half of the systems have configurations of the Trapezium type.
Since the systems of the Trapezium type as a rule are unstable, we can
 13

conclude that the time which has passed since the formation of these
multiple groups does not exceed by more than several times the period
of its conversion into such a multiple system, which in turn is about
9 9
10 to 5 • 10 years old.

Finally, it should be mentioned that assumption of the negativity

of the energy of all double galaxies sometimes leads to incredibly
large values of the component masses (Page). Therefore, there is a
basis for assuming that certain double galaxies also have positive
energy.

In the overcrowded systems, such as the radio galaxies, signif­

icant diversities of velocities of the components are observed. For
example, in the radio galaxy Perseus A, this difference reaches 3,000
km/sec, and these pairs therefore possess positive energy. In our
opinion, we consider the formation of such a pair as from a single
galaxy.

The further accumulation of data on the radial velocities of

galaxies permits the solution of many unsolved problems concerning their
kinematics and dynamics. Certain of these unsolved problems are
described below.

a) A more accurate determination of the constant in the law of

the red shift. This designates an increase in accuracy for the scale
of extragalactic distances.

b) The determination of the nature of the dependence of the /14

red shift on distance with very large values for the latter. Undoubtedly
we must observe the violation of linear dependency. However, for the
solution of fundamental cosmological problems, it is extremely important
to know on which side the tendency to stray from linearity occurs, and
whether the magnitude of this tendency is dependent of direction.

c) It is very important to determine the characteristic

velocities of the centers of gravity of individual clusters of galaxies;
that is, their tendency to stray from the observed velocities taken
from the Hubble formula. This has essential significance for the
solution of problems concerning genetic bonds between neighboring
clusters. As for the determination of the indicated tendencies to stray,
it is necessary to be able to determine more accurately the distances of
remote clusters independent of Hubble's law.

d) For the solution of many problems on the dynamics of the

clusters of galaxies and multiple galaxies it is necessary to be able
to determine the masses of the latter. Unfortunately, in the case of
14

remote galaxies entering the indicated systems, we determine the masses

statistically surmising the negativity of the energy, and also the
applicability of the virial theorem. It is necessary to determine the
masses of the galaxies within the closest clusters independently from
this supposition. In addition, it is necessary to find the extent to
which the evaluations are valid, at least insofar as the maximum
magnitude is concerned, in the possible intergalactic masses of each
system (cluster or group).

e) The disparity between the mass of a system determined from

the virial theorem and the mass found from the evaluation of individual
members of the system is very striking. This was established in the
case of certain dispersed clusters and groups of galaxies (of the
cluster in Virgo, Hercules, a group of galaxies in Sculptor, Leonis,
etc.). On the other hand, according to Zwicky, large spherical clusters
show no expansion signs.

For the complete solution of this problem it is necessary to

obtain the largest possible number of radial velocities in several of
the closest large spherical clusters.

III. The Principal Facts Concerning the Nature of Galaxies

and Their Clusters

Observations show that the forms and internal characteristics of

the galaxies are extremely diverse. In order to determine the nature
of galaxies, it is extremely necessary to have a sufficiently complete
and simple system of the classification of galaxies. It is definitely
evident that the more profound physical meaning that the criteria /15
used as a basis of this classification have, the more useful it will
be for the solution of the questions of extragalactic astronomy.

The classification of Hubble, the most widely accepted of our

time, is founded on the study of the external form of observed galaxies.
It has proved to be exceptionally useful in relation to the over­
whelming majority of galaxies, and all of our present information is
reduced to the data concerning the external forms, the intrinsic
brilliance, and the visible diameter. The latter two parameters are
not in themselves characteristic of the system as long as the distance
is unknown. However, within recent years, it has become possible to
estimate the absolute brightness and linear diameter of a very large
number of galaxies included into rich clusters inasmuch as it became
known that the brightest members of these clusters are always super
giants, the absolute magnitudes of which are approximately -21m • 0.
Comparing this absolute magnitude with the visible magnitude of the
 15

brightest members, we can roughly evaluate the distance, as well as

the luminosity and absolute dimensions of all remaining members. As
was indicated in the beginning of this report, the range of luminosity
of the galaxies in clusters is very large. Gradually, it became clear
that the class of the luminosity of a given galaxy (super giants,
objects of moderate luminosity, dwarfs, or objects of extremely low
luminosity of the type of object of Zwicky in Capricorn) in many cases
has a greater significance than even its form. Let us mention once
again that the super giant galaxy contains tens of millions more stars
than any galaxy of extremely low luminosity.

For the understanding of the characteristics of a galaxy, the

study of the nature of its central region and, in particular, the
problem of the presence of a central nucleus which is small in magnitude
has great significance. It is desirable that new attempts to construct
a classification should consider the significance of luminosity, and
also, that the assignment of class should determine the role of the
central parts and, if possible, the nucleus itself. Finally, it is
possible that there are other still unknown parameters which are
extremely important for the description of the state of galaxy.

Recently, the proposed classification by Morgan, taking into

consideration the concentration of the luminosity to a known degree,
answers one of these hopes. However, the assignment of Morgan's class
leaves the luminosity undetermined. In the recent works of van den Bergh
an attempt was made to introduce a parameter from an observed form of
the galaxy, but in essence determining its luminosity. This is a very
successful principle. Unfortunately, however, the classification of
van den Bergh is not universal and encompasses only the spirals of the
latest types. It is, therefore, necessary to assume that, in the future,
new classifications will be proposed. These will pose the question of
determining the essential parameters of each galaxy.

The most important accomplishment of the second quarter of /16

our century was the introduction of the existence of subsystems in
galaxies (Lindblad, Kukarkin, and Baade) and diverse types of stellar
population. In certain galaxies, for example in the systems of the EO
type, we have a sufficiently large homogeneity of population. In such
cases it can be stated that the entire galaxy is composed of only one
subsystem. This is particularly true in relation to such members of
the Local Group as the system in Sculptor and the galaxies M 32 and
NGC 147. Evidently, contrary to the opinion of Baade, we do not consider
all such systems to be composed entirely of type I star population (the
population of spiral arms). However, in many cases, these galaxies are,
in fact, superpositions of two or more subsystems containing diverse
types of population.
16

Thus, the lens-like galaxies (SO) are composed of two subsystems

which are, in turn, composed of a stellar population of a globular
component and a disc. Giant spirals of the M 31 type are composed of a
globular component, a disc, and spiral arms. It is possible that a more
detailed division is necessary. For u s , however, it is important that,
in the given case, various subsystems are superposed.

Available data indicate that the populations of various subsystems

travel diverse independent paths of evolution.

There is a basis for considering that the average age of stars

of various subsystems is also diverse. It is accepted that, if the
dynamic interaction is not considered, each of the subsystems lives
its own individual life. This is particularly important because of the
description of galaxies as component systems having been derived as the
result of the simple superposition of subsystems.

Concerning the relative independence of diverse subsystems entering

into the composition of one and the same galaxy, it has been asserted
that the degree of development of one of the subsystems (in a sense of
the richness of the subsystem and its dimension) is not dependent on the
degree of development of the other subsystem.

Thus, for example, the globular subsystem of the galaxy M 31,

by its density and dimensions, does not distinguish itself from the
normal galaxy of the EO type, which possesses an absolute magnitude of
about -19m ■ 0. Meanwhile, the latter does not contain the population
of a flat subsystem and spiral arms, while M 31 has conspicuous spiral
arms and a richly populated disc.

Holding this point of view, those systems which occupy an inter­

mediate position, i.e., those in which one of the subsystems is
developed very firmly while the other is comparatively poor, are also of
interest. A remarkable example of this is NGC 5128 (radio source /17
Centaurus A) which, on overexposed photographs, becomes a giant
elliptical galaxy. However, in its central part, it contains a weakly
developed flat subsystem into which much of the absorbent substance
goes. As was shown in the investigations of Berbidge and wife,
based on the measurements of radial velocities in this flat subsystem,
the equatorial plane of the latter is approximately perpendicular to
the equatorial plane of the elliptical subsystem. This is a good
illustration which confirms the independence of the subsystem. Another
interesting example is the galaxy NGC 3718. The spiral arms of this
galaxy possess little prominence; however, unlike NGC 5128, they extend
far beyond the limits of the volume occupied by the globular subsystem.
 17

In this galaxy, the plane of the concentration of the dark matter

is inclined toward the equatorial plane of the elliptical subsystem by
approximately 25 degrees. This also speaks for the independence of the
subsystem.

It may have been possible to bring in contrary examples when the

spherical subsystem was weakly developed and the flat one was firmly
represented. It is evident that the great Cloud of Magellan (Nebecula
Major) can serve as such an example. There is a spherical subsystem in
this cloud. It therefore follows, if only from its presence, that this
subsystem has at least 30 globular clusters similar to the globular
clusters in our galaxy and in M 31. Unfortunately, the other objects of
spherical subsystems are difficult to distinguish when the population is
of a flat nature. Therefore, it is difficult to say that the spherical
component of the great Magellanic cloud is similar to elliptical systems.
Judging by the distribution of globular clusters and by their number,
this should be an elliptical galaxy of a moderate luminosity (M ~ -16m)
possessing a low density gradient from the center toward the border. It
is known that, during the transition from super giant elliptical galaxies
to elliptical galaxies of a moderate and low luminosity, there occur more
and more often objects indicating a low density gradient.

We spoke previously about the comparatively independent and diverse

subsystems entering into one and the same galaxy. However, in one respect,
the relation between subsystems is almost constantly observed rigorously.
We have in mind the presence of a common center. The center of the
globular subsystems is coincident with the center of the disc and, in
addition, with the region from which the spiral arms emerge. As is known
from the observations of the neighboring galaxies of high luminosity,
the nucleus is normally situated in the center and has dimensions of
several parsecs (less than the diameter of the common globular cluster).
Naturally the thought arises that the origins of individual, almost
independent, subsystems are in some way bound by the presence of the
indicated nucleus.

In certain galaxies, no traces of nuclei have been discovered. /18

This is the case of NGC 185 or in the case of the system in Sculptor.
However, we will turn our attention to the absolute magnitude of the
nuclei which we have examined. The photographic magnitude of the nucleus
of M 31 is equal to - llm - 6 . In M 32, it is equal to - llm - 1 . In
M 33, we have M = - 10m ■ 3. In NGC 147, we have M = - 5™ ■ 0. The
pgn Pgn
impression is created here that the absolute magnitude of the nucleus
decreases with the decrease of the density gradient. Therefore, it should
be expected that in NGC 185, and in the systems of the Sculptor type such
as may be in the Magellanic clouds, the nucleus should have an even
18
lower luminosity than in NGC 147. If it is on the order of M 2
Pg
then it is apparent that the nucleus will become lost among the stars.
Let us note that in the Magellanic clouds the nuclei will be imper-
_m
ceptible even if they have M = - 5 Therefore, it is premature to
Pg
make a conclusive deduction about the absence of nuclei in these systems.
However, if the nuclei exist in them, then they should possess little
prominence.

It was previously indicated that the concentration of subsystems

in each galaxy is strictly observed. However, there are individual cases
of the break-up of the concentration. NGC 4438 in the cluster of Virgo
is a possible example where two subsystems are clearly shifted relative
to one another.

There is a certain similarity between galaxies and clusters of

galaxies. This is expressed in the fact that, just as with the galaxies,
it is possible to divide the stellar population into two basic types.
It is also possible to attribute the numbers of clusters of galaxies to
two diverse types of population. To the first type belong the spiral and
irregular galaxies; to the second, the elliptical and lens-like (SO)
galaxies'.

The rich, spherical clusters of galaxies of the type of cluster

in Coma Berenices contain primarily a type II population. The dispersed
clouds of galaxies, similar to the nearby cloud in Ursa Major, practically
contain no elliptical galaxies of high luminosity. The close-by group
of galaxies in Sculptor (m-M = 27™ • 0), investigated by de Vaucouleurs,
contains not only elliptical galaxies but also galaxies of the SO, Sa,
and Sb types. This group contains only the spirals of the last subclass.
The scattered cluster in Virgo contains spiral systems as well as giant
elliptical systems.

The question is whether or not it is possible in this case to talk

about the superposition of diverse systems in one cluster. It is necessary
to recognize that not in all cases are signs of the unification of two
quasi-independent subclusters observed in one cluster. However, in
certain cases, there is very clear evidence in favor of this. Thus, in
the cluster of Coma Berenices, one of the central galaxies (NGC /19
4874), which is a super giant of the SO type, is clearly surrounded by
a symmetrical cloud of elliptical galaxies of lesser luminosity. Super­
ficially, this group is very similar to the galaxy NGC 4486 surrounded by
globular clusters. Only in this case, the spherical clusters are
substituted by elliptical galaxies of moderate luminosity. And thus,
this group of elliptical galaxies, with NGC 4874 in the center, are
somehow laid onto a rich cluster possessing a lesser density gradient.
 19

Evidently, in the case of dispersed clusters of galaxies, we can

find more phenomena attesting to the superposition of individual groups.
A very good example of this is the chain of bright galaxies M 84, M 86,
NGC 4435, NGC 4438 and others in the cluster of Virgo. As Markaryan
indicated several years ago, this chain is not a random formation but
was placed on the cluster in Virgo as a certain independent group.

It is entirely possible that the dispersed clusters of galaxies

generally are the result of the compilation of certain similar groups
which results in their irregular form.

In this relationship, it is necessary to recall the existence of

clusters (or groups) which are composed of one central galaxy surrounded
by a lesser or greater number of objects of a low luminosity. The group
around M 101 is attributed to a number of similar objects. We underline
this fact because, in these cases,the central galaxy and its weak satellites
undoubtedly have a common origin. However, it is necessary to mention
that, along with these systems, there are groups composed almost
exclusively of super giants. The quintet Stephan is an example of such
a group. Around these super giants, contrary to the previous case, we
do not observe any noticeable number of galaxies of low luminosity.
However, it is not impossible that a sharp break exists in the function
of luminosity and this system contains a certain number of galaxies with
absolute magnitudes lower than the specific magnitude which can still be
observed. The facts here, combined with those mentioned in the beginning
of this report concerning the exclusive state of the position M 31 and
our galaxy in the Local Group, show the great cosmogonical significance
of the super giant galaxies in groups and clusters.

From the above said, it is also clear that, together with the
research on rich clusters of galaxies, it is extremely important to have
as much data as possible concerning the comparatively poor groups and,
in particular to clarify the possibility of the existence of isolated
groups, which are composed exclusively of galaxies of low luminosity.
If there are no such groups, then this would mean that, in the /20
formation of dwarf galaxies, the cosmogonical processes occuring in
galaxies of high luminosity play a decisive role.

In spite of certain successes in the studies of the nature of

stellar populations of galaxies and diverse subsystems, it is still
necessary to acknowledge the fact that merely the first steps have been
taken in this direction.

It is necessary to have further accumulation of data concerning the

composition and population on the basis of spectroscopic data (in the
direction indicated by Morgan and Mayall) and the quantitative analysis of
spectro-photometric curves (Markaryan and others).
20

Another important problem is included in the analysis of the

nature of galactic arms. With one and the same degree of exposure and
length of the arms, the relative richness of their associations is
definitely diverse in various cases. By finding a correlation between
the nature of the arms and the other parameters of the galaxy, an
approach will be made to an understanding of the causes of the indicated
diversities.

Of especially great interest are the spiral galaxies with cross­

pieces (SB). Unfortunately, we do not appreciate fully the difference
between the populations of the crosspieces and the arms. It is known
only that, generally, the color of the crosspieces is significantly
redder than the color of the arms, and that the arms therefore contain
a relatively high quantity of young stars. It is especially important
to clarify that the crosspieces are rich in clusters and in stellar
super giants.

IV. The Broadened Understanding of the Phenomena of

Superposition

Individual cases were previously mentioned where the centers of

subsystems comprising the given galaxy were shifted with respect to one
another. However, we know of other galaxies which are double galaxies,
but in effect are bound together by a material medium, and therefore can
also be considered as solitary systems. Some good examples are M 51 and
the galaxy NGC 7752 - 7753. It is natural in this case to assume that
we have an example of a system in which the centers of the subsystem
separated. Another good example is IC 1613, where along one side of the
main mass of the galaxy is located a giant conglomerate of hot stars, a
unique super-association which can be considered a part of the funda­
mental galaxy and a separate galaxy-satellite. It is highly probable
that this super association composed of hot giants was formed much later
than the remaining galaxy.*

In connection with this, the concept was evolved that the /21
development of the galaxy is connected with the consecutive formation of
diverse subsystems, whereby one or another of these subsystems and some­
times a group of subsystems, also with a new center, might become a
satellite of the basic galaxy. This permits us to consider that the

We have such a case in the galaxy IC 2574. A bright super

association is located to the North of the main part of this galaxy.
They are barely united with each other by an observed arm.
 21
formation of a satellite and the arrival of a new subsystem in the
confines of the given galaxy are cognate phenomena.

Furthermore, it is possible to think that these phenomena some­

times accompany one another. As an example, in those cases where the
spiral arm unites the center of a given galaxy with a satellite, it is
natural to consider that the formation of the spiral arm and the
formation of the satellite accompany one another.

Finally, any kind of satellite of the Sculptor type, revolving

about the main galaxy, is barely distinguishable from the globular
cluster in dimensions and composition of the population. The globular
clusters undoubtedly form as a result of inner processes produced in the
main galaxy. It is possible to grant the same thing with respect to
satellites of the Sculptor type.

V. The Phenomena of Non-Stationarity in Galaxies

Heretofore, galaxies were considered as static formations. How­

ever, in galaxies, especially in super giants, phenomena of non-stationary
character occur which are of great interest.

We are not concerned here with the processes of the stellar

formations in 0- and T- associations, although they also have an essential
significance for the life of galaxies. We have in mind quicker changes
which are directly observable. It is interesting that the majority of
these non-stationary phenomena is connected with the nuclei of galaxies
and may even be regarded as a manifestation of the activity of these
nuclei.

a) From the central region of our galaxy, neutral hydrogen is

known to emanate. This phenomenon was observed by Dutch astronomers
during radio observations of 21-centimeter wavelength regions. A similar
phenomena of gas emission from the nucleus of M 31 was discovered by
Munch as a result of the investigation of the line X 3727. In both cases
the intensity of emission reaches the order of one solar mass per year.
This result, somehow, does not correspond to the existing values of the
masses of galactic nuclei (on the order of 10? M ^ ) .

b) Certain galaxies possessing nuclei of high luminosity, as

Seifert showed, have an emission line X 3727 strongly expanded, which
corresponds to velocities of motion on the order of several thousand
kilometers per second. These velocities exceed the normal escape velocities
for galaxies. We deal, therefore, undoubtedly with powerful fluxes of
matter, escaping from the nucleus with such great velocities and dispersing
22
in intergalactic space. Evidently, in this case the quantity of ejected
matter far exceeds the corresponding magnitude of our galaxy and of M 31.
We can expect that those from the bluish galaxy Aro have an analogous
nature. The emission lines of these galaxies are intense in the region
around the nucleus.

c) In the very center of the radio galaxy NGC 4486 we have also
observed the line \ 3727 and apparently a sufficiently strong flow of gas
with a velocity of about 500 kilometers per second. Comparing this with
the presence of a radial jet emanating from the center of this galaxy to
the surface, and containing plasmas giving intensive radio emission, we
come to the conclusion that these plasmas were thrown out from the central
nucleus of the galaxy with great velocities. The polarization of light
by these plasmas indicates the presence in them of electrons of high
energy. However, these plasmas are not formations on the scale of that
of the Crab Nebula. The energy of their radio emission measured in
absolute units is tens of millions of times greater. If we take into
consideration that the extent of radio emission in this case must be at
least one thousand times greater, then we come to the conclusion that
the supply of energy contained in these plasmas exceeds the total energy
contained in the Crab Nebula by one billion times. In other words, these
plasmas, as far as their own energy equivalent in the mass is concerned,
must be objects on the scale of small galaxies which are found in the
photographic rays with respect to their absolute value.

Were these particles ejected from the nucleus of the galaxy in the
form of a cloud of relativistic electrons; or, what is more probable were
objects expelled from the nucleus continuously creating new fluxes of such
electrons? However, it is important that such enormous plasma can be
ejected from the nucleus of a giant galaxy, which is related very little
to our evidence concerning the masses of the nuclei of galaxies.

d) What occurs in other radio galaxies is far more difficult to

explain. We know, however, that the galaxy NGC 1275 (Perseus A) is one
of a number of the galaxies of Seifert in which the line \ 3727, observed
in the central region, is strongly expanded. In other words, an intense
flow of matter from the nucleus occurs in this case. In relation to the
information previously developed, the presence of two nuclei in the radio
galaxy Cygnus A indicates that the process of separation of the nuclei
occurred recently. This must lead to the formation of subsystems with
diverse centers and, in the future, to the formation of double galaxies.

In any case the example NGC 5128 (Centaur A) also supports the
fact that the nuclei of the galaxies are capable of emitting either /23
a huge cloud of relativistic electrons or some substance capable in the
future of creating such clouds.
 23
In one way or another, the radio galaxies appear to be systems in
which the central nuclei manifest tremendous activity including the
creation of new plasma, new subsystems and possibly new galaxies. There­
fore, in the given case, we can freely speak of the cosmogonical activity
of the nuclei, even though they are unknown to us with respect to the
type of matter that this activity manifests.

e) We are aware of giant galaxies from whose central clouds jet

streams flow. Among these are bluish galaxies with absolute magnitudes
on the order of -15m , i.e., having a greater luminosity than the plasma
in NGC 4486. Some examples of similar galaxies are NGC 3561 and IC 1182.
The expulsion of such plasmas is one more aspect of cosmogonical activity
in the nuclei of galaxies.

f) The fact that the spiral arms begin in the nuclei of the
galaxies themselves testifies to the fact that the origin of the spiral
arms is directly connected with that of the nucleus.

g) The radio observations of the center of our galaxy, conducted

by Pariskiy and by others, testify to the fact that the composition of the
nucleus consisting chiefly of type II stars, sharply distinguishes itself
from the composition of other similar stars (for example, globular
clusters). The nucleus itself of our galaxy is the source of thermal
and radio emissions, while the surrounding region out to a diameter on
the order of 500 parsecs is the region of strong non-thermal radiation.
This points to the fact that the physical composition of these indicated
nuclei differs strongly from the state of the normal stellar groupings.

One of the most important problems with which we are confronted

in the area of the study of the flux of matter and ejections from galactic
nuclei is a transition to quantitative evaluations of the ejected masses.
This also pertains to galaxies whose central regions emit lines of
radiation as well as to radio galaxies and to other cases where we have a
case of discrete ejections. These scanty facts that we already have show
that these data can lead to contradiction in the law of the conservation
of energy (and matter) which is limited in its present state by the forms
of energy which we know and require for generalizations of this law.

CONCLUSION

Thus, the major processes in the life of large galaxies is deter­

mined by the activity of their nuclei. This activity is expressed in
various forms which were mentioned earlier. Of extreme interest, however,
are two forms of nuclear activity. One of them is related to the /24
formation of spiral arms and the other with the formation of stars and
24
stellar clusters of the spherical component. Apparently, these
phenomena occur in various stages of development and are accompanied by
corresponding changes of the nuclei. In addition, it is necessary to
note that the creative process itself of each type of subsystem in
various cases should have a distinct character. Thus, for example, the
galaxy M 32 obviously does not contain globular clusters while other
satellites of the Andromeda Nebula, NGC 205, contains at least 9
spherical clusters. Most astonishing is the fact that globular clusters
occur in galaxies with very low density gradients. If the hypothesis of
the formation of galaxies from the initial diffuse clouds is accepted,
then it seems natural that such dense formations such as globular clusters
would arise in systems where there are regions of very high density,
i.e., where there are also high density gradients. Of course, such
qualitative judgements cannot be considered as sufficient. It is only
necessary that the share of globular clusters per unit necessary for
luminosity of the spherical population changes from system to system.
Thus, we obtain the additional parameter for the characteristically
spherical systems and subsystems. That this parameter is connected with
other parameters of the same systems (total luminosity, gradient of
density) must be clarified by observations.

Statistical data concerning multiple galaxies and clusters of

galaxies reveal the fact that these systems could not be formed by mutual
capture previous to the independent galaxies. Therefore, it is necessary
for the components of the indicated systems to be attributed to a common
origin. This problem was discussed in detail in our report to the Solvay
Conference in 1958.

In the light of the data mentioned above, concerning the ejection

of the nuclei of the coagula transforming them into complete galaxies of
moderate or high luminosity, and concerning the division of the nuclei,
an understanding of the origin of multiple systems and full groups becomes
probable as being the result of the division of one initial nucleus into
several nuclei. It is possible that this division occurs sequentially.

In these cases, when there is a central galaxy of high luminosity

in a group, the formation of weak galaxies must be connected primarily
with the activity of the nucleus of the galaxy of high luminosity.

The radio galaxies often appear to be some of the brightest

members of the clusters in which they appear. This is explained by the
very high activity of the nuclei of the galactic super giants. If on the
other hand, in a cluster there exists one clearly dominating galaxy, it
is normally a radio galaxy itself.

The observations show that, although all the large clusters /25
contain super giant galaxies, only a small part of the latter are radio
 25

galaxies. In this way, the radiation activity must be a relatively

short phase in the history of the development of galaxies. It should be
assumed that the separation of radio-emitting agents is the phenomenon
which accompanies the expulsion from the nuclei of more powerful masses.
This possibly occurs only in the definite state of that or another
cosmogonical process.

Although extragalactic astronomy has great possibilities with

respect to the study of nuclear activity, all of the evidence concerning
various aspects of this activity is extremely scant. Still less is
known about the parameters characterizing the integral properties of these
nuclei (luminosity, mass, color, dimensions, rotation). Finally, nothing
is known about the inner structure of these nuclei. The most extensive
field of research occurs in connection with this region of extragalactic
astronomy. For example, the following problems arise:

1. Do all galaxies have nuclei; if not, what are the characteris­

tics of galaxies which have no nuclei?

2. The determination of the integral characteristics of the nuclei

for a majority of galaxies. Thereby it is necessary to take into
consideration the difficulty of this problem relative to the galaxies with
high gradients of density. In addition, it should be mentioned that many
galaxies of the type Sc have a nucleus which is so well distinguished that
it can be investigated without much interference of the near-nuclear
central plasma.

3. The determination of the dependence between the integral

parameters of the nuclei and the integral parameters of the galaxy.

4. Investigation of the spectrum of nuclei for clarification of

emission lines, phenomena of rotation, and flux.

5. The investigation of the bond between the nucleus and the

crosspiece in galaxies containing the crosspiece. The relation between
the crosspiece and the phenomenon of flux from the nucleus.

6. The research on galaxies with multiple nuclei. The study of

radial velocities of individual components of such nuclei.

7. The dependence of the number of globular clusters on the

nature of the nucleus of the galaxy.

Although, we previously mentioned certain evidence of a

cosmogonical character, pertaining to the origin of the galaxies, we
constantly tried to remain on the basis of facts and not become involved
in remote speculation. The analysis of observations shows that the
26

phenomena pertaining to the origin of galaxies are so unusual that it

would be impossible to imagine them arising out of some theoretically
preconceived situation. Here again, we are confronted with the
astounding phenomenon constantly repeating itself in the history of /26
science: when it intrudes into a new region of phenomena, it finds
unexpected new rules quantitatively going out beyond the limits of
previous concepts. This makes each such region of phenomena so much more
interesting. Therefore, it is necessary for us to collect even more
carefully the facts and observations for the augmentation of factual data
and more exact evidence concerning actual objects. We must gather much
information concerning the structure of the various parts of the galaxies
and make a careful analysis of this evidence. This might help us in the
solution of difficult problems which occur here.
 27

ON SOME ASPECTS OF AMBARTSUMYAN'S HYPOTHESIS JjJ_

ON THE ORIGIN OF GALAXIES

By

B. A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov

Facts and considerations in favor of the different aspects of

Ambartsumyan's hypothesis and the difficulties encountered are discussed.

The opinions of V. A. Ambartsumyan concerning the origin of

galaxies often, especially abroad, interpret the hypothesis concerning
unstable multiple systems and clusters of galaxies. Actually his
concept is much broader than the hypothesis on the mechanical instabil­
ity of groups of galaxies. The assertions that the nuclei of galaxies
are super dense formations and are dynamic were essential arguments for
this hypothesis. Their separation generates multiple galaxies, and the
ejection of smaller masses of a super dense, pre-stellar substance leads
to its transformation into spiral branches, globular stellar clusters,
and diffuse matter.

In connection with some of these conditions, it appears to be

expedient for us to share a number of concepts.

Page (Ref. 1) advanced an interesting idea for a statistical

verification of the fact whether double galaxies originated concurrently,
in particular in the same manner of division of the single type, or
whether they originated by capture. The preliminary results which he
obtained led to unexpected and improbable deductions. It is quite clear
that his idea was at first quite simple, but became complicated in
practice by a number of circumstances which must be studied.

We are confronted with the fact that the concurrent physical

origin of double and multiple systems definitely exists. This was proved
to a sufficient degree by Ambartsumyan and others; in particular, inter­
acting vapors whose physical dualities were so frequently evident that
they could not have been caused by random encounters of galaxies.

The theory of capture in connection with the cosmogonical /28

hypothesis of Schmidt was studied very circumstantially. It was shown
that the specific approach of three bodies is necessary for capture to
occur. Therefore, the probability of capture among isolated galactic
fields in which the interacting galaxies are numerous is very low.
28

Variation of velocities in physical vapors, on the average, is

also smaller than the characteristic velocities of the galaxies. As we
see it, this rigorous proof supplements the critique of the theory of
capture.

Relative to the question concerning the instability of clusters

in groups, and to their positive energy, the answer is less definite.
In the majority of cases, authors are inclined to draw conclusions
concerning the instability of the small groups which they have studied,
using the data concerning radial velocities. However, the calculations
include additional suppositions and inaccurate data. The assumed
distance to the groups, the suppositions concerning the chaotic equally
probable distribution of directions for combining a small number of
galaxies in pairs, etc., enters in here. An analysis of the possible
mistakes in the calculations of definitions by Limber and Mathews (Ref.
2) shows significant unreliability in the results., It is interesting
to note that, accidentally or not, the determination of apparent group
components' radial velocities lead to values differing by hundreds and
thousands of kilometers from the mean velocity of the group. This has
occurred in several cases. The first point of view, concerning whether
or not they belonged to a group, became doubtful in spite of the visual
size and position of these galaxies in the sky. Accepting them as
members of a group leads to the deduction that the formation of the
group had a definitely explosive character. We assume that the absence
of visible turbulence in the structure of such components is no proof
of their random projection, since evidently distortions of forms in the
structure have a non-gravitational nature and do not always manifest
themselves in previously known small spaces, and are sometimes percep­
tible in large distances between components. In the case of clusters of
galaxies the problem is even more complicated since it is more difficult
here to distinguish the members of the cluster. The dimensions of the
clusters are always significantly less than the distances to them. A
background galaxy remote from the center of the cluster, let us say at
5 radii of the cluster along the line of sight, can not be distinguished
from the other members of the cluster. We find confirmation of this
opinion, for example, in the fact that many investigators already do not
consider that the cluster in Virgo is one cluster.

To all of this, the additional suspicion was voiced by Holmbert

that, in the determination of the radial velocities, systematic errors
exist, depending on the brightness of the nucleus of the galaxies.

In general, however, it is more probable that, at least in the

case of multiple galaxies, we have the matter of their mutual recession.

Ambartsumyan considers the systems of the Trapezium type as /29

unstable and still young. Berbidge (Ref. 3) proposes the same thing with
 29

respect to the compact chains of galaxies which I have already discovered.

However, among these groups, there are elliptical galaxies which are
considered to be very old formations. However, I indicated (Ref. 4)
that the existence of very long, uniting fibers and shafts speaks in
favor of their prolonged existence and significant stability. With
respect to the elliptical galaxies entering into the chains, and in the
Trapezia, the following suppositions are possible:

1) These elliptical galaxies are young. However, some of the

distinctions from old elliptical galaxies are not known.

2) These are not elliptical galaxies; they merely appear to be

such. So far, there are no data in favor of this.

3) The systems into which they go, despite the mechanical consid­
eration, are nevertheless stable and old. Can it not be that a mutual
repulsion began arising in the old system, which was previously the
stable system, in connection with the evolution of galaxies?

Many are interested in the question of where the astounding

energies come from that are necessary for the dispersion of the parts of
the divided nucleus of the galaxy having a velocity of hundreds of
kilometers per second. If we wish to ignore this question, relating it
to the unusual characteristics of super dense stellar matter, then the
division of galactic nuclei can be accepted. However, it is difficult
to imagine how a mutual recession can occur in already formed galaxies
that penetrate one another and have rotations independent of one another.

If we rely on the law of gravity, the existing data scarcely admit

the huge masses near the nuclei which, in certain galaxies, is still
composed of super dense matter. If, in younger galaxies, such nuclei
still exist and display activity, this should be disclosed by observations.
Such a sign of activity is considered by Ambartsumyan to be the "ejection"
from the nucleus NGC 4486; that this is actually an "ejection" (as every­
one calls it) was not confirmed by anyone. It would be necessary to
make a more detailed study of the nuclei of galaxies in search of traces
of their activity.

A number of new data can be considered as confirming Ambartsumyan's

idea concerning the specific role of nuclei although the discovery of the
emission of gas from the nucleus of our galaxy and others is difficult to
explain by normal phenomena. The unusually rapid rotation of the nuclei
is sharply distinct from the rotation of their surroundings, and the
presence of dark fibers leaving the very center of M 31 also testifies to
the unique nature of the nucleus.
30

The latter confirms Ambartsumyan's theory that the spiral branches,

formed by the injection of super dense bodies from the nucleus, are /30
not very massive. On the other hand, the formation of spiral branches
formed in this way is difficult to imagine. In the first place, a
fragment of the super dense substance being ejected must have moved
along a straight line. In the second place, for the formation of a
spiral branch, it should have continuously separated matter from itself
along the trajectory while transforming into stars and gas. It is true
that there are galaxies of the type Sc which have spiral branches
composed primarily of remote globules, but such cases among the spirals
are generally rare. It is difficult to explain the fact that the spirals
have two predominant branches, that often the branches start from the ends
of crosspieces, and not from the nucleus; that there are galaxies with
most of their branches leaving the nucleus in one equatorial plane.
There is the impression that the spiral branches had developed inside
the already existing disc, and not that the discs were a result of the
dissipation of the spiral branches. These branches are often definitely
not bound to the nucleus.

The branches frequently begin on the periphery of the disc, or

within it. Sometimes there are inner and outer spirals not connected to
one another. They sometimes leave the ring in two spirals from one
point, or are completely separate from the inner parts.

Ambartsumyan's admission that in the presence of the formation of

various elements in the structure of the nucleus, galaxies eject frag­
ments in various planes. This can be confirmed by various examples to
a certain degree. Not only do structures occur having various orien­
tations of the major axis in one and the same plane, but also, in
certain systems, for example, M 82, the fluxes of matter are directed
perpendicular to the main plane of symmetry.

It seems to us that the concept according to which, in multiple

galaxies, the components originate concurrently in immediate proximity
to one another and diverge in all directions in the process of their
own formation is more probable. There sometimes arises a repulsion
of a certain type among them which causes their mutual recession regard­
less of gravity. The substance which is subjected to the greatest
repulsion forms shafts. The great tenacity of stellar systems, which
must be accepted, causes the formation of crosspieces. The stability of
the shafts and of the crosspieces is the same as the stability of the
spiral branches, and is significant. The close proximity of the galaxies
somehow impedes the development of the spiral structure and causes the
phenomena of "destruction of the facade". These phenomena of repulsion
in the interacting galaxies must be akin to the phenomena causing the
mutual recession of the galaxies in the group.
 31

It should be recalled that the Metagalaxy, although composed of

galaxies is, at the same time, an original continuous medium in which
the galaxies are brought together. Experimental physics has never had
dealings with anything similar. Therefore, in the world of galaxies./31
it is possible to state that the phenomena will be completely unexpected,
and so far not understood.

We are ready to admit that pairs of galaxies have quite different

characteristics other than the attraction of the total mass, just as the
characteristics of molecules are distinguished from the characteristics
of the components of atoms.

Certain pairs of living organisms are capable of self-reproduction.

Certain pairs of combining atoms possess new characteristics, and it is
impossible to derive all of these characteristics from a knowledge of
the characteristics of individual components. Something similar may
occur in the universe of galaxies. Confirmation of this can be seen in
the fact that, according to Zwicky, the clusters of galaxies do not
interact gravitationally with each other.

REFERENCES

1. Th. Page. Astronomical Journal, 61, 1961.

2. N. Limber, W. Mathews. Astrophysical Journal, 132, 286, 1960.

3. G. Burbidge, M. Burbidge. Astrophys. J., 131 , 7^2, i960.

4. B. Vorontsov-Velyaminov. Astronomicheskiy Zhurnal, 34, 8 , 1957.

32

INVESTIGATION OF DISTANCES, MOTIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF GALAXIES

IN A SPHERE WITH A RADIUS OF 15 MEGAPARSECS

By

Yu. P. Pskovskiy

The utilization of galaxy classifications, as proposed by /32

van den Bergh, and the more precise definition of mean absolute
magnitudes of various type galaxies improves the method of integral
values. The zero-point of the relation period-luminescence may be
determined accurately only according to stars, which have individual
absolute magnitude evaluations (Cepheids in dispersed clusters and
spectral parallaxes). The modulus of distance M 31, which is determined
by Cepheids in the presence of a new zero-point, and the relation
period-luminescence of the Cepheids according to Arp is found to be
equal to 23° .95. This agrees well with evaluations made in respect to
novae, if we take into consideration the fact that the novae are
weakened by absorption within the M 31.

The spatial distribution of galaxies within an area with a radius

of 15 megaparsecs is considered by means of simple diagrams. This
distribution confirms the existence of a galactic cloud with a central
concentration in the Virgo cluster (hypergalaxy). The Fornax Cluster is
not a hypergalaxy, but is only an arm of our hypergalaxy.

The character of motion in the hypergalaxy was investigated

according to the red shift of 370 galaxies. The principal values of
the tensor of the speed of deformation were found. De Vaucouleurs 1
model on the rotation of a complex of galaxies around one axis is
descriptive, but very rough. There does not exist a single axis of
galactic rotation. A galaxy rotates around a central plasma along
chaotically oriented orbits. The motions within a hypergalaxy very much
resemble that of a cluster.

1. If the distances to the nearby galaxies are correctly /33

evaluated with the help of reliable distance indicators, then distances
to the receding galaxies are estimated either according to integral
magnitudes or according to the red shift of the galaxies. One must not
consider any of the recent methods satisfactory. The integral absolute
magnitudes of the galaxies are sufficiently different, and the use of
the average absolute magnitude, instead of the individual magnitude,
leads to errors in evaluations of distances on the order of one or two
times. The law of the red shift, which was established using the
distances determined by the method of integral magnitudes has still other
 33

sources of errors: the great dispersion of the red shift and the neglect
of the dependence of the effect of red shift on direction. It is under­
stood that the red shift, as a means of estimating distances is generally
unsuitable. This is realized if a study is made of the regularities of
motion of some groups of galaxies which surround us.

In connection with this, it is natural to follow the path of the

improvement of the method of integral magnitudes and to continue the
search for new forms of distance indicators. Since the dispersion of
absolute integral magnitudes of any type of galaxy is less then the
general dispersion of all galaxies without the division into subtypes,
then by utilizing the average absolute magnitudes of the individual sub-
types of galaxies, it is possible to decrease the errors in the method
of integral magnitudes (Ref. 1). In irregular and spiral galaxies,
van den Bergh (Refs. 2-4) has discovered a correlation between the degree
of development of the spiral structure and the main body of the galaxies
with their integral absolute magnitudes. Keeping in sight the investi­
gation of the motions of galaxies, we have determined the average integral
magnitudes of galaxies in various classes of luminosity (Ref. 5). The
data concerning the galaxies of the cluster in Virgo, in near-by groups,
and in galaxies in which the "super-novae" were observed, serve as the
material for such determinations.*

In this way, from the majority of subtypes of galaxies, we have/34

obtained more accurate evaluations for the values for the average integral
absolute magnitudes.

2. Within the last few years some works appeared that are devoted
to the most reliable distance indicators, i.e., Cepheides and novae
(Refs. 9-18). In the improvement of the material of observations arise
some contradictions in the values of modulus of the distance up to M 31,
which is the basis for the remaining extragalactic distances.

Lundmark (Ref. 6 ) was the first to turn his attention on the

super-novae as indicators of distance. The theoretical considerations
(Ref. 7) and the comparison of the material in the observations on
super-novae, which have flared up in the groups and clusters of galaxies
show that, in galaxies that are weak in luminosity, the brightest super-
novae of type I (Ref. 8) flare up. Although the maximal magnitudes of
the super-novae are roughly determined by the extrapolation of the
curves of luminosity, the estimations of distances by means of these
indicators merit serious attention. As for the range in which they
allow distance evaluation, they have no equals among the stars.
34

The study of the problem of the zero-point of Cepheides leads us

to the conclusions voiced by the X Congress of the International
Astronomical Union by 0. A. Melnikov. The values of the zero-point,
founded on the statistical evaluations of the average absolute magnitude
of Cepheides, give only qualitative results. More accurate results can
be expected from the methods which give reliable individual evaluations
for absolute magnitudes for Cepheides belonging to clusters and by the
luminosity effect. The material concerned with Cepheides belonging to
clusters is limited and as for the effect of luminosity, the further
accumulation of observation, all data is still not accumulated.

Nevertheless, according to six Cepheides in the dispersed clusters

(Refs. 9-14) there is the following relation. The period-luminosity
relation in the form determined recently by Arp (Ref. 15) for the
Cepheide in the Magellanic Cloud is

m ” 6 '1 = - om .81 - 2m .25 lg P (0.0 < lg P < 1 .8) .

Adding this relation to the Cepheides in M 31 investigated by

Baade (Ref. 16), we obtain a distance modulus of up to 0m .30 less than
the modulus of Baade (Table 1) for the distance to M 31 through the
Cepheides outside the absorbent layer of the nebula. Incidentally,
Sandage (Ref. 18) considers the modulus of the distance to M 31 more
reliable when based on the lustre-luminosity curve of the novae at a
maximum in the presence of the zero-point of this relation according to
Schmidt (Ref. 17).

Table 1

Explorers Material Modulus of Correction Corrected

the Distance on the Modulus of
to M 31 Absorbence the Distance
According to in M 31 to M 31
this Paper

Baade Cepheides 24m .25 - 24m .25

(Ref. 16)

Schmidt Novae 24.6 -0m .75 23.85

(Ref. 17)

Our evalua­ Cepheides 23.95 - 23.95

tion
Mayall, Kron Globular 23.5-24.0 - -
(Ref. 19) clusters
 35

This modulus is 0m .65 greater than our evaluation. If we take into

consideration that the novae in M 31 are somewhat weakened by the /35
absorbent material in the nebula and that, according to the diagram
in Fig. 5 of the work of Baade (Ref. 16), the mean absorption obtained
is on the order of 0m .75, then the difference in the evaluations of the
modulus of the distance to M 31 through the Cepheides and novae can be
attributed to the difference in absorption. It is necessary to note
that the zero-point of the relation for the novae, the zero-point
determined by Schmidt, possibly contains errors owing to the inaccuracy
of the methods used regarding the absorption in our galaxy.

In our opinion, the evaluation of the distance modulus up to M 31

according to new globular clusters (Ref. 19) and according to the Cepheides,
after a consideration of the previously indicated conditions, coincide
well. In this example, it is evident that it is necessary to consider
the absorption in the galaxies if their distance modulus is being
determined through the Cepheides, the novae, and the super giants located
in the absorbent layers. Poor calculation leads to systematic errors in
the estimates of distances, and in the case of M 31 it leads to mistakes
in the whole scale of extragalactic distances, since the distance to it
serves as the basis for this scale.

3. With the help of mean absolute integral magnitudes of the

galaxies in the sphere with a radius of 5 megaparsecs around our galaxy,
the number of elliptical and spiral galaxies was counted. Out of 266
galaxies, 28 percent were elliptical and 72 percent were spiral (Ref. 1).
The same correlation is observed in the very large clusters of galaxies
of irregular form: in Virgo (Ref. 1) and in Hercules (Ref. 20).* The
similarity of these regions of the Metagalaxy is undoubted.

In connection with this, it is possible to mention de Vaucouleurs'

hypothesis (Refs. 24-27) and the earlier hypothesis of Shapley and Reiz
concerning the fact that our galaxy and its neighbors belong to a super­
cluster with its center in the cluster in Virgo. By observing this
supercluster from within, according to de Vaucouleurs, we see in the sky
a "Milky Way" of galaxies. De Vaucouleurs introduced a system of

Calculations of the number of spiral and elliptical galaxies in

our environs were conducted earlier by Yu. R. Yefremof (Ref. 21) and also
according to Catalog X. H. Shapley and A. Ames (Ref. 22) based their
assumption on the fact that the elliptical galaxies of the Metagalactic
field were weaker than the spiral ones at 4-5m (i.e., of the type NGC 205
and the systems in Sculptor). If this were so, the relation on the red
shift visible magnitude [see Fig. 3-10 in (Ref. 23)] would be displaced
for the elliptical and spiral galaxies relative to one another by 4-5m .
36

coordinates corresponding to the main plane of this "Milky Way" of

galaxies. It made sense to call this system a hypergalactic system of
coordinates. Accordingly, we shall call this supercluster the hyper­
galaxy.* We have checked the visible distribution of elliptical /36
galaxies, concentrated according to de Vaucouleurs (Ref. 25) toward this
plane and have confirmed the existence of a hypergalactic plane as a
plane of symmetry of their visible distribution. We utilized the system
of hypergalactic coordinates of de Vaucouleurs for the study of the
distribution and motion of galaxies in the sphere with a radius of 15
megaparsecs.

During distance calculations, we utilized the mean absolute

integral magnitudes of the corresponding subtypes and classes of
luminosity (Refs. 1, 5, 8), just as in our preceding works we used the
physical integral magnitudes according to the published lists of authors
(Refs. 22, 23, 30-35) recounted in Holmberg's system (Ref. 30). The
absorption of light in the galaxy is assumed to be according to the chart
by P. P. Parenago (Ref. 36). The agreement between the method of
considering the absorption to be according to the count of weak galaxies
squared and the method of the excess of color of the stars (Ref. 37) was
confirmed earlier.

4. The spatial distribution of galaxies can be presented graph­

ically if you examine the visible portions of the sphere within a radius
of 15 megaparsecs around our galaxy by means of the planes of the hyper­
galactic equator and the meridian passing through the cluster in Virgo
(hypergalactic longitude L = 105°). The semithickness of the layers in
cross section is equal to 2 megaparsecs.

The meridional section (Fig. 1) shows a comparatively homogeneous

distribution of galaxies in the southern hemisphere and outside the
equatorial zone of the northern hemisphere. In the equatorial zone, is
visible a plasma, which is the cluster in Virgo. Traces of the cluster
in Fornax L = 265° are found near the hypergalactic latitude B = - 40°.
A strong elongation of the cluster in Virgo in a radial direction (to our
galaxy) is explained by the ficticious dispersion of distances. We have
determined distances according to mean absolute integral magnitudes of

K. F. Ogorodnikov (Ref. 28) calls a "hypergalaxy" that which

is universally accepted to be called the Metagalaxy (Ref. 29); and
"a Metagalaxy" he calls that part of the "hypergalaxy" which is easily
accessible to investigations. In order to avoid confusion, we are using
the more common terminology, considering the term supercluster of
galaxies to be synonomous with hypergalaxy.
 37

the galaxies, and the deviation of individual absolute magnitudes from

the mean is manifested as a scattering in distances, i.e., the radial
directions.

While examining the layer near the equator (Fig. 2) we also see
a comparatively homogeneous distribution of galaxies in one half of the
field (for a sufficiently large part of the volume) and a strong non­
homogeneity in the other. The cloud of galaxies is stretched out more
than 100 ° along the longitude and includes within itself our galaxy, its
surroundings, and the concentration of galaxies in the southern hemisphere
(210° < L < 270°). It is interesting to note that the so called "southern
supercluster" neighboring ours (Ref. 24) is actually not a supercluster
or a hypergalaxy (this is not shown in Fig. 2 since it is situated on the
equator at latitude B = - 41°) . This is a comparatively small complex of
galaxies having a diameter of about 5 megaparsecs and is not similar to
our hypergalaxy by composition of its galaxies. In reality, this complex
consists of a cluster of primarily elliptical galaxies in Fornax and /37
of an arm of our hypergalaxy extending to it, which consisted of a
mixture of spiral and elliptical galaxies.

In Fig. 2, the ficticious dispersion of the distances was hardly

noticeable. However, this dispersion is present: a group of galaxies
in Ursa Major (L = 75°, B = 0°) and other groups in the illustration are
extended in radial directions and became one cloud surrounding the
central cluster in Virgo. This corresponds to the concept made by
de Vaucouleurs and van den Bergh (Ref. 38) concerning the fact that these
groups are visible condensations of galaxies in the peripheral part of
the hypergalaxy. The hypergalaxy is a visible thickening of the general
Metagalactic field without a sharp transition. An analogous picture is
also obtained according to red shifts as a measure of distance.

In Table 2, the count of hypergalactic density is shown; i.e.,

the number of galaxies per cubic megaparsecs. Only the spiral and ellip­
tical galaxies with absolute integral magnitude brighter than - 17m were
calculated. The calculations were directed along 30° sectors of the
layer near the equator within intervals of 5 megaparsecs. These calcu­
lations characterize numerically the distribution of the galaxies in the
layer. The greatest density (3.5 galaxies per cubic megaparsecs) is
observed in the region of the cluster in Virgo. In the region around
the cluster, the galactic density varies from 2.2 to 1.5 galaxies per
cubic megaparsec and the peripheral regions from 1.0 to 0.5 galaxies per
cubic megaparsecs. The density of the general Metagalactic field on the
average is lower than 0.5 galaxy per cubic megaparsec. The density of
the arm and the cluster in Fornax is moderate: 1.0 to 0.5 galaxies per
cubic megaparsec.
38

Fig. 1. Diffusing Nebula NGC 6611 with Bright

Rings at the Boundary with Dark Matter.
 39

Fig. 2. Diffusing Nebula NCG 2237 with a Concentration

of Matter at the Periphery.
40
O
Table 2. Density of Bright Galaxies by 1 Mparsecs .
(Within the Parenthesis are Given the Number of
Galaxies with M < -17m)

S ecto r
L ayer

M p a rsecs 0-30° 15— 45° 30-60° 45-75° 60— 00° 75— 105° 90— 120°

1 2 1 3
4 5 6 7

0 — 5 ( 7 )0 ,5 4 (1 2 )0 ,9 2 (1 3 )1 ,0 0 (2 1 )1 ,6 1 ( 2 4 )2 ,2 3 (2 5 )1 ,9 2 (2 3 )1 ,8 5

5 — 10 ( 4 )0 ,1 0 ( 2 8 )0 ,7 2 (3 8 )0 ,9 7 (4 2 )1 ,0 8 ( 6 9 )1 ,7 6 (9 8 )2 ,5 1 ( 1 3 7 )3 ,5 2

1 0 — 15 CD- ( 1 4 )0 ,1 3 (2 4 )0 ,2 3 (2 8 )0 ,2 7 (2 0 )0 ,1 9 (3 5 )0 ,3 4 (5 1 )0 ,4 9

S ecto r
L ayer

A p a rsecs
cvj
O

N
O
o
130— 210° 105-225° 225— 255° 2,0— 270° 255— 285° 270— 300°

0 1 10 12 13 14
8
11
0 — 5 (8 )0 ,6 2 (9 )0 ,6 9 (1 0 )0 ,7 7 (1 1 )0 ,8 5 ( 9 )0 ,6 9 (7 )0 ,5 4 ( 2 )0 ,1 5

5 — 10 ( 8 )0 ,2 0 ( 1 8 )0 ,4 6 (2 5 )0 ,6 4 ( 4 2 )1 ,0 8 (3 4 )0 ,8 7 (1 2 )0 ,3 1 (1 1 )0 ,2 7

1 0 — 15 ( 0 ) - ( 0 ) - ( 0 ) - CD— (D- ( 4 ) - ( 1 2 )0 ,1 2

Sec tor
L ayer

! p a rsecs 120— 150° 105-135° 150— IS0° 135-105° 105-195°

15 16 17 18 19

0 - 5 (1 0 )0 ,7 7 (1 2 )0 ,9 2 (1 3 )1 ,0 0 (1 8 )1 ,3 8 ( 4 )0 ,3 1

5 — 10 (6 0 )1 ,5 4 ( 1 2 4 )3 ,0 8 (2 7 )0 ,6 9 (4 9 )1 ,2 6 (2 )-
1 0 — 15 (8 )0 ,0 8 (4 2 )0 ,4 0 ( 0 ) - ( 3 ) - ( 0 ) -

L ayer S ector

M p a rsecs
300-330° 285-315° 330-0° 315— 345° 345-15°

20 21 22 2* 24

0 — 5 ( 0 ) - ( 1 ) - (1 2 )0 ,9 2 (9 )0 ,6 9 (6 ) 0 ,4

5 — 10 (1 0 )0 ,2 6 (1 3 )0 ,3 3 ( 8 ) 0 ,2 0 (1 2 )0 ,3 1 ( 1 ) -

1 0 — 15 (6 )0 ,0 6 ( 1 2 )0 ,1 2 (8 )0 ,0 7 (1 1 )0 ,1 0 ( D -
 41

5- Many Investigators (Refs. 26, 39) have already noticed the

so-called "local anisotropy" in our environs of the Metagalaxy. This
is shown in the fact that a graph of the dependence of the red shift on
distance systematically strays from the linear Hubble law within an
interval of 10 megaparsecs [see Fig. 10 in (Ref. 23)]. Besides that,
the points on this graph are widely scattered due to the following
causes:

1) The distances are not determined according to the method

of integral magnitudes; a more accurate definition of
distances may decrease this uncertainty.

2) Dispersion of the red shifts. In clusters, for example,

the amplitudes of the red shifts reaches 2000-4000 km
per second (Ref. 40).

3) The anisotropy of the velocities of deformation speed or

in other words, the dependence of the parameter of Hubble
on directions L, B. The stronger the band is extended,
the sharper is the dependence.

It is possible to properly distinguish the dispersion of the

red shifts from the anisotropy of the velocities or the distortion /38
of items either by selecting a model of the motions of the total
galaxies being observed, or by determining from observations the param­
eters of motion of this totality and analyzing the character of this
motion according to the magnitudes of these general parameters.

An example of research with^the aid of a model is de Vaucouleurs'

work concerning the differential (Oort) rotation and the differential/39
expansion (k-effect) of the supercluster of galaxies participating in
the isotropic expansion of our region of the Metagalaxy [the law of
Hubble (Refs. 26, 27)]. In accordance with de Vaucouleurs, the flattened
form of the supercluster indicates the fact that it is in a state of
rotation and, according to the formula of Weaver and Troumpler [the
generalization of the formulae of the galactic rotation (Ref. 41)], he
calculated the parameters of such a motion assuming the center of
rotation in the cluster is in Virgo. He compared the model of the
parameters calculated in this way with the data of observations, and it
was agreed that it was not astonishing since the calculation of the
parameters had already determined that result.

A more general investigation of the character of motion of the

galaxies in our environs of the Metagalaxy was conducted in 1951 by
K. F. Ogorodnikov (Ref. 42) who calculated the components of the tensor
of deformation velocities. In his work, K. F. Ogorodnikov proceeded from
the hydrodynamic concepts applied to the Metagalaxy. A relativistic
42

examination of the phenomena accompanying the transmission of light in

the Metagalactic medium, which is arbitrary in its characteristics (in
other words, in a non-homogeneous anisotropic medium) led A. L. Zelmanov
to the expression of the red shift in the first approximation by means
of the tensor of the deformation velocities, doppler effect, and the
Einstein vector. Due to the low density of the Metagalactic medium,
the last effect according to the evaluation of A. L. Zelmanov in a given
period of time is insignificant as compared to the doppler effect.
Thus, from the relativistic considerations in the first approximation,
the expression of the red shift through the tensor of deformation
velocities is also found.

From 1958 to 1961 we also calculated the tensor of the deformation

velocities by means of the "antipode method"; that is, by the red shifts
and distances in the diametrically opposite areas in the sky (Ref. 44),
and by means of a method of accounting for components of the tensor of
deformation velocities for spherical layers around our galaxy. During
calculations according to the first procedure the absorption was obtained
in accordance with the cosecant law (Ref. 23) and the distance was
obtained according to the method of integral magnitudes. During calcu­
lations according to the second procedure only the irregular and spiral
galaxies were utilized and the absorption and distances were determined
in the manner indicated in Section 3. The components of the tensor were
calculated for five layers (Table 3). In each case the main values of
the components of the tensor were found. The main semi-axes of a certain
ellipsoid corresponding to these values geometrically and also the
directions of these semi-axes in space were found. The magnitude of the
mean semi-axis was very reliably found. If the supercluster is actually
located in the state of Oort's rotation, then this mean semi-axis /41
represents, in itself, the Hubble parameter freed from the effect of the
differentiation of the supersystem.

It is natural to compare the parameters which we have obtained

with the ones that should have been found in the case of an Oort rotation.
As A. L. Zelmanov showed (private announcement) if the hypergalaxy is
found in the state of Oort's rotation then the mean serai-axis of the
ellipsoid of the deformation velocities is parallel to the axis of
rotation of the supersystem, and the bisectors of the angles between the
major and the minor axes indicate the direction to the center of rotation.
However, any flat parallel motion can be examined as a combination of
the successive motion with a rotation about the instant center. If a
cluster, or another formation of significant mass, exists in one of the
possible directions toward the center of rotations, then it is possible
with sufficient basis to assume that actual rotation of the surrounding
bodies occurs around this center. Such a state exists in our galaxy:
in the direction of the center of rotation, a bright cloud of stars is
found in Sagittarius, which is the nucleus of our galaxy (Ref. 28). From
 43

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44

K. F. Ogorodnikov (Ref. 42) it has been proved that one of the probable
directions toward the center of rotation coincides with a large cluster
in Virgo. We will mention that, in this case, the magnitude of the
minor axis was used for the parameter of Hubble which, in reality, is
the semi-axis; therefore, the direction to the cluster in Virgo was
taken incorrectly. According to our results, we have obtained roughly
on an average the direction to the cluster in Virgo, although the galax­
ies of this cluster were excluded from the investigation. This is in
favor of de Vaucouleurs' model. However, the direction to the cluster
in Virgo, as well as to the center of rotation and the direction of the
axis of rotation along each layer, are clearly distinguished. Conse­
quently, the rotation in the hypergalaxy does not occur about a unique
axis, as is supposed in de Vaucouleurs' model, or in the Oort rotation,
but the galaxies move around a central plasma along orbits which are very
distinctly oriented.

The motion of the galaxies in the supercluster reminds us of the

motion in an expanding swarm of bees, somewhat compressed into a plane
of symmetry of distribution of galaxies. From the point of view of
mechanics, this is a problem of many bodies. The motion of galaxies in
the first approximation is statistically characterized by six parameters
(components of the tensor of deformation velocities, or parameters
equivalent to them).

Thus, having proposed the rotation of galaxies about one axis

perpendicular to the hypergalactic plane along orbits coplanar to this
plane, we come to de Vaucouleurs' model in which, instead of an expanding
cluster of galaxies, which are moving in chaotical oriented orbits,
Oort's law of the differential rotation with differential expansion /42
in a hypergalactic plane is introduced. The coordinates of the direction
of the axis of rotation (two independent parameters), the direction to
the center of rotation (one independent parameter), the parameter of
rotation (the Oort parameter), and the coefficients of the isotropic and
differential expansion of the system correspond identically to the six
tensor components. The difference of the real motion obtained according
to this model leads to the unreliability of the parameters that are being
determined.

In this manner, we have examined the effect of the local anisotropy

and have come to the conclusion that it can be clarified by the rotational
motion of the galaxy in the hypergalaxy if the rotational motion is placed
on the isotropic expansion of our part of the Metagalaxy. Only research
concerning extragalactic objects can answer the question of whether or not
the last expansion is isotropic. On the other hand, the theory of an
anisotropic and a non-homogeneous universe confirms (Ref. 45) that if the
least anisotropy is now discovered, then it was significant in the past.
In the light of this situation, the anisotropic and non-homogeneous Meta­
galaxy become more realistic in the ideal case of isotropy and homogeneity.
 45

REFERENCES

1. Yu. P. Pskovskiy. Astronomicheskiy Zhurnal, 38, 521, 1961.

2. S. van den Bergh. Astrophysical Journal, 131, 215, i960 .

3- ______________ Astrophys. J. 131, 558, i960 .

4. Publications of Dunlap Observatory 2, No. 6 , i960 .

5- Yu. P. Pskovskiy. Astron. Zh. 38, 1033, 1961.

6. K. Lundmark. Vistas in Astronomy, 2, l607, 1956.

7. I. S. Shklovskiy. Astron. Zh. 37, 369, I960.

8. Yu. P. Pskovskiy. Astron Zh. 3 8 , 656 , 1961.

9* H. Arp. Astrophys. J. 128, 166, 1958.

10. A. Sandage. Astrophys. J. 128, 150, 1958.

11. H. Arp, A. Sandage, C. Stephens. Astrophys. J. 130, 80, 1959*

12. H. Arp. Astrophys. J. 131, 322, i960 .

13s A. Sandage. Astrophys. J. 131, 610, i960 .

14. J. Fernie. Astrophys. J. 133, 64, 1961 .

15s H. Arp. Astronomical Journal, 6 5 , 404, i960 .

16. W. Baade. Mitteilungen Ast4onomische Gesellschaft, 1955- Hamburg,

1956, p. 51.

17s T. Schmidt. Zeitschrift fur Astrophysik, 41, 182, 1957*

18. A. Sandage. Astrophys. J. 127, 513, 1958.

19s N. Mayall, G. Kron. Astron. J. 6 5 , 581, i960 .

20. G. Burbidge, M. Burbidge. Astrophys. J. 130, 629 , 1959-

21. Yu. I. Yefremov. Astron. Zh. 26, 286, 1949.

22. H. Shapley, A. Ames. Harvard Annals, 88, No. 2, 1932.

4 6

REFERENCES (Cont'd)

23. M. Humason, N. Mayall, A. Sandage. Astron. J. 6 1, 97, 1956.

24. G. de Vaucouleurs. Astron. J. 58, 30, 1953*

25. Vistas in Astronomy, 2, 1584, 1956.

26. Astron. Zh. 3 6 , 977, 1959-

27. Astron. J. 6 3 , 253» 1958.

28. K. F. Ogorodnikov. Dinamika Zvyezdnykh Sistem (Dynamics of Stellar

Systems), Moscow, Gosudarstvennoye Fiziko-Matematicheskoye Izdatel'stvo,
1958.

29. Bolshaya Sovyetskaya Entsiklopediya (Great Soviet Encyclopedia),

2nd Edition, 27, p. 211, 195^*

30. E. Holmberg. Meddelanden Lunds Observatorie. II series, No. 136, 1957.

31. E. Pettit. Astrophys. J., 120, 418, 195^.

32. J. Stebbins, A. Whitford. Astrophys. J. 115, 284, 1952.

33. E. Holmberg. Annals Observatory at Lund, 6, 1937-

34. A. Reiz. Ann. Obs. Lund, 9, 1941.

35* J* Bigay. Annales d ’Astrophysique, 14, 319, 1951*

36 . P. P. Parenago. Astron. Zh., 22, 129, 1945*

37- Yu. P. Pskovskiy, A. S. Sharov. Reports of Gosudarstvennyy

Astronomicheskiy Institut imeni P..K. Shternberga, No. 117, 1961.

38 . S. van den Bergh. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific,

7 2 , 312 , i960 .

39. A. Hnatek. Z. F. Astrophys., 46, 224, 1958.

40. D. Mak Witti. Rasstoyanye i vremya v Kosmologii (Distance and Time

in Cosmology). Symposium "Zvyezdnyye Sistemy", Moscow, Izdatel'stvo
Inostrannoy Literatury.

41. K. Trumpler, H. Weaver. Statistical Astronomy. Berkeley and Los Angeles,

University of California Press, 1953-
 47

REFERENCES (Cont'd)

42. K. F. Ogorodnikov. Voprosy Kosmogonii, 1, 150, 1952.

43. A. L. Zelmanov. Doklady Akademii Nauk, SSSR, 102, No. 6 , 815, 1956.

44. Yu. P. Pskovskiy. Astron. Zh., 37> 1056, i960 .

45. A. L. Zelmanov. Trudy VI Soveshchaniya po Voprosam Kosmogonii

(Proceedings of VI Conference on Problems of Cosmogony), Izd-vo A. N.
SSSR, 1959, P- 144.
48

THE INTERACTION OF THE GASEOUS COMPONENTS OF GALAXIES /44

AND RADIO GALAXIES WITH AN INTERGALACTIC MEDIUM

By

N. S. Kardashev

Data on an intergalactic medium are briefly explained. New

observation data on the deformation of galactic planes on a wavelength
of 21 centimeters are given. Various interpretations of this effect are
discussed. Obviously, this effect can be explained by an interaction
with an intergalactic medium (hypothesis of Kahn and Woltjer). The
problem on the interaction of extended radio galaxies with intergalactic
matter are discussed. It is probable that such an interaction is
observed in the case of NGC 5128.

Various considerations testify to the presence of an intergalactic

diffuse medium. In the first place, most common are the concepts on the
condensation process of galaxies which apparently continues at the
present time [see, for example, (Ref. 1)]. In the second place, a number
of cosmological hypotheses require a much greater mean density of matter
in the universe than that which is obtained on the basis of the masses
of galaxies. Thus, for example, in the equilibrial model of the universe
and in the relativistic model by Einstein and de Sitter the mean density
2
of matter = 3H / 8itG, where G is the gravitational constant. For the
17 -1 -29 3
value of Hubble's constant H = (4 • 10 sec) , we obtain p ~ 10 g/cm
which is approximately two orders higher than the average density obtained
throughout the galaxies. Finally, many authors notice a difference
between the masses of groups and clusters of galaxies which are obtained
according to the relationship of the mass to the luminosity (i.e., from
their rotation) and according to the dispersion of velocities with the
help of the virial theorem (Refs. 2-5). Even if the majorities of these
objects are dynamically unstable or disintegrating (Refs. 1, 2), (which
also testifies to their recent condensation) without a doubt there are
many clusters of galaxies with a regular spherical form (of the type /45
of the known cluster in Coma Berenices), the stability of which it is
difficult to doubt. It is extremely probable that in the last case, the
stability is maintained by a diffuse medium of increased density exceeding
in mass by once or twice the mass of the galaxies in the cluster.

Unfortunately, direct attempts to discover an intergalactic medium

at the present time have not led to any reliable results. However, the
experiments conducted indicate the upper limit of density and permit the
voicing of quite likely concepts related to the physical properties
of this substance.
 49
In short, the results of various attempts to discover the inter-
galactic medium are reduced to the following. In accordance with the
last work of Field (Ref. 6 ), the upper limit of density of the neutral
"6 -3
intergalactic hydrogen is nH < 2.3 • 10 cm , based on the supposition
that the degree of ionization is not greater than 50 percent. This value
was obtained from an investigation of the continuous radiation spectrum
from the source Cygnus A in the region of the 21 cm line. The absorption
by atoms of neutral intergalactic hydrogen should form a slight depression
in the unbroken spectrum of the source, which flattens out due to the red
shift into the wide absorption band which is limited by the insignificant
radial velocity and the radial velocity of the Cygnus A source. Approx­
imately the same value was reached in an attempt to discover the neutral
hydrogen in the clusters of galaxies in Coma Berenices (Ref. 7), Corona
Borealis, and Gemini (Ref. 8).

The direct discovery of the ionized component in the intergalactic

medium is only slightly probable since the intensity of the fundamental
processes of radiation of the strongly rarefied gas is proportional to
the square of the electrons density in the presence of the expected
temperature on the order of 10^ degrees (Ref. 9), will be very small.
The non-thermal radiation observed, such as that from the Metagalaxy on
the whole (Ref. 10) as well as evidently that from certain clusters of
galaxies (for example from the cluster in Coma Berenices) (Ref. 11)
testify to the presence of an ionized gas. However, the non-thermal
radiation only permits the determination of the magnitude of the magnetic
field (~ 10 ^ erg) and the density of the relativistic electrons.

The investigations concerning intergalactic absorption of light

according to Zwicky (Ref. 12) evidently indicate a small quantity of
dust within and in the environs of large clusters of galaxies. On the
basis of the counting of the visible remote galaxies and clusters of
galaxies through the cluster in Coma Berenices, the absorption was
discovered in a photographic region about 0m .7 which for the diameter of
-30 3
the cluster ~ 14 Mps yields a dust density of ~ 10 g/cm (Ref. 5). If
we assume the magnitude of the relation of gas to dust to be the same as
in our galaxy (~ 200), then from the evaluation obtained we will find/46
“28 3
the density of gas to be ~ 2 • 10 g/cm , which approximately increases
two-fold the upper limit of density obtained from observations on a 21 cm
wavelength for the same cluster.

In the same work by de Vaucouleurs (Ref. 5), there is information

concerning the recent unsuccessful effort to discover an increased
concentration of intergalactic stars in the environs of the nucleus of
the cluster in Coma Berenices. Although, undoubtedly a small number of
such objects exist (Ref. 12), it is uncertain whether they make up a
significant part of the intergalactic medium.
50

The theoretical considerations indicate that if the intergalactic

gas in early stages of evolution was ionized, then the probability of
recombining is so small that it would remain ionized even up to the
present time. All existing observations also evidently attest to the
full ionization and high temperature of this medium. Further investi­
gations concerning this are causing great difficulty.

However, within the past few years, it seems to us, an extremely

favorable prospective was noted for research in the dynamic effects of
the interaction of the intergalactic medium with the gas in the galaxy.

The work of Kahn and Woltjer (Ref. 9) was the first fundamental
work in this direction. In this work, the possibility was shown of
clarifying the deformation in the distribution of galactic interstellar
hydrogen by an examination of the flux of intergalactic gas "blowing on"
to the Galaxy.

THE DEFORMATION OF THE GASEOUS DISC OF THE GALAXY

As a result of the first experiments on the distribution of

hydrogen in the galaxy, accomplished on the basis of the observations of
radiation in the 21 centimeter line for both hemispheres, in Holland and
Australia (Refs. 14, 15), it was revealed that the distribution of
hydrogen in the galactic disc is not entirely planar. Between the
galactocentric longitudes L = 0 ^ 120° and at distances from the center
of more than 10 kiloparsecs, the gas is distributed along the plane of
the galaxy; on the opposite side it lies systematically lower than the
plane. The general direction of the curve turned out to be close to the
direction toward the Magellanic Cloud. It should be noted that all of
these results were reached in the process of the very first investigations
on the distribution of hydrogen in our galaxy. Because of these obser­
vations, it subsequently proved to be possible to define the position of
the galactic plane. On the basis of this fact, a new system of galactic
coordinates was introduced. The deformation of the gaseous disc was
obtained as a secondary result. For a more detailed investigation of
this phenomenon the Crimean station of the Physical Institute of the /47
Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Ref. 16) conducted observations with a
radio telescope in the 21 cm wavelength on a specially coordinated
program (Ref. 17) during 1960-61. On the part observed in the northern
hemisphere, that of galactic plane (j& = 0 + 240°), 13 points were found
and differed in longitude by 20°. For each of the selected longitudes
and b = 0 ° * , the profile of the 21 cm line was written down. Then on

We always use the new system of galactic coordinates (Ref. 18),

and the galactic longitude is correspondingly counted from the direction
of the center of the galaxy.
 51

0, hnc

i-ZOO°
0,/rnc
W fZ W IS

-WO
-ZOO-
Z,nc

Fig. 1. Height of Inter-Stellar Gas Layers Above the

Plane of the Galaxy in Relation to the Distance
from the Center, for Longitudes of
80, 160, and 200 ° .

this profile, 6 to 8 fixed frequencies were selected, corresponding to

the various distances from the Sun. On each of these frequencies, cross
sections were made in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the
galaxy, i.e., the antenna was shifted according to a precalculated program
with an interval in most cases of 1 degree along the galactic latitude.

After the normal procedure of observation processing on the 21 cm

wavelength (Ref. 19), the center of gravity of the distribution of
intensity of hydrogen was found for each such cross section along the
latitude, for each frequency, and for each of the selected longitudes.
The entire program of observations was repeated three times. As a /48
result, for each of the longitudes, the dependence of the position of the
center of gravity of the intensity of hydrogen layers on the distance from
the center of the galaxy, was determined. In Fig. 1, the obtained
dependencies for 3 longitudes are given. Along the axis of the abscissa,
the distance R is projected from the center of the galaxy along the axis
of the ordinates is projected the altitude z of the gaseous layers above
the plane of the galaxy. Our data were shown by means of small crosses.
For the longitudes I = 80°, the analogous data reached by the Dutch
investigators were shown by small circles. The comparison with the relief
chart of the distribution of hydrogen in the galaxy obtained according to
52

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our data and the data reached concurrently by the Dutch and the Australians
agrees well. Evidently, for individual longitudes, we have succeeded in
tracing the effect being investigated to great distances from the center
of the galaxy; the magnitude of the deformation approaches 1 kiloparsec
for i = 80°, and it has an unusually steep rise in distance. In Fig. 2
the relief chart of the distribution of hydrogen is shown with composition
according to our observations. The altitudes are given in parsecs. This
chart as in (Refs. 14, 15) was made on the assumption that the model of
purely circular rotation of the galaxy is correct on the basis of the fact
that all distances are also determined. However, recently a concept has
appeared indicating that such an assumption is not completely valid.
Actually, the purely circular motion from the point of view of stellar
dynamics is only slightly probable, and evidently a majority of stellar
systems, except for circular motion, should pulsate. I. I. Genkin
(Ref. 20) made the charts of the distribution of hydrogen presupposing
the existence of a radial velocity of the motion KR (R - the distance
from the center of the galaxy). The best result was obtained for
K = -2 km/sec which coincides well with the K-effect observed on distant
stars. With this assumption, the clearly expressed spiral structure of
the galaxy was obtained, contrary to results reached in the assumption
of purely circular motion. We also made a relief chart for the model of
I. I. Genkin making use of our observations and the observations of the
Australian investigators.

By means of points are shown in Fig. 3 the spiral arms, which were
obtained by I. I. Genkin according to interstellar hydrogen, and the
continuous lines are iso high altitude curves. The numbers signify the
height in parsecs. The question concerning the fact whether the hydrogen
is compressed in relation to the plane of the galaxy or expanded cannot
yet be considered conclusively solved, since the K-effect deals only with
the gradient of radial velocity and not with the magnitude itself.

The results of the investigation of a 21 cm line in the direction

of the galactic center deals with the affluence of hydrogen (Ref. 21).
The presence of a line of absorption in the profile of the 21 cm line
with positive radial velocity in the direction to the center of the
galaxy (Ref. 22) possibly attests to the recession of the entire /50
system of gas and stars surrounding the Sun with a velocity of approx­
imately 7 km/sec from the center.* Evidently, the Australian investigators
(Ref. 23) arrived at analogous deductions. It is definite that the law
of rotation essentially influences the magnitude of the effect of defor­
mation in the distribution of gas; however, it is doubtful whether this
gas will influence those rough evaluations which can be made at the
present time concerning the interpretation of this effect.

The profile of the 21 cm line in the direction to the anti center

of the galaxy (Ref. 16) testifies to the presence of radial motion.
54
In spite of the fact that the tendency of deformation of the
galactic disc coincides with the direction to the Magellanic Cloud, the
estimates of the interaction of the influx gives the effect as being
one to two times less (Ref. 24). Recently, the applied magnitudes of
the distance and masses obtained for the Magellanic Cloud have changed
somewhat. It has been agreed (Ref. 25) that the mass of the Major
Magellanic Cloud is (2.5 ± 0.6) • 1 0 ^ M^ and that the distance is 63
kiloparsecs. Using this magnitude and the component of gravitational
acceleration perpendicular to the galactic plane Kz (Ref. 26), we have
determined the possible variation under the influence of the tidal
disturbance, which together with the observed variation for & = 80° are
_9
shown in the table. The magnitude Kz is expressed in units 0.324 • 10
cm/sec^. The data obtained previously shows that the tidal forces may
explain only an insignificant part of the observed effect. As it follows
from the obtained relief charts, the fact that the deformation gradient
is many times larger in a direction opposite to the Major Magellan Cloud
than in the direction toward that cloud, testifies against the tidal
interaction.

R, kiloparsecs z parsecs z parsecs Kz

tidal obs, obse
8.2 0.5 0 0
9.2 0.8 80 2.6
10.2 1.5 110 2.2
11.2 3.2 250 2.3
12.3 6 450 2.0
14.3 21 1000 1.6
16.4 100 - _

At the same time, in (Ref. 9) it was persuasively shown that the

internal forces can hardly support the observed deformation. The
differential rotation of the galaxy and oscillations near the plane with
a frequency which is dependent on the distance to the center, should have
completely annihilated such a deformation if it were formed in the moment
of the condensation of the galaxy. It is irrefutable that the external/51
forces support the deformation. In connection with this,the Kahn and Woltjer
assumption that the galaxy is located in a flux of intergalactic gas which
is related to the local system of galaxies is very probable (or the
hypothesis of Gold to which Kahn and Woltjer refer concerning the fact that
 55

this gas is the intergalactic medium not related to the local cluster).
In both cases, the approaching flint (Fig. 4) while traveling at velocities

Fig. 4. Diagram of Interaction Between an

Intergalactic Flux with a Galaxy.

approaching that of sound (with a density of the intergalactic medium

-4 -3 6°
10 g/cm , temperature T = 0.5 • 10 , the speed of sound a = 120 km/
sec) inflicts a positive pressure on the head and tail sides of the
halo of the galaxy and a negative pressure in the perpendicular directions
according to the Bernoulli law. The calculation which they have conducted
shows that in the presence of the velocity of the flux of 60 km/sec, the
-14 -2
arising difference in pressures is Ap = 1 0 dynes • cm . These
pressures are transmitted to the gaseous disc and cause its deformation.
I
From the correlation Ap = - K ^ p , where is the thickness of the gaseous
disc (~ 200 parsecs), and p is its density, one can determine the magnitude
of the deviation z; for R = 12 parsecs this deviation is approximately/52
100 parsecs, and approximately 300 parsecs for R = 14 kiloparsecs. The
calculation of the resonance effect on the oscillation about the galactic
plane and the rotation of the galaxy evidently permits to raise these
56

magnitudes to 150 parsecs at a distance of 12 kiloparsecs and 900 par­

secs at a distance of 14 kiloparsecs. This is found to be in agreement
with observations.

There are certainly doubts regarding the application of the

equation of Bernoulli to the problem of the circumference of the galactic
halo. It is uncertain whether the halo has such a regular spherical
form; according to the isophotes of radio emission of M 31 (Ref. 11) it
is clear that this is far from such. At the same time there is a basis
to consider that the magnetic field of the galaxy extends far out in the
intergalactic medium (Ref. 27). All of this considerably complicates the
theoretical analysis. However, the calculations of Kahn and Woltjer
apparently reflect the fact that the energies of such a type of inter­
action are sufficient for explaining the observed deformation and this,
it appears to us, is the basic point. It seems quite probable to us that
the indicated interaction can also guarantee the ejection of the gas
from the periphery of the galactic disc in the halo. As is known, the
hydrogen escape of ~ one solar mass per year is observed from the
center of the galaxy along the plane (Ref. 21). Recently it has been
discovered (Ref. 28) that from the side of the galactic folds in the
surroundings of the Sun the hydrogen flows down to the plane of the
galaxy. The magnitude of the flux is ~ 10"^ per year per square
parsec of the plane of the disc with the velocity of 12 km/sec. It is
possible to show using the energy values that the continual motion of the
galaxy in the flux of the intergalactic medium capably guarantees such
circulation. It would be interesting to examine the problem concerning
the interaction of galaxies with the medium in the presence of super­
sonic velocities. The energies of such processes are so great that
possibly it can secure even the process of the ejection of gas from the
galaxies as is the case in radio galaxies or even the crushing of
galaxies. In connection with this it is possible that the formulation
of the Magellanic Clouds is the result of the same cause.

At the present time, certain other galaxies are also known which
apparently possess deformation of the gaseous disc. The Burbidges
(Ref. 29) (see Fig. 5) noted that in NGC 5866 a spiral galaxy observed
almost exactly from the edge a thin strip of dust matter with a thickness
of 2-3" is slightly inclined at an angle of 2° relative to the major axis
which is being determined by the distribution of the luminosity. This
effect in our galaxy is approximately twice as great. Here it is again
visible that the deformation has a non-effluvial character since the
stellar component of the galaxy does not participate in the inclination.
It seems to us that the investigation of similar objects can give much
information concerning the velocities of motion of the intergalactic
medium in various points of the universe.
 57

Fig. 5. Deformation of a Dust Belt in the Galaxy NGC 5866 (SO).

Distance 12 Mparsecs, Thickness of Dust Belt 120-180 parsecs.
Inclination ~ 2° (H = 75 km/sec • Mparsecs).
58

THE INTERACTION OF THE INTERGALACTIC MEDIUM /54

WITH RADIO GALAXIES

Thanks to the successes of radio astronomy at the present time,

it is known that a majority of the sources of non-thermal cosmic radio
emission are connected with extremely remote galaxies. These objects
which have received the name radio galaxies for their unusually powerful
radio emission can be subdivided into two types. The dimensions of the
radio emitting regions of certain of these are found within the optically
observed galaxy; for example, such a galaxy is NGC 1068. Others and the
most intense have regions of radio emission situated far outside the limits
of the optically observed object. A typical example of such a type is
the source Cygnus A. There are quite a few objects of the mixed type:
possessing both a source with small angular dimensions and a source of
greater extent. A characteristic example of such a type is the galaxy

Fig. 6. Radio Emission Isophotes on a

Wavelength of 21 cm.
 59

NGC 5128. The regions of radio emission of this source extend to /55
a distance of 1 megaparsec and possibly even farther. Such formations
possess a completely insignificant mass in the presence of giant dimen­
sions, and therefore the effects of the dynamic interaction with the
intergalactic medium is for them especially great. In Fig. 6 are shown
the isophotes of the radio emission of the expanded source NGC 5128
obtained by Bolton and Clark (Ref. 30). A small circle in the center
shows the optically observed object. Accepting the distance to be 5
megaparsecs, we will find the volume of the expanded source 2 • 10^1 cm^
-29 -3 9
for each cloud, and at a density 10 g • cm its mass will be 10 M .
47 2 ^
At the same time, when a cross section of 4 • 10 cm the collective
3
mass of the flux which "blows out" with a velocity of 10 km/sec for 200
years will have the same magnitude. Therefore, it is extremely probable
that the asymmetry visible in Fig. 6 in the location of the expanded
source is connected with the effect of its deceleration in the galactic
medium. The character itself of the isophotes also apparently deals
with the presence of the flux of gas moving from the side of the least

Photograph of Radio Galaxy NGC 5128 .

60
direct ascension. On the photograph of the nebula the "tail" extended/56
along the direction of the expansion of the dust matter attracts attention.
This tail is drawn (Fig. 7) close to the intersection with the isophotes
of radio emission of the plane of the galaxy. It is mentioned in (Ref.
31), that this detail lays along the same small circle on the sphere, as
the known projection of radio emission isophotes, which departs from the
plane of the galaxy.

Fig. 7. Diagram of Radio Emission Isophotes on a

Frequency of 600 me Which Illustrates the
Junction of Certain Details with the
Radio Galaxy NGC 5128.

The interpretation of this formation as a cloud of a flared up super

nova very close to the Sun, encounters a number of difficulties. First
of all, it is necessary to mention the absence of any optical luminescence
from this formation.

In connection with all that was stated previously, it is possible

for us to suppose that all these details represent a small cloud of
gigantic expansion (with the diameter of about 5 megaparsecs) ejected
from the same source NGC 5128, and then shifted under the influence of
the flow of intergalactic gas. The farthest optical and radio astro­
nomical investigations of similar objects are extremely possible for the
explanation of the nature of the intergalactic medium.
 6l

REFERENCES

1. V. A. Ambartsumyan. Trudy VI Sovyeshchaniya po Voprosam Kosmogonii

(Proceedings of VI Conference on Problems of Cosmogony), Izdatel'stvo
Akademii Nauk, SSSR, 1959» P* 12.

2. _______ Solvay Conference, Brussels, 1958> p. 241.

3. G. Burbidge, M. Burbidge. Astrophysical Journal, 130, 15» 1959-

4. G. de Vaucouleurs. Astrophys. J. 130, 718, 1959-

5. _______ Astrophys. J. 131» 585» I960.

6. G. Field. Astronomical Journal 65 , 547, i960 .

7. C. Muller. Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands

14, 339, 1959.

8. N. S. Kardashev. Astronomicheskiy Tsirkular 1961 .

9. F. Kahn, L. Woltjer. Astrophys. J. 130, 705, 1959*

10. K. A. Shein. Radioastronomya, Paris Symposium 1958, p. 322. M. 1961 .

11. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 119, 347, 1959; C. Seeger,
G. Westerhout, R. Conway. Astrophys. J. 126, 585, 1957; M. Large, D. Mathewson,
C. Haselan. Nature 183, 1663 , i960 .

12; F. Zwicky. Morphological Astronomy, Heidelberg 1957*

13. G. Field. Astrphys. J. 129, 536, 1959-

14. G. Westerhout, Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands

13, No. 201, 1957.
II
15. J. Oort, S. Kerr, G. Westerhout. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 118,
379, 1958.

16. N. S. Kardashev, T. A. Lozinskaya. Astronomicheskiy Zhurnal 39, No. 1, 1962 .

17. R. L. Sorochenko, B. M. Chikhachev. Proceedings of Vth Conference on

Problems of Cosmogony, Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1956, p. 546.

18. A. Blaauw, C. S. Gum, J. L. Pawsey, G. Westerhout. Monthly Notices

Roy. Astron. Soc. 121, 123, 1961.

19. C. Muller, G. Westerhout. Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth. 13, No. 475, 151, 1957*
62

REFERENCES (Cont'd)

20. I. T. Genkin. Astron. Zh. 38, 000, 1961.

fl
21.. G. Rougoor, J. Oort. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the
u .s „A ., 46, 1 , i960 .

22. S. A. Muller. Radioastronomye, Paris Symposium 1958, p. 359, M. 1961 .

23. F. Kerr. Astron. J. 66, 37, 1961.

24. F. Burke. Astron. J. 62, 9, 1957; F. Kerr, J. Haindman, M. S. Carpenter.

Nature 180, 677 , 1957-

25. G. de Vaucouleurs. Astrophys. J. 131, 265 , i960 .

26. E. Hill. Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth. 15, No. 494, 1, i960 .

27. F. Hoyle, J. Ireland. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

120, 173 , I960 .

28. H. Hindman, McGee, Carter, F. Kerr. Astron. J. 66, 37, 1961.

29. E. Burbidge, G. Gurbidge. Astrophys. J. 131, 224, i960 .

30. J. Bolton, B. Clark. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the

Pacific 72, 29, i960 .

31. R. Brown, R. Davies, C. Hazard. Observatory 80, 191, i960 .

 63

ON THE GRAVITATIONAL PARADOX 1M

By

A. Ya. Kipper

A gravitational paradox occurs when the laws of gravity are

extended to an infinite universe. The law of gravitation is expressed
by differential equations for the metric tensor g of the general theory
of relativity or by a differential equation for the potential Q in a non-
relativistic approximation. In this type of formulation the law of
gravitation is a local law; i.e., it is given for an infinitesimal
time-space volume.

In order to obtain a law within the boundaries for the infinite

universe as a whole from the local law of gravitation for finite regions,
it is necessary to integrate the field equations.

The procedure of integration includes the definition of boundary

conditions. In the non-relativistic theory the field equations coincide
with the Poisson equation, and the boundary conditions, which are
essential for its solution, present the requirement that at infinite
remote points in space the density of matter should approach zero. But
the actual universe is not constructed in such a manner that would permit
the boundary conditions to be fulfilled, and we encounter a contradic­
tion known as the gravitational paradox. Consequently, the gravitational
paradox is a result obtained in process of cosmological problems.

An attempt is made in this paper to solve the Poisson equation

without establishment of boundary conditions. The Poisson equation

A Q = - 4jtXp (1)
is usually solved by means of the integral

Q = lim
V - > oo
{x J p <0 (2)
(V)

If such a limit exists, the integral actually presents a solution

to the equation. However, in order for this limit to exist, it is
 64

necessary that the density of matter p (£) diminish quite rapidly at

remote points in space. If these boundary conditions are not fulfilled,
integral (2 ) diverges and the gravitational paradox occurs.

The divergence of integral (2) signifies that it does not have a

numerical value. However, for certain problems among them and problems
of a cosmological nature the divergent integrals can be utilized. In
this article the divergent integrals are used as a result of the general­
ization in the concept of integrals which have an infinitely extensive
integration. The generalized integral is

ai
p (0 (3)

and is known as an integral having an actually infinite extent of inte­

gration. By this description it is stressed that the procedure of
calculating the limit according to formula (2) is not included in the
determination of the integral.

A generalized integral is not a mathematical object which can be

expressed in actual numbers. However, generalized integrals do yield a
corresponding analysis and prove to be convenient for a presentation of
the potential Q of universal gravitation. Generalized integrals solve
the problem of the gravitational paradox.

A physical interpretation of the results obtained in the first

part of this article is given in the second part. It has been shown
that two systems of measuring space and time should exist. These systems
are called gravitational and atomic. It should be noted that the
existence of such systems has been postulated earlier by Milne. Not
long ago Blakesley developed a hypothesis for two varieties of time.

INTRODUCTION /60

For infinity as a whole, the gravitational paradox becomes a

contradiction in the case of the application of the laws of gravitation
of finite regions of the universe. The law of gravitation is expressed
by the differential equations for the metric tensor g in the general
theory of relativity, or it is expressed by the differential equation for
the potential Q in the non-relativistic approach. The presence of matter
which causes the field is taken into consideration in the equations by
means of the tensor of matter or the density of the material in a non-
relativis tic approach. The field equations combine the derivations of
 65

the metric tensor (or the potential Q) along the coordinates at a

given point with the tensor of the matter (or the density of the material)
at this point. In such a formulation, the law of gravity appears to be
a local law; that is, it is given for an infinitely small space-time
volume.

In order to extend the law, in its most useful form, to the

infinite universe as a whole from the local law of gravitation for finite
regions of the universe, integration of the field equations is necessary.
Here, difficulties arise, one of which is known as the gravitational
paradox. The equations of the field themselves are free from a similar
type of contradiction and can be correctly recognized as reflecting the
objective truth. The equations of the gravitational field in a non-
relativistic approach give the equation of Poisson (0.1); that is, the
equation is an elliptical type. For its simple solution, it is necessary
to set the value of the potential Q at a certain surface a surrounding a
certain volume V, or as it is often stated, it is necessary to set /61
definite boundary conditions on the surface a . In order to arrive at a
solution of the Poisson equation for the entire infinite space (that is,
as V -* 00) , it is necessary to set the value of the potential Q at an
infinitely remote surface a.

lim Q = const.
a-*00

On the basis of the Poisson equation (0.1) this is equal to the require­
ment

lim p = 0 .
CT-*00

This expresses the following condition: in the infinite universe, it is

possible to assign a cirdumference to a certain sphere with a suffi­
ciently large radius so that, at points outside the sphere, the density
of matter will prove to be less than any small number assigned before­
hand. The expression "boundary conditions on an infinitely remote
surface a " is not exact since the motion of an infinitely remote surface
is not connected with a definite surface. It is appropriate to name the
boundary conditions as a -» “ the extreme conditions, since the corre­
sponding extreme value of p (or Q) is assigned by means of these
conditions.

There is a definite solution to the Poisson equation if the density

p satisfies the boundary conditions and, on the other hand, a solution is
not available (save for certain exceptions; see, for example, the footnote
66

on page 67) if the boundary conditions are not satisfied. On the other
hand, the universe, constructed so that some kind of boundary conditions
for p might be satisfied, can be called infinite only conditionally. In
the real universe, the density of matter p on the surface of a-» °°, does
not approach zero. This contradiction is expressed in the fact that for
the really essential infinite universe, the Poisson equation has no
solution. This contradiction is known as the gravitational paradox.
According to what was stated previously, the gravitational paradox arises
as a result of the limitation of the mathematical apparatus still being
used for the solution of cosmological problems.

A. Einstein has also pointed out the incompatibility between

boundary conditions and the physical essence of the universe. It is
possible to solve field equations within the general relativity theory,
without determining boundary conditions, assuming that the universe is
space limited. However, in spite of the logical sequence and beauty of
the models of the enclosed universe, from the point of view of phili-
sophical knowledge they seem unsatisfactory. In the present investigation,
an attempt is being made to set up a hypothesis of the infinity of the
universe which was partially established by brilliant achievements /62
in the general theory of relativity, but not without doubt. An attempt
is being made to solve the equation of the gravitational field in non-
relativistic approach without the boundary condition: p -» 0 as a -> 00.
Basically, the concept of a solution to the problem is contained in the
following.

The usual method of solution of the Poisson equation

A 0 = - 4 rt?tp (0 . 1)

for all universal space is contained in the two steps of calculation.

First of all it is assumed that the density of matter p(x) is a function
of the coordinates x^ of the points of space that are different from
zero only in a certain finite volume V. Then

n
v (x') (0 . 2)
(V)

is the solution of equation (0.1). It is further considered that the

infinite universe is something like a copy of finite systems of gravi­
tating bodies. The only difference between them is the fact that volume
V of the entire universal space is infinite. This can be summarized as,
that for the infinite universe.
 67

Q = 11 m
V->°°
{*Jp
(V)
(x')
X
d3x'

- X 77} ■*
()
00
(x')
X
d^j
(0.3)

whereby the integral in the last expression is understood to be the limit

of the endlessly increasing finite volumes of integration V. If such a
limit exists, then the integral (0.3) will be actually the solution of
the Poisson equation (0.1).

The convergence of the integral (0.3), or the existence of a

corresponding boundary, requires definite conditions for the subintegral
expression; that is, for the density function p(x') , which is reduced to
the requirement that p(x') decrease sufficiently with distance in the
infinitely remote points. In other words, p(x') as a function of the
coordinates, should satisfy the corresponding specified boundary
conditions.* If the specific conditions are not fulfilled, the integral
(0.3) diverges and we have a case of the gravitational paradox.

The divergence of the integral (0.3) signifies that this integral

does not have a definite numerical value. However, the divergent inte­
grals can be utilized for the solution of certain cosmological problems
among them. If it is expedient to determine the mathematical /63
meaning of the symbols which are being called generalized integrals,
then,independent of the convergence of divergence of the integrals, it
is possible to express the physical laws of connections by these symbols.
The generalized integral is as follows:

P (x') (0.4)
(VJ

and we shall also define it as an integral with an actually infinite

volume of integration. This expression emphasizes the fact that the
procedure for calculating the limit for an endlessly increasing finite
volume of integration V -» 00 is not included in the definition of the
integral. Since the volume of universal space corresponds to the
magnitude of integration, the determination of the integral (0.4) sig-
nifies that the infinity of the universe is examined as actual infinity.
The fulfillment of boundary conditions when p(x') is satisfactory,
but not essential for the convergence of the integral (0.3). There are
available functions of p(x') which do not satisfy the boundary conditions,
in the presence of which the integral (0.3) converges. A known
example of such a p(x') is the matter density functions by Charles in his
model of the universe. However, the Charles hypothesis is of little value.
68

Two concepts of infinity are sometimes distinguished in the theory

of numbers. These concepts are known as potential and actual infinities,
whereby extremely deep meaning is attached to these terms. Infinitive
numbers are considered to be actually known, if the definition of numbers
is a criterion, by means of which it is possible to determine definitely
whether a specified object (really existing or abstractly conceived)
is included in these numbers. Thus, for example, the evaluation of
"universal space" is numbers of its points -- a determination which is
actual since it is considered that a point in space is a completely
determined object. Actually, determined endless numbers are known to be
actually endless.

On the other hand, the infinity of universal space can be under­

stood as potential infinity. If a certain suitably large volume of space
V is set up, there will always be a potential possibility to set up a
volume V' completely including volume V. The concept of potential
infinity of space is expressed by this potential possibility.

It is apparent that the image of the world as an actually infinitive

problem of boundary conditions does not make any sense at all. The
formulation of the specific conditions contains latently the presentations
of the infinity of the universe in the sense of potential infinity. The
mutual bond between the concepts of actual and potential infinities is
still not completely solved by mathematical logic. However, it seems to
us that the essence of the universe is encompassed in the concept of actual
infinity much deeper than in the concept of potential infinity. With
respect to this, the determination of the integral (0.4) as the integral
with an actual infinite magnitude of integration Vm gives more /64
than the integral (0.3), which is connected with the calculation of the
limit and with the presentation concerning potential infinity of the
universal space.

The generalized integral (0.4), the exact determination of which

is presented in the following paragraphs, is not a mathematical object
expressed in real numbers. However, the generalized integrals are given
over to the corresponding analysis and are no less suitable for the pres­
entation of the potential Q of universal gravitation and usual functions
of the coordinates of the points of space.

The basic idea of the solution of cosmological problems with the

help of mathematical formalism distinct from the formalism of classical
physics is, generally speaking, not new. Quantum mechanics applies a
mathematics which is qualitatively distinct from the mathematics of
traditional physics. Since cosmic dimensions differ so significantly
from everyday dimensions, such as do the hydrophysical dimensions, there
 69

is nothing astonishing about the fact that in cosmology, i.e., in

physics of super-large dimensions, we encounter circumstances compelling
the application of calculative methods which are distinct from the usual
methods.

The non-relativistic theory of gravitation is based on the field

equation (the Poisson equation) and on the equation of the motion of
matter in the field. In this investigation are generalized also the
equations of the motion of particles in that field, in addition to Q
potential of universal gravitation. Instead of common values x^ it is
expedient to utilize in the capacity of coordinates, the generalized
integrals of the following form

5
j
_3_
4it J a (t)
(VJ
x i ' C1
— 1----
I* - c l3
i
3
dJG, (0.5)

whereby the expression (0.5) is also a reorientation formula, which

combines the system of coordinates (x^) expressed in common values, with
the system of coordinates (§..) expressed in generalized integrals. In
the logical theory, it is also necessary to apply two systems of time
t and t so that (x, t) and (5 , t) are qualitatively diverse systems of
coordinates of space-time. In the non-relativistic theory, t and t are
the usual quantities.

The second half of the present investigation is devoted to the

physical interpretation of results reached in the first half of the work.
An attempt is being made to prove that the quantitatively diverse systems
of coordinates (x, t, and §, t ) mentioned earlier reflect the actual
existing distinction. Of course, it is not necessary to believe that
there are two spaces and two times somehow pushed into one another. The
space-time continuum is one, but this continuum can be measured by /65
instruments of diverse physical nature. For example, two types of clocks
exist (called atom and gravitational clocks) and those and others are
valid, but in view of the difference of their physical nature, they
cannot be synchronized.

The existence of two systems for measurement of time and space in

this investigation, is based also on the Weyl principle, which asserts
that it is not expedient to postulate the original existence of devices
for the measurement of distance and time lapse, in order to construct
a general relativity theory. Such a device may be constructed on the
basis of an existing theory. It is also necessary to note that in his
70

time, Milne postulated the existence of two systems for the measurement
of time. Recently a two-time hypothesis was developed by Blakesley.

The atom and gravitational clocks are valid; therefore,there is

no physical reason to consider some of them to be fundamental. But just
the same, if you consider, for example, the atom time to be valid then
you will come to the conclusion that the constant of gravitation will be
changed. This is the well known Dirac hypothesis. In the present
research, it will be regarded as a consequence of the theory of universal
gravitation in a non-relativistic approximation. Another consequence are
the results following, which in the atom system of measuring space and
time, a vacuum should have the characteristics of outstanding gravitating
material. In conclusion, several more deductions having the ability to
possess a cosmogonical value are being examined.

Following are some symbols and definitions which are used in this
paper:

X, G constant gravitations,

P density of matter,

V volume of space,

0 gravitational potential.

x., space coordinates

t, T time,

d3x dx. dx dx. .

I I 3
2 2 . 1/2
(xj + * 2 + *3)

a* a3 a2
— - + + _
aX 2 ax 2 ax 2
1 2 3

Example of summation rule:

3
X .X .
J 3 -z x .x.
J J
X
2
 71

If the coordinates are written without an index, then their entire /66
complex is taken into consideration. For example,

f (x) = f ( x ^ x 2 , x3) .

§1. The Theory of Generalized Integrals

The symbols

J J ip1 (£) F x (x, 0

<VJ

+ Po ( 0 F 2 (x, 0 + + Pn (£) Fn (x, 0) d 3 c. (1 .1)

are objects of the theory of generalized integrals. The mathematical

meaning of these symbols is established by an axiom or a number of
definitions. The continuous functions in the subintegral expression

Ffc (x > £) — F^ (x ^ » x 2 > » xm » £^> £2 » £ 3 )* (1 *2 )

which were defined for all values of variables in the integration ,

^ 3 ’ where - “ to + 00 are known as the nuclei of the integral. The
functions

P^ (£) — Pk (£3* £ 3 ’ £3) > ( . 13)

which should not necessarily be continuous are called density functions.

The variables

Xx » x2 . x
m

are known as the arguments of the integral.

72

The concept of the converging integral or of the integral in the

usual meaning is considered to be known. The generalized integrals
present a class of which a great number of all converging integrals is
a subclass. The generalized integrals are of such a type that in their
presence, the operation

does not yield a well-defined result. With the determination of the

generalized integrals, the operation of the transition to the limit
V -» °° is not utilized; however, it serves as a method for the isolation
of the converging integrals from the general class. The generalized
integral, if it does not belong to the subclass of converging integrals,
is not represented as a number. If we wish to utilize the generalized
integrals in a physical theory, it is necessary to determine to which
mathematical functions they are subordinate and also define the concepts
of quality, identity, etc., of the generalized integrals.

The converging integral is first of all a definite sum. This /67

is expressed in the fact that the linear combination of two integrals

al J P1 (0 F1 (x’ 0 d3C + a2 J P2 (0 F2 (x’ & d3£ =

(alPl (C) (x, C) + a 2 p 2 (0 F2 (x , £) } d3£ (1.4)

is an integral. Regardless of whether the integral will be converging or

not, we shall require in all cases the fulfillment of condition (1.4), so
that the generalized integrals have the property of a sum. Along with
the fulfillment of (1.4) we shall also consider as correct the formula

(1.5)
(VJ
 73

which we consider equivalent to formula (1.4) and which also expresses

the possibility of transferring the integral from one part of identity
to another.

If in formula (1.4) = a.^ =1, then there is an addition; if

a^ = - a^ = 1 , then there is a subtraction; and if a^ ^ 0 , = 0 , then
there is a multiplication by the value a ^ . The subtraction operation is
defined by the ''minus" sign in formula (1.5).

The difference of two diverging integrals can prove to be a

converging integral. This will always occur when the nuclei and the
density functions of both integrals are identical. As a result of sub­
traction, we obtain an integral with a subintegral expression, which is
identical to zero. Such an integral converges and is identical to zero.
Herefrom, it becomes possible to define two integrals as identical if
their nuclei and functions of density are identical.

However, such a definition of identity is not sufficient. There­

fore, we assume that two integrals are identical if their difference is
a converging integral identical to zero. Since a converging integral
can be identical to zero without the subintegral expression being identical
to zero, this definition is more general than the original definition.

Two integrals with arguments of concrete values are equal if their

difference is a converging integral equal to zero. Two dissimilar inte­
grals can be equal if the values of the arguments are known. However,
when equality is observed at all values of the arguments, then the
integrals will be identical.

If there are two integrals and J^, the difference of /68

which is a converging integral with a value greater than zero (that is,
a positive number), then

Jx " J2 > 0 or Jx > J2 , (1 .6)

i.e., we define to be greater than J I n a similar way, we define

J 2 - J i < ° or J 2 < J (1.7)

It is not possible to establish the correlations (1.6) or (1.7) for all

integrals of the general class. A great number of the generalized
integrals can not be completely regulated, but only partially.
 74

A determination of a linear combination with integrals in accord­

ance to formula (1.4) shows that the generalized integrals are mathematical
objects known in the operators theory as lineals. Since a number of
generalized integrals can be partially regulated, it is possible to
consider the algebra of integrals as an algebra of semi-regulated linear
spaces. This algebra has been well developed in mathematics.

We will not concern ourselves, in this paper, with the development

of a mathematical theory of generalized integrals, although this theory
is of some interest to cosmology. Only integrals of a specific type will
be considered, and specifically

P (£) (1 .8)
(v„ >

and also the integrals

J p <£>
(VJ
d3C (1.9)

and still further, the integrals

4 tt
f a (t) (1 .10)
o o

in which the density function a(t) is not dependent upon the variables of
integration but might depend on a definite parameter t.

An example of the algebraic functions with integrals of the type

(1 .10 ) is the following variation

which proves to be a converging integral.

 75

Since two integrals are identical if their difference is a con-

verging integral equal to zero, then we obtain

.M
x - " C- - c.

J f— —
L.i - -I3
lx ‘ Cl
+ a'
j
|x" - cl
1 <3c -
(V < V

X j ~ CJ d3
s (a' + a" ) (1 .12)
(VJ lx - cl3 ’

where

a ' x + a "x
___ J______ J
x. = )
J a' + a "

whereby a' and a" are constants and a 1 + a" ^ 0.

The usual values can be considered as converging integrals The

following formula exists:

a
3_
4ir
(V
I
' 00)
'
d3£ + b . =
b J

x. +
= a
_3_
Art I
( O
X
__
+
(1.13)

where a and b . are numbers.

J
Let us assume that in the integral

d3^
P (0 (.114)
lx - Cl
76

the density function does not satisfy the boundary conditions and that
the integral does not converge. However, existence of the constant ~p
is assumed to have a characteristic such that the integral

(P - P) to (x) (1.15)

converges and determines definitely the function 10 (x). With the con­
vergence of integral (1.15) the following integral also converges

J (p " p)
, \
(x>
du>
S T
J
(1.16)

where (x) is a definite function of the argument x ^ . The existence/70

of the boundary

lim (1.17)
V-» •»

appears to be a sufficient (but not essential) condition for the conver­

gence of the integrals (1.16). If the density function p(£) is a density
function of matter in universal space, then p" is the mean density of
matter in the infinite universe.

Utilizing formula (1.13), it is possible to prove that

c. + - F . (x) - C

Jp<c) J x + = F -
p
r
b
d 3 C, (1.18)

where F . (x) is a definite function which is determined by formula (1.16).

J
By means of formulae (1.13) and (1.18) it is possible to demon­
strate the accuracy of the following correlations:
 77

£ J o <0 ?|x*+ £x
J 1- rP
£ | d3c' ^ j " 0 (c) 7J
[ x“
-7d l3 d3f ■ 00 *

& I o © 7J— ri d3c+ •& J p <0 sr {r 1— 75}d3c •

(v j l x " Cl (v ) x l x - Cl

(1.19)

d3C d3C
_3_
4 jt p (c) p (C)
|x + Ax ~ C | J - cl
(v j (v .)

Ax. f j |Ax|2 * p (x)

j 4jt
' i T l P *
(V )

=s J p ©
(VJ
d3C
l x - Cl + h J db
(v j
p «> { f T T ^ y } d3c +

(1 .20)
(v j J k |x cl

whereby the existence of the quantity p, which is determined by formula

(1.17), is assumed.

The boundary

J p ® — — I d3c - J p © ^ * }
|x + Ax - Cl' - Cl
*V ° 3 (v .) (VJ
 78

will be defined as the derivative of the integral 121

J p (0 d3C
(V ) I* - Cl

according to argument x ^ , and will be designated by the symbol

x. -
J
r.
J .3
Sx.
p (£) ------- j d Q (not to be summarized by j) .

OL)
I* - C

On the basis of formula (1.19) it is possible to see that such a

d Xj -
boundary exists and that J p (Q) ------ —
I* - Cl
d3£ = - p (x) (not to
J (V
N CD
)
be summarized by j ) .

The derivatives for the integral

CL)
Jpw d3C
* - d

are determined analogously.

It follows from formula (1.20) that:

p (C>
d3C P (c) —--- J d3x, ( 1 . 22)
dx.
(v )
I* - Cl
(V )
Ic - x l

d x .3x. P (C) " ¥ 8jk • p (x) *

(1.23)
J k
(VJ
lx - Cl

where 8 ^ Is the Kronecker symbol. From formula (1.23) it follows that

the integral
 79

d3e
Q x r P (o (1.24)
|x - d
(Vj

satisfies the Poisson equation

A n = - 4rtXp.

Let us assume that in the integral

J. (t)
J
_3_
4tt j * (t) " J (t) - Cj

1*00 - d 3
d3c (1.26)
(v„ )

the density function a(t) does not depend upon the variables of the
integration £ but that it does depend upon the parameter t. Let us
also assume that the arguments of integral x^ (t) also depend upon /72
t, so that the integral J. (t) is some sort of function of t. We define

djj Jj (t + At) - Jj (t)

= l i m -- -------------------
dt At
At-*0

By using the preceding formulae, it is possible to prove the validity of

the following correlations:

dJ.
__ = _3_ da X j " d3
(1.27)
dt 4 jt dt | 13 ^ dt
(V ) I* - d

d ^ 2 x. d^ d 2x.
= JL f d_a __i
+ a (1.28)
4it J ,2 | dt
dt 2 dt |x - £ dt
(V„)

The integrals of type (1.10) will be used in the present inves­

tigation as coordinates of spatial points. We shall prove that this is
possible.
 80

Three dimensional space is a three dimensional continuun of its

points. The reflection of this continuum on the continuum of real
numbers is applied for the sake of convenient study of the continuum of
the points. A set of three x., known as coordinates, is compared to each
point if the numbers x ^ , which correspond to infinitely close points
differ only to an infinitesimal degree. In the case of a given space,
it is possible to construct an infinitely great number of diverse systems
of coordinates which are mutually bound by continuous conversions. The
application of actual numbers of x . in the capacity of space coordinates
is not necessary. Any multitude of mathematical objects for which the
definition of an infinitely small variation has been determined, is
applicable for this purpose. The variation of the integrals

r
x. - r.
' "j , 3 . . . . . . . . . . 3 r
x\ - c.
l. = j—3 j
------- d r and X. = —
j j
— ------ 3 d3C (1*29)
J 4lt J |x - C | 3 J 4 i t J | _ , _ „ |

0 L) (v ) I*' - Cl

according to formula (1 .11 ) is a convergent integral and, consequently,

a common quantity:

X. - X'. = x. - x'.. (1.30)

J J J J

We will arrange the quantitie

J

X. < X'. if x. < x'.;

J J J J

X. = X'. if x. = x'.; \ (1.31)

J J J J /

X. > X'. if x. > x'..

J J J 3

Furthermore, let us assume that the quantities x. are right angle 121
coordinates of points in Euclidean space. The distance of the points
x . and x i s
J J

r = [(xj^ - x p 2 + (x2 - x p 2 + (x3 - x p 2 ]1/2 = |x - x' |. (1.32)

On the basis of equation (1.30) we will have

 81

x ,2]l/2
r = = [<xx - xp' <X2 - xp' (X3 - = X - X' (1-33)

and so the conformity

x. £ X. d3C (1.34)
J J

is a mutually simple representation of the quantities Xj for the large

number of integrals X.. According to formula (1.31), the arrangement is
preserved in the representation, and the knowledge of distance r is in
agreement with formulae (1.32) and (1.33). Therefore, if the numbers
x. are, in essence, right angle coordinates of Euclidean space, then the
generalized integrals X. will also be coordinates of this space.

Let us assume that x^ and y^ are right angle coordinates of spatial

points in actual numbers connected with the conversion formulae

x. (1.35)
J = a jkyk ’ yk = pkjx r

whereby

= 8 jk’
.., (1.36)
^k 5 jk* Pj A k jk’ a:iAk Pj A k " 6 jk’

that is, the rotation of the coordinate axis takes place without dis­
placing the origin of the coordinates. Furthermore, let us establish the
conformity

x. X. Y. (1.37)
J J yj J

We obtain
 82

X.
J *J (VJ
" Cj 3
— T d C = x J• + 24rt
I* - Cl
T Jr -|
(VJ IC
3dC ajkyk +

_3_ 3 3 ajkyk 3
(1.38)
4ic 3 d ^ ^
(V) lay - c l 3
C O

by utilizing formulae (1.13) and (1.35). On the other hand, it is

possible to prove the validity of the correlation

a jkyk
_3_
4it
(VJ
~ Cj

l°y - c l 3
3
d £ s a jk ^
3

(V
J d3C +

Ck 3
+ (a 8 ., )
jk
(1.39)
jk C-
(vj

This proof is based on the definition that the integrals are identical
if their difference is a convergent integral identical to zero. Taking
into consideration formulae (1.37) and (1.38), we will rewrite formula
(1.39) as follows:

x. (1.40)
J a jkY k + (ttjk jk'

The latter appears to be a formula for the reorientation of coordinates

in generalized integrals, which corresponds to the rotation of the
coordinate axis. The reorientation formulae, which are opposite to
formulae (1.40), are the following:

Yj - P j A + «jk - V
< v
J ■ *3j d 3 C. (1.41)
 83

The reorientation of the x. coordinates, which correspond to the

shift of their origin without rotating the coordinate axes, in accordance
with formulae

x. y y. = x. + x<°> (1.42)
J J J J

correspond in the system of coordinates (expressed in generalized inte­

grals) to the reorientations

X. = Y.
(0) 3 l i l i i d3c . yco)
J J yj = 4it
(VJ
|y - c l 3 J

y. - y<0) - C. ,
J3_
4 tt J 3 3 (1.43)
(v„)
y(0) - C l 3

(0)
4 “3c + y '° >
_3_
Y. = X. + y: -
J J J 4 jt
I* - c
(Vm )

+ y (0) - c .
_3_
4it j |X + y
(0 )
(VJ

We shall not discuss in detail the problem of reorientation of

the system of coordinates X^ which are expressed in generalized inte­
grals. We will only mention that formulae (1.40) and (1.41) can be
rather easily generalized in the case of a conversion of the right angles
into oblique angles. It should also be mentioned that the mutually
defined conformity (1.34) does not appear to be an isomorphism, since
the linear combination of the integrals X^ (only the difference X^ - X!
corresponds to the difference x. - x'.) does not correspond to the linear
J J
combination of the numbers x.. The absence of isomorphism is also
84

expressed by the fact that the reorientation of coordinates Xj expressed

in common values in accordance with formula (1.35) does not correspond
to the conversion

X. a..Y.
J jk k 9

111
which should have been anticipated if isomorphism had been observed. An
additional term is contained in (1.40)

3
(Q!jk " Sjk}
<V )

the presence of which is stipulated by the absence of the above mentioned

isomorphism.

Let us assume that the assigned invariant function $ of the

coordinates x . is
J

§ = $ (x) . (1.44)

If we should substitute the coordinate x. with its value:

J

x.
J
x r
4it J
I* - <l3
+
4”< o
r h

lei
T d C = X.
3 * J
(1.45)

(V. )

then we obtain

$ = $ (x) = $ (X - X°) . (.146)

Thus, we have defined the function $ (X), the arguments of which

are the coordinates X^ of the spatial points, expressed in generalized
integrals. The expression for the distance of two points in Euclidean
space can serve as an example:

r = |x - x'| = ]X - X' |.
 85

Another example is the density function of matter in universal space

p = p (x) ,

which we consider as an invariant function in relation to the reorien­

tation of spatial coordinates, as well as an invariant in relation to
the displacement of the origin of the coordinates. In accordance with
formula (1.46) we obtain:

p (x) = p (X - X°) .

We will always consider the invariant function of the coordinates

of spatial point, as being expressed in actual values, regardless of
whether the coordinates are given in actual values or in generalized
integrals.

§2. The Poisson Equation and the Equations of Motion of a /76

Test Particle in the Field of Universal Gravitation

Newton's theory of gravity is based primarily on two groups of

equations. The first group can be found from the distribution of
gravitating masses of a field and is known as field equations. In a non-
relativistic approximation, such an equation is the Poisson equation in
which the field is defined by the potential Q. The second group of
equations determines the motion of the point masses in the given field
and is known as the equations of motion.

In accordance with the above statement, the theory of universal

gravitation, which takes into consideration the presence of masses in
the entire, infinite universe, must also be broken down into divisions
containing field equations and the equations of motion of a point mass
in the field of universal gravitation.

The Poisson equation expresses the law of gravity in an

infinitesimal volume of space and combines the derivatives of the
potential Q according to the coordinates of the spatial points with the
density of matter within that circumference. The presence of foreign
gravitating masses outside of the small space which is being examined
does not enter into the Poisson equation. The gradient of the potential
is a measurable magnitude (the force of gravity per unit of mass), and
it is therefore possible to verify experimentally the law of gravity,
or the Poisson equation. In a verification it suffices to have the data
 86

on the matter distribution in a volume of space which is being inves­

tigated and it is not expedient to consider the presence of matter out­
side of this space. We consider that an experimental check confirms
fully the accuracy of the Poisson equation, if only the discussion
pertains to a non-relativistic approximation.

The difficulties related to the law of gravity occur during the

integration of the Poisson equation for an infinite volume. Should we
wish to obtain the potential Q in the form of a definite function of
coordinates, and represent Q in actual numbers, we shall be confronted
by a gravitational paradox.

In the preceding paragraph of this paper it was shown that through

a generalization of the concept of the integral, it is possible to solve
the Poisson equation without establishing the boundary conditions by
means of the integral

Q X P (0 (2 . 1)
(V„)

which does not converge but has a definite mathematical value. Of course,
according to formula (2 .1 ) is not a common function in actual numbers.
However, if we succeed in proving that it is possible by means of a
generalized integral Q, to solve the problem of the motion of a point
mass in the field of universal gravitation and to calculate the particle's
trajectory, we shall have the entire foundation for considering the
function Q which is determined by formula (2 .1 ), which fully merits the
title of potential. /77

The motion of a test particle, i.e., of an infinitesimal point

mass in the field of gravity according to Newton's theory,is described
by the equation
2
d x
j
X p (0 (2 . 2)
2 J p «>
dt
(V) (V)

with the masses creating the field and having a density p (£). These
masses are found in a definite finite volume V of space. The presence
of masses not included in volume V is not taken into consideration.

In the real conditions of equation (2.2) the exact motion of the

particle is not described since the foreign masses are disregarded. It
 87

is possible to dispose of the error which we obtain here by augmenting

the volume of the integration V so that it will encompass the previously
excluded masses. Finally, this leads to a limitless increase of the
volume V. We obtain the equation
2
d x Q . - X .

dt
1
2 lim {*
^
fp
L
(0 ~ --- 4
k - x|
d3c}J Ji
“ * p <0 r
J
r j
J 13 r
d (2.3)

But the objective is still not accomplished since the right hand
terms of equation (2.3) diverge. The entry (2.1) becomes a paradox
since the divergent right term is united with the convergent left term
by the equal sign.

Returning to an examination of the equations (2.2) we note that

their right terms are gradients of the potential

n X P (£)
x
(V)

where the integral is obtained in accordance with the finite volume V. The
right terms of equation (2.3) as boundaries where V approaches infinity
have no meaning since such a boundary does not exist. However, they have
a mathematical meaning if the existent integrals are considered as
integrals with an actually infinite volume of integration V . The right
terms of the equations

X [ P (0 «3c (a.4)
( O

are, then, gradients of the potential

n (2.5)

whereby the potential Q satisfies the Poisson equation according to the

results of the preceding paragraph.
 88

The substitution of the right terms of equation (2.3) by integrals

(2.5) also requires certain substitutions of their left terms. Indeed,
integrals (2.5) are not expressed in numbers. Hence, the left terms of
the equations should also be generalized integrals and not common
functions
2
d x
1
2
dt

of the variable t.

In the preceding paragraph, it was proved that the coordinates of

the spatial points can be expressed in generalized integrals of an
appropriate type. With this possibility, we assume that the coordinates
of the test particle have the form

x. (t)
F = -i. a (t) Cj d3c , (2 .6)
|x (t) - C\-
(V„)

where the density function a (t) is independent of the variables of inte­

gration £. but is dependent on time t. The arguments of the integral
x. (t), which are the coordinates of the test particles in actual numbers,
are also dependent on t so that in the general calculation

? j - 5j Ct).

The dependence of on t expresses the motion of the particle.

On the basis of the stated assumptions, the equation of motion of the
test particle should be written as follows

d*5j
= X P (0 (2.7)
dt 2
(VJ

(2 .8)

and the equations are free from contradiction.

 89

If equation (2.7) together with equation (2.8) are actually the

equations of motion of the test particle, they must have solutions
describing the actual motion of the particle. We will prove that this
is s o .

Utilizing formula (1.28) we combine equations (2.7) and (2.8) into

one equation

a
dS
---- 1 + 2
d
—
* J
+
JL I d2a~| _£j
(2.9)
dt 2 dt
(VJ
4lt * dt2j k

We utilize thereby the rules of mathematical operations with /79

generalized integrals. In these equations the left terms are common
functions of time t and, consequently, the right terms should converge.
We will assume that a mean density "p of matter exists in infinite space
in the sense of formula (1.17). Then the integral

X Q. ~ x.

(Vj
I (P " p)
__j
I 3 d3 c -
x|
' (p - p) — ---- l d 3c
(°°)
Ic - * | 3

converges and belongs to the convergent integrals subclass of the

general class of integrals. By selecting in the subintegral expression
of the right term

_3_ 1
P (2 .10)
4it x

we obtain

‘
?V
dt 2
2 <u?iL
dt dt
(2 .11)

the right and left terms of which are functions in actual numbers.

A general solution to equation (2.10) is

a (t) = A + Bt - - A 2 t2 , (2 .12)
 90
where A and B are constants of integration and

2
A (2.13)

The coordinates of the test particle in motion, are obtained,

according to formula (2 .6 ), in the form of generalized integrals

_3_ - <=j
(A + Bt - A 2 t2) d 3 c. (2.14)
4 jt
I* - Cl3
CD'
(V
N )

whereby x^ (t) are the solutions to equations (2 .11 ) which, after sub­
stitution in place of a (t), of its value according to formula (2 .12 ),
adopt the following form

A ,
2 dxj
(A + Bt i aV ) + 2 (B
dt

= x
(VJ
J(p p) (2.15)

We will mention that (t) are also coordinates of the /80

particle in motion; however, contrary to the coordinates (t) these
are expressed in actual numbers.

And so we have proved that equation (2.7) together with equation

(2 .8) have solutions, whereby the problem of their solution is reduced
to the solving of the common differential equation (2.15). The gener­
alized integrals of the form in (2.14) are interpreted as coordinates of
the test particle in motion. The function of time

Xj (t)

is contained in the subintegral expression of the integral (2.14), which

is the solution to equation (2.15), which are also the coordinates of
 91

the particles in motion, but expressed here by common numbers. Finally,

we have two systems of coordinates, the sustems 5 . and x., in which
J J
motion is considered. The relation between them is expressed by formula
(2.14).

Let us assume that x'. (t) and x'.' (t) are two particular solutions
J J
to the equation (2.15) corresponding to the two concrete test particles.
According to formula (1.33), the distance R between these particles is
expressed in the following way:

R=|5' - 5 " | = ( A + B t - j A 2 t2) |x' - x

= (A + Bt - j A 2 t2) r. (2.16)

where

r x ii

From formula (2.16) it follows that the systems of coordinates and x^

correspond to the various scales of the distance measurements, whereby
the correlation of the scales changes with time t. We can standardize
the solutions to the equation (2 .10 ) so that the distance scales coincide
when the time t = 0 .

In order to do this, it is necessary to consider that

A = i,

then the standardized solution to equation (2 .10 ) will be

a (t) = 1 + Bt - | A 2 t2 , (2.17)

2
in which the constant B remains undetermined. As far as the constant A
is concerned it is combined, according to formula (2.13), with the mean
density of matter in the infinite universe and can be considered as a
certain universal constant. We shall assume that B in formula (2.17)
is a universal constant whose magnitude we can obtain by appropriate /81
measurements.
 92

Equation (2.7) or their equivalent equations of motion (2.15)

have the accuracy of a non-relativistic approximation. The application
of non-relativistic correlations in cosmology is justified if the universe
is in a quasi-stationary state or if the matter density p changes
with time so slightly that the dependence of the integral

g. - x.
J (P - P) ■ J ---- r d \
I* - C l 3
(2.18)
(°°)

on time t is not affected by the change of density p in the subintegral

expression. If this is so, then for the computation of the integral
(2.18) it suffices to have the data concerning the matter distribution
in a certain large volume V, since from the convergence of the integral
(2.18) it follows that

c, - * G. - x.3
(p - p) — ---- — d 3 C. (2.19)
J ( p ‘ 03 7 7
G - xl (v) k - xl
(“ )

Hereby, it is assumed that the investigated test particle with the

coordinates x. (t) is located within volume V' situated in the center
of volume V and that

V' « V. (2 .20)

Thus, in order to compute the motion of the test particle, the

data concerning the matter distribution in the finite universe as a whole
are not essential. It suffices to have concrete values of the density
function p(G) in a large but finite volume V. However, the motion of
the particles can be calculated if they are located within volume V ' ,
which in turn is located in the central part of volume V, whereby V'
should be much less than V. The applicability of the equations of motion
(2.15) in time is also limited in the last case. The solutions to
equation (2.15) are of an objective value only for the time interval in
which the test particle leaves the volume V ' .

The fact that the equations of motion of the test particle

described with sufficient accuracy the motions within the time interval
-tg and +tg and within volume V' only, does not constitute a deficiency
of the theory. In particular it is not solely characteristic for a non-
relativistic approximation. Actually, if a theory that described
 93

the motion and the conditions of matter in the time interval from - 00 to
+ ™ and throughout the universe, would have been available, such a theory
would have solved problems which cannot be solved by experiments or
observations. Such a theory cannot be an acknowledged physical theory.
The inaccuracy of the equations of motion (2.15) of a test particle /82
in the described sense, constitutes the principal inaccuracy, which is
inherent to reasonable cosmology that acknowledges the infinity of the
universe.

§3. Another Presentation of the Equations of Motion of a

Test Particle in a Field of Universal Gravitation

It was proved in the preceding section that the equations of

motion of a test particle consist of the differential equation (2.7) and
the equation (2.9), which combines the coordinates x^ of the test par­
ticle in actual numbers, with the coordinates £ in generalized integrals.
The exclusion of from equations (2.8) leads to equation (2.15) in
which all the coordinates are represented in actual numbers. However,
it is of interest to find equations of motion in which the coordinates
are represented in generalized integrals only. Equations of such a type
will be more symmetrical than equation (2.15) and, obviously, also more
consistent from the viewpoint of the concepts which were developed in
this paper.

The formulae of the reorientation which combines the system of

coordinates in generalized integrals, with the system of coordinates
x. in common numbers, are defined in accordance with formula (2 .8 ) as
J
follows:

x
(3.1)

00-

and in accordance with (2.7) the equations of motion are as follows

X (3.2)
X
 94

The coordinate of the spatial point of integration is the variable

of the integration x' of the right term of equation (3.2). We shall
determine: ^

_3_
X. ' a (t) (3.3)
J 4it
(Vj

Evidently, X^ is the coordinate of the spatial point of integration of

the integral (3.2) in generalized integrals, and equation (3.3) combines
with x'. with X.. Since /83
J J -- 1
x
_3_
5j 4it
a (t) ^ < 3c
(VJ - Cl

3_ x. - C.
4 jt
a (t) -- j-j d 3Q = a (x^ - x^) , (3.4)

(v j I* - Cl'

then the expression

*j - sj

lx - 5l3

has the value of an ordinary number:

x, - e X - X

|X - §|3 a 2 lx' - x

Furthermore, by determining

x' + dx' -
j j
r
3 .3r _3_
- c.
dX. = - — ------- d3£ = a • dx'. ,
■
J 4«
(Vj |x' + dx' - Q ^[■ d ^ - 4« J
(VJ |x' - cl 1
then d~X is also expressed by an actual number. The density function
p(x') in the right part of equation (3.2) is the invariant (in a non-
relativistic approximation). According to the formula

p (x') = p (X - X°) ,

we consider the matter density as a function of coordinates X. of the

J
integration space, whereby the coordinates X^ are determined by formula
(3.3). Finally, we find that the symbol

P (X)
X - §
(V„)
is in essence a generalized integral, since the subintegral expression
is represented in actual numbers. Utilizing this circumstance, we write
the equation of motion of the test particle in a field of universal /84
gravitation in the following way:

x i - Sj 3
= X P (X) — 1------ £ dJX, (3.5)
dT 2
(VJ

where all the coordinates are presented by the generalized integrals X^

and We will consider equation (3.5) as a generalization of the
J
equation
2
x

dt
j
2 X J P (x') d3x 9

(V)

which describe the motion of a test particle in the field of a finite

system of gravitating masses, which are included in the finite volume V
96

of space. In equation (3.5) the time variable is designated by the

letter t . The substitution of t by t meanwhile is only a formal change
of designation. However, as we will see later on, t and t have a
distinct physical meaning.

We shall prove that the equation (3.5) have the following solutions

(t) -

J
(V„>
a (t) * C (3.6)

where x. (t) as a common function of the variable t satisfies the

J
equation
2
x
j
2
= G (p - P) d3£- (3.7)
dt
(")

The time variant t is a certain function of variable t:

t = t (t) (3.8)

and the density function a(t) in (3.6) satisfies the equation

d2a 2 C da V . 4jtG _ „ ,, -
TT'lCdr/+
at
“— p-°- <3-9
It is also assumed that the integrals of the right terms of equation
(3.7) converge or that the average density of matter exists in the p
infinite universe according to the definition in (1.17).

Proceeding with the proof of this assertion, we differentiate the

correlations (3.6) twice by the variable t:

d5j
_3_ da *1 ' C-ir d.3 Q +. d*j
a —tt ,
dt 4ir dt
I--cl3 dt
(V J
d 2 5, ,2 x a “ C- dx. d 2x i
_3_ da J J ,3^ . „ da J .J
4it d 2 dt "dt + 3 T
185
dt dt 2 |x - e |3 dt
(Vm )
 97
Herefrom, after simple conversions we obtain

dl d 2 x.
= r C dfa _ 2, /■ da x i - c^ 3r ___ 1
dt
2 a dt dt 4n J V ..2 a V dt y y i \3 ^ dt
2 ‘
(vm) dt I* - Cl
(3.10)

Inasmuch as x. (t) satisfies the equation (3.7), then by substitution

A j
dt

in the equation (3.10) with their values from the equation (3.7) we
find, after simple calculations

dV i s . « i . c J ap (£) — ------ d3£ +

2 a dt dt
dt
(V ) 1C - x l

- c4
. 3 r r d 2a 2 r da >2 . 4*G - j ,3...........
+ 47 J (v 7 T “ l C d T / + a ~ p j >‘|-------^ 3 d S- O-IU
at x* - Cl
( O

We shall choose the function a (t) to satisfy the equations

d 2a
(3.12)
dt 2

.2 4 itG -
A = “ P (3.13)

Then in place of (3.11) we obtain

<i2 C: dE . x - x.
J 2 da r P ... J j .3 ,
TT d * , (3.14)
dt
2 ‘ a d t “d t " G J ao <* > 7 7
 98

where the variable of the integration £ in the right parts of equation

(3.14) is substituted by the variable xl (this is only a formal substi­
tution) . In the subintegral expressions of the right terms of equation
(3.14) , the variables x^ and x^ are the coordinates of the spatial points
in actual numbers. Applying the conversions (3.1) and (3.3) we can
write

x - x. X . - 5.
ap (x') — ----- 7 7 d 3x' = p (X) — ----- d3X ,
lx' - x |3 X - §

so that equation (3.14) adapts the form / 86

x i - §1 3
p (X) — J J d X. (3.15)
2 a dt dt
at |x - § r
(V )

In order to obtain the equation (3.15) from the latter, we introduce in

place of the time variable t, a new variable

T = T (t) , (3.16)

which satisfies the equation

d t 2 da d^
„ A I- A t-
n
(3.17)
2 a dt dt
dt

where a (t) is the solution to equation (3.12). Then from equation

(3.15) we obtain

d 2 5: xj - 3
= X p (X) ^ dJX, (3.18)
dT
( O
ix - §r

where

X (3.19)
 99

Finally, we arrive at the fact that, for the motion of the test
particle, there are two types of equations - equations (3.18) and (3.17).
In Equation (3.18) the coordinates of the test particle and the space
coordinates of the integration are expressed by generalized integrals.
In equation (3.7) the very same coordinates are represented by actual
numbers. In addition, there are two distinct variables of time, t and
t , whereby t is included in equation (3.7) and t in equation (3.18).
The space-time continuum, on the basis of which the motion of the
test particles was studied, is represented in the first case by a system
of coordinates

(x, t) , (3.20)

and in the second case, by the following system of coordinates

(5, t ), (3.21)

whereby the space coordinates 5 and are combined by the correlation

(3.6) and the time variables t and t are combined by the correlation
(3.16).

In the preceding section of this paper, the equations of motion of

the test particle were written

d2S Xi - X j
- ^ - x [ P ( O - J — J d 3X- (3.22)
dT x' - X

whereby Z87

F = — (3.23)
Sj 4n J a (T) 7 ^
(V )

and the function a (t ) satisfies the equations’

2
d a = . A,2 ,
_ A.2 = —
4irx p
(3.24)
dT

See equations (2.7), (2.8), and (2.10). We substitute for the

variable t in these equations the variable t, inasmuch as the variable
t in Section 2 coincides with the variable t in Section 3.
 100

On the other hand, from this section we see that the function a (t ) must
satisfy equation (3.12).

After the substitution of the variable t by the variable t ,

equation (3.12) acquires the form

(3.25)

Actually, the first integral of the differential equation (3.17) is

dT
C a (3.26)
dt

where C is the constant of integration, the concrete value of which is

determined by the requirement

C d O t - r - O - 1" <3 '27)

so that

C (3.28)
t=T=0

For an explanation of the physical meaning of equation (3.27) we assume

the existence of two types of clocks which measure time t and time T.
Inasmuch as dT/dt is not a constant, t - and t-clocks cannot be synchro­
nized for a finite interval of time. But they can be synchronized for
an infinitely short interval of time which contains the moment t = 0 .
Considering the moment t = 0 as a moment of present time, we regulate
the t- and T-clocks so that their units (seconds) coincide. Then equation
(3.27) will be satisfied. We shall call this a condition of the relative
calibration of t- and T-clocks.

Let us assume that there are spatial points A and A ' , the
coordinates of which are and in the system (5 ) and, respectively,
Xj and xl in the system (x). We have

I§ - 5 1 = a (t) |x-x'|. (3.29)

 101

We can, although until now only formally, consider the magnitude /88
|x - x'| as the distance between points in the system (x) and |§ - §']
as the distance in the system (§). In addition, it is possible to
require that in the moment of time t = 0 both distances coincide, or
according to (3.29)

(a ( T » t = T = 0 = 1. (3.30)

We shall call this the condition of relative calibration in the scale of

the distance measurement in the (§)- and (x)-systems. From equation
(3.28) it follows that C = 1 and on the basis of equation (3.26), we
have

dT 2
(3.31)
dT = a

Utilizing the last expression, it is possible to obtain equation (3.25)

by means of the conversion of equation (3.12).

Equations (3.24) and (3.25) do not accurately coincide, and there­

fore it is possible to prove that we have two different theories: the
theories of the preceding and present sections. However, this difference
is only formal. In reality the solution to the equation in the form of
a power series, and considering the calculation of the quadratic terms,
is

a (t) = 1 + Bt - | A 2 t 2 + (3.32)

where B is the constant of integration, and a (r) satisfies the original

conditions (3.30). But the power series (3.32) with its terms written
out also satisfies the equation (3.24) so that the difference between the
solutions of equations (3.24) and (3.25) begins with the calculations of
the numbers of the third and higher orders of series (3.32). In the
interval

- T + T, (3.33)
0

if Tq is not too great, the differences between the solutions of the

cited equations practically do not exist, and they are both equally
suitable for a description of the test particle in the field of universal
gravitation. In connection with the latter, it is necessary to mention
 102

that on the basis of the material described in Section 2 of this paper,

from equations of motion, it is generally impossible to require that
they describe the motion of the test particle over any given interval of
time. We consider that the interval of time in (3.33) is the exact time
necessary for meaningful solutions to equation (3.24) or (3.25).

On the basis of the stated equation [(3.5) or (3.22)] the equations

for the determination of motion of the test particle can be considered
to be accurate, and the question concerning which is to be given pre­
ference is a matter of taste. However, in view of the compactness and /89
complete analogy in the equations of motion of the test particle under
the effect of a finite system of gravitating masses, the author of this
paper prefers equation (3.5) to equation (3.22).

In equation (3.5) the coordinates £ of the test particle are

represented in generalized integrals, but the time variable t is expressed
by an ordinary number. A definite asymmetry in the represented coordinates
of the space-time continuum evidently is effected by a non-relativistic
solution of the problem.

Although the exact solution of equation (3.5) for a suitably long

interval of time does not have a satisfactory physical value, as an
example of an accurate solution, which is given by the following
expressions for a (t) and t (t), it can introduce definite interests:

a (t) e
±At (3.34)

T
. i r ±2At (3.35)
=± 2 A ^ e

In his time, Milne proposed a hypothesis according to which two

systems of time t and r exist. In them, t is cosmological time and t is
conventional time. The relation between r and t according to Milne is
conveyed by the formula (3.35), and therefore, we shall call expressions
(3.34) and (3.35) Milne's solutions.

§4. Concerning the Existence of Two Systems

of Measurement of Space and Time

Equations(3.5) are equations of motion of a test particle in

(§, t ) -system of space and time coordinates.
With a conversion by means
of formula (3.6) from equation (3.5), we obtain equation (3.7), which
also describe the motion of a test particle; however, not in the (5 , t )-
 103

system but in the (x, t)-system of coordinates. Finally, there are two
types of equations of motion of a particle,equations (3.5) and (3.7); and
there are, respectively, two systems of coordinates of space and time,
(5, t ) - and (x, t)-systems.

If the integrals §^ , according to formula (3.6), are the coordi­

nates of the spatial points, then the difference between the coordinates
is an actual number. By defining

rAA' = " 5 ' | = a (t) |x - x'| (4.1)

as the distance between the points with the coordinates E. and £'. > the
J 3
distance as a measurable magnitude will be expressed in actual numbers.
The distance between the same points is calculated by means of their
coordinates x. and x ' .
3 3
x (4.2)
AA'

Therefore, formulae (4.1) and (4.2) yield /90

r = a (t) R (4.3)
AA' AA'

whereby the function a (t) is the solution to equation (3.9).

In (§, t ) -system the time lapse is expressed by the variability of

the values of t and, respectively, in the (x, t)-system by the variability
of the value t, whereby t and t are combined by the functional correlation

t = t (t) , (4.4)

and t (t) satisfies the differential equation (3.31).

The utilization of the two qualitatively distinct systems of

coordinates rendered it possible to remove from the theory of universal
gravitation the contradiction in the form of a gravitational paradox.
However, the solution to the problem has so far a formal character. For
the acceptance of the physical theory, it is primarily necessary to
indicate what formulae (4.3) and (4.4) designate and to disclose the
physical essence of these formulae.
 104

The distance between two points in space is a magnitude which can

be obtained through measurement; for example, measurement by means of a
rigid scale.

On the other hand, this distance can be obtained through a metric

formula by calculating the coordinates of the points. We have not yet
established which one of formulae (4.1) or (4.2) must be considered as a
metric formula. An analogous problem also arises during an interpre­
tation of formula (4.4). Time at a given point in space is measured in
hours. The question consists of whether the hours show the variability
of the values t or the values* of t .

In order to obtain an answer to the posed questions we turn to

the Weyl principle, which is the result of analyzing the basis for the
general theory of relativity.

In 1921 Weyl indicated that, for the construction of a general

theory of relativity, there is no need to assume the initial existence
of instruments for the measurements of spatial distances and hours for
the measurement of time. The instruments for the measurement of space-
time distances are developed as a result of the theory and can be
constructed on the basis of the theory which is already available. The
general theory of relativity is primarily a theory of gravitation.
According to the Weyl principle, the motion of matter (by the law of
gravitation) determines the system of measurement of space-time distances.
We shall call space and time measured by means of the gravitational /91
motion of matter, gravitational space and time.

For an explanation of the essence of the Weyl principle, it is

interesting to examine the application of the verification of the passage
of technical hours; that is, the instruments of time measurement which
are based on a definite periodic motion of matter (for example, a
pendulum clock) but as in any instrument, they do not measure a time
lapse with complete accuracy. The passage of technical hours is checked
by astronomical observations whereby the most accurate corrections are
obtained from observations of the motion of the planets, the Moon and the
Earth (the Sun). It is considered that the motion of members of the
solar system complies with the differential equations of celestial
mechanics which are obtained from the theory of gravitation. The equations

In the present research, the problem of gravitation and also the

problem of metrics of space and time, are examined in the non-relativistic
approximation. Therefore, it is considered that space and time are
divided: the first is measured by a rigid scale, the second by hours.
However, we shall return to the problem of a rigid scale later.
 105

and their solutions are considered to be elementary, and the passage of

time is determined so that the calculated and observed positions of the
planets coincide. It is evident that in the described method of measur­
ing the passage of time there is the matter of a practical application
of Weyl's principle and that the solar system represents a realization
of the gravitational clocks.

In order to understand more fully the essence of the Weyl prin­

ciple, we will note, that with the technological development of the
application of time measurement in the last decade, atomic clocks, working
on the basis of atomic processes, have been applied with great success.
From among the atomic clocks, we shall examine those which work by means
of a radioactive decomposition of atomic nuclei of certain chemical
elements. Presently,the number of actually executed decompositions is
distinguished from the number of nuclei potentially capable of such a
process by means of counters. The rise in the number of impulses, which
are registered by the counter, parallels the passage of time. However,
the quantitative data concerning the passage of time is obtained from
the law of radioactivity according to which the probability of disinte­
gration per unit of time is independent of time. The increase in the
number of decompositions is calculated and, according to an appropriate
formula, the passage of time is determined on the basis of the counter
readings.

It is evident that the law of radioactivity came first and that

the determination of the passage of time in hours was developed as a
result of this law. The circumstance, according to which the law of
radioactivity is of a statistical character does not alter the nature
of the method. In the described example of a clock, the Weyl principle
moves into a region unforeseen by Weyl himself. Indeed, in order to
formulate the law of radioactive decomposition, it is not expedient to
assume the initial existence of a clock. The latter is developed on the
basis of a law which has already been formulated, as was indicated above.

Having the gravitational and atomic clocks, it is possible to

compare their motion. During a comparison, a preliminary relative cali­
bration of these clocks is made. During a rather short time, the clocks
are set up so that, on the average, their readings coincide with their
motion. The shorter the duration of the relative calibration, the /92
more accurate is the result of this procedure. If the clocks measure
time identically, the relative calibration is maintained forever. But
inasmuch as gravitational clocks work on the basis of gravitational motion
of matter, and atomic clocks work on the basis of atomic processes
and inasmuch as the laws of macro and micro physics are qualitatively
distinct, good reasons exist to assert the opposite: that atomic and
gravitational clocks do not measure time in an identical way. It is also
clear that both kinds of clocks are valid. The two systems of measuring
 106

time are well founded, and both systems from a physical viewpoint are
equally valid.

The general theory of relativity possesses completeness and

independence. The completeness of the theory is expressed by the fact
that the general theory of relativity exhaustively yields laws of
gravitation and the motion of matter which is related to this theory.
Its self-containment is reflected by the fact that the general theory of
relativity does not require, for its structure or comprehension, any
measuring instruments, whose physical essence is not encompassed by the
theory. As far as the measurement of time is concerned, we have already
tried to explain in the example of gravitational and atomic clocks, what
the self-containment of the relativity theory consists of in relation to
the measurement of time. The general theory of relativity enjoys an
independence of exactly the same type as that of an instrument for the
measurement of spatial distances. Returning to the example of the solar
system, it is possible to establish the fact that this system not only
realizes gravitational hours, but also determines with its own motion
the scales for measurements of spatial distances. Not being able in the
present article to discuss in detail the various constructions which
realize the instruments for measurement of space and time in the general
theory of relativity, we will mention that the construction of such a
type has already been given in scientific literature (Pauli).

The completeness and self-containment of the general theory of

relativity limits the area of its application. This theory clearly
explains a defined range of physical phenomena but it cannot give an
answer to the questions concerning, for example, the atomic phenomena.
In connection with this, the discussion concerning the existence of the
so-called rigid body has a certain significance. It has been asserted
that the existence of a rigid body is not compatible with the principle
of relativity. It seems to us that the last assertion can cause a
misunderstanding. The rigid body exists, but the physical essence of the
rigid body is not explained by the general theory of relativity.

Whether the rigid body exists or not does not concern the general
theory of relativity; by the same token the theory is not concerned with
the existence of radioactive elements. The rigid body is the material/93
for the creation of a solid core, which the instrument for measuring
spatial distances represents. But, since the general theory of relativity
does not require an axiom of the original existence of instruments for
measuring space and time, and the solid core seems to be such an initially
existing instrument in relation to the general theory of relativity, we
again arrive at the conclusion that the general theory of relativity is
completely indifferent to the problem of existence of a rigid body.
However, if we attempt to identify the solid core with the instrument for
distance measurement, obtained as a result of the general theory of
 107

relativity, there arises a contradiction. In this sense, it is necessary

to understand the assertion, according to which the rigid body is incom­
patible with the principle of relativity. Hence, if the rigid body
exists, then we have in a physical sense, two distinct possibilities for
measuring spatial distances. One of them applies the rigid core, the
other applies to an appropriate instrument, constructed on the basis of
gravitational motions of matter and defined by us as the gravitational
scale of length.

If the general theory of relativity is complete and self-contained

in the sense described above, then there should exist also other regions
of physics with such a characteristic. Wet consider quantum mechanics
or, in general, the physics of micro universe as another fully self-
contained theory. Because of self-containment, the physics of the micro
universe determines its own system of space and time measurement, which
is known as the atomic system. Since the rigid body, as an idealization
of a hard body, is the product of atomic forces and motions, the rigid
core is obviously the instrument for distance measurement in an atomic
system. Concurrent with the atomic clock, the rigid core pertains to a
complex of instruments for space and time measurement within the atomic
measurement system.

The hypothesis of the existence of two or more systems of space

and time measurement constitutes, in essence, an expansion of the Weyl
principle into various areas of physics, which encompass qualitatively
distinct laws of motion of matter (macro and micro physics). Weyl himself
attempted to utilize this principle for the creation of a single field
theory, which would combine the entire physics in universal equations.
However, none of the attempts in this direction have yielded satisfactory
results. If we consider that the impossibility to create a single theory
in the sense of Einstein and Weyl is a principal impossibility, then
there is no single Weyl principle for physics as such. Physics is
divided into individual, complete and self-contained branches, each of
which has its own system of space and time measurement. The latter
hypothesis does not contradict our concept concerning the unity of /94
space and time as a natural background for understanding of the essence
of matter and its motion. Space and time are a uniform continuum of their
points and in this continuity is contained the most general description
that can be given on space and time. However, if we proceed with the
measurement of the space-time continuum, then the results will be depen­
dent on the physical essence of the measurement instruments.

A mathematical expression for the continuity of the space-time

continuum permits the application of concepts of coordinates and
coordinate systems. In principle, the coordinate system represents a
number of abstract mathematical symbols with the power of a continuum
108

(actual numbers, generalized integrals of a special type, etc.)> in which

the continuum of the points of space-time are reflected. From these
mathematical symbols the fulfillment of properties characteristic of the
mathematical symbols are required. First of all, a potentiality of the
determined mathematical operations is essential. But moreover in a
majority of symbols, the meaning of the infinitesimal difference between
two symbols must be determined. The mentioned quantity will be a system
of coordinates if the corresponding symbols of two infinitely close points
differ slightly.*

The potentiality for application of a large number of generalized

integrals of a coordinate system of three dimensional Euclidean space
was utilized in the present work for the creation of the theory of uni­
versal gravitation in a non-relativistic approximation. This theory is
free from a gravitational paradox. The analysis of the equations of
motion of the test particle and the attempt to solve them indicates also
the necessity to apply the systems of coordinates x. in actual numbers.
Finally, we have the systems of coordinates

(5, t) and (x, t)

of space-time. These coordinates can be considered as belonging to

distinct types. We consider that the distinction of the types reflects
the distinctions of corresponding systems of space and time measurement,
whereby the hypothesis of the existence of diverse systems of measure­
ment should be considered a result of the general Weyl principle. Since,
in the system (5 , t ) the potential Q and the equations of the test
particle's motion are direct generalizations of the corresponding
correlations of the classical theory of gravitation. This system of
coordinates corresponds to the gravitational system of measurement. As
far as the (x, t)-system is concerned there are no direct indications
that it belongs to space and time measured by the rigid core and the
atomic clocks. However, for lack of a better definition we preliminarily
consider the (x, t)-system to be an atomic system of measurement. /95

The relation between gravitational time t and atomic time t is

expressed in formulae (3.31) and (3.32). The constant B in formula
(3.32) expresses the acceleration of one time relative to the other:

2
d T
= B.
2
dt

The concept of infinitely close points comes from the idea of a

continuum and does not propose a definite metric for space.
 109

The universal constant B is, of course, a very small magnitude. Its

experimental determination requires the comparison of the motion of
atomic and gravitational clocks in the course of a prolonged interval
of time. One can determine the constant B indirectly in the following
way.

The evolution of the stellar system is regulated by the motion of

matter under the influence of gravitational forces and takes place in
gravitational time. The evolution of individual stars in the system is
determined by the measurement of its inner structure primarily by the
burning out of hydrogen, and therefore it takes place in atomic time.
A comparison of the age of the stellar system calculated from dynamic
factors and the age obtained from the change of the internal structure
of a star makes it possible to determine the universal constant B.
Another analogous opportunity for the indirect determination of the
numerical value of the constant B consists of the comparison of the age
of the solar system, which is calculated from the dynamic considerations,
and the age obtained from the decomposition of uranium on the Earth.

The relation between the units of distance in (5)- and (x)-systems

is given by formulae (3.29) and (3.32) from which it follows that one
space expands relative to the other according to the law

2
_d
(4.5)
2
dt

if the system of time t is used. and according to the law

A' (4.6)

if the system of time t is used. The well-known effect of the red shift
of the spectral lines of distant spiral nebulae also indicates a certain
expansion of the Metagalaxies. However, it is necessary to further
develop the theory of red shift since it is still not clear whether
equations (4.5) and (4.6) express this effect. [Equations (4.5) and (4.6)
give a relative change of the scale of length; the red shift is a dis­
placement of spectral lines.]

In conclusion it is still necessary to note that in the /96

(x, t)-system, the vacuum has a gravitational characteristic. In fact,
in the formula of the potential
110

o = g r (p - p) (4.7)
(“ )

the effective density is

peff = P * P •

The latter can be negative, and this takes place where the density of
matter in the usual sense is equal to zero. From this follows the
gravitational activity of a vacuum. In the (§, t ) -system a similar
effect was not observed.
 111

ARTICLES AND SURVEYS (REVIEWS) / 97

CONCERNING THE SOURCES OF THE INNER HEAT OF THE EARTH

By

E. A. Lubimova

The data have been examined concerning the role of short-lived

radioactive isotopes in the thermal balance of the Earth, the release of
gravitational and elastic energy, the generation of energy due to the
changeover of the Earth, the generation of heat by tidal friction, the
hypothesis on the role of the neutrino, and the new data on the natural
radioactivity of long-lived isotopes. It has been indicated that a
significant part of the gravitational energy released in the process of
the condensation of the Earth can be transformed into the energy of
elastic deformation. The activity of the short-lived isotopes can be
significant only for the central part of the inner core of the Earth.

Recently, there have been assumptions made concerning the necessity

to calculate in the thermal balance of the Earth a number of factors
which we did not attempt to do earlier. Let us now examine the possible
role of such factors as the energetic effect of short-lived isotopes, the
emission of heat in the process of the gravitational changeover of the
Earth, the hypothesis concerning the role of the neutrino, the emission
of heat in the process of tidal friction, and also the new data concerning
the mean content of uranium thorium and potassium in the Earth.

Table 1

Period of Initial Heat Period of Initial Heat

Semi-Decom­ Emission , Semi-Decom­ Emission,
Isotope Isotope
position, cal/g ■ year position, cal/g • year
years years

Be 10 2.5 . 106 5.3 • 10 "5 j!29 1.7 • 1 0 7 3.9 • 10 "7

Al 26 7.2 • 105 5.6 • 10 -2 Np 237 2.2 • 106 7.2 • 10 "5

ci 36 3 • 105 6.6 • 1 0 “3 Pu 244 7.6 • 107 5.1 • 10 "7

Fe 60 ~ 3 • 105 ~ 0 • 12 Cm 247 > 4 • 107 < 2.1 • 1 0 -7

112

a) The short-lived isotopes. Presently, 27 short-lived /98

isotopes are known primarily through the discovery of their products of
decomposition in abnormally large quantities in comparison with the
curve of their cosmic abundance. Many short-lived isotopes are obtained
artificially, and the periods of their decomposition are known exactly.
6 8
They constitute 10 - 10 years which is significantly less than the age
of the Earth. The emission of energy during the decomposition of the
short-lived isotopes could have played a substantial role in the early
period of the Earth's history.
g
Until recently all isotopes with periods of 10 years and less
have decomposed to immeasurably small quantities. This is the way in
which the introduction of the term "extinct radioactivity" is explained.

Fig. 1. The Emission of Heat by the

Short-Lived Isotopes.

In Table 1, those short-lived isotopes are listed which have the

longest life time and show the greatest energetic effect. In Fig. 1 the
 113

emission of heat with time from the short-lived isotopes is shown. The
beginning of time is taken from the moment 4.5 • 10 years ago. We see
that, at first, the greatest emission of heat was caused by isotopes
C l ^ and F e ^ . But their activity continued only for a million years
after the nuclear genesis. After this, during the course of 10 million
26
years, the greatest heat emission was generated by A1 . During the
following 10 million years. Be and Np were dominant. The data for
the construction of Table 1 and Fig. 1 were borrowed from the article of
Fish, Goles, and Anders (Ref. 1). Since the periods of the semi­
decomposition of the more effective short-lived isotopes do not exceed
6 7
10 - 10 years, then their contribution to the generation of heat could
be accomplished if the moment of the beginning of the Earth's formation
were very close to the moment of nuclear genesis. In such a case, the
contribution of short-lived isotopes would be maximal provided that the
time of planetary formation were less than or equal to the lifetime of
the isotopes. However, according to the present estimates, it is /99
much greater.

The period of planetary formation is dependent upon the rate of

their growth. Concrete schemes of the physical process of the accumu­
lation were proposed, and the curves of the rate of planetary growth
were revealed by Safronov (Refs. 2, 3). The curve of the Earth's growth
is presented in Fig. 2. Along the axis of the ordinates is the magnitude
1/3
(m/M) where m is the mass of the growing Earth, and M is the present
mass. We see that the growth of the Earth was mainly concluded in the
g
course of the first 10
g
years. Thus, m = 0 . 9 9 M is reached where t =
2.5 • 10 years.

777 )'4
Ml

Fig. 2. The Rate of the Growth of the Earth.

 114

Let us compare the rate of the Earth's growth with the period of
activity of the short-lived isotopes. The period of their activity does
g
not exceed the interval 0.2 • 10 years.
According to the rate of
1/3
growth of the Earth's mass, the magnitude (m/M) up to the moment of
8 8 I/o
time t = 0.1 • 10 or 0.2 • 10 years should be equal to (m/M) =0.1
or 0.2, respectively. From this we get m = 0.001M or 0.01M. The latter
value gives approximately the magnitude of the entire mass of the Earth's
inner core. In this way, the emission of heat by the short-lived isotopes
can be coordinated only with the small initial nucleus of the Earth which
occupies only a small volume of the Earth's inner core.
g
From Fig. 1, we see that in the interval of 0 - 0.1 • 10 years,
the main portion of the generation of heat was determined by isotopes
26 36 60
Al , Cl , and Fe . They could guarantee the heating of substance to
the melting point (the dashed line in Fig. 1 shows the energy necessary
for the increase of temperature to 3000°C) . At this time, the radius of
the Earth's nucleus amounted to less than 100 kilometers and the nucleus
was able to be melted. But the heat could not hold its ground within such
a small body and was quickly lost in space (Ref. 4). Therefore, one can
disregard its influence on the upper layers.
g
After the lapse of 0.1 • 10 years, the deposit in the generation
26
of heat from Al^ became insignificantly small; the main part of the
10 237
generation was for Be and Np . The maximal temperature which could
be reached within the time t - t^ is determined by the formula

th
where A^ is the constant of decomposition of the i element and /100

is the initial content of it. In the given case

i -A_ t.. t . HN -A t.. -A„ t

_ 1 ^e . Be 1 Be . , 1 p . Np 1 Np .
T = - --- (e
C A»
- e ) + -
C
T-*-
(e ^ - e ).
Be Np
8 8 -5
By substituting t.. = 0.1 • 10 ; t„ = 0.2 * 10 years; = 7.2 • 10
cal/g • years; A
^
= 0.314 • 10
—6 ^
years
-1
; =5.3 • 10
^
cal/g • years;

A = 0.276 ■ 10 ^ years ^ ; c = 0 . 2 cal/g • deg. We find that T 100°C.

Be
 115

In that way, provided that the moment of the formation of the

elements coincides with the beginning of the Earth's formation, the
maximal effect of the short-lived isotopes should have been reduced to
the melting of the center part of the Earth's nucleus which makes up
one tenth of the mass of the inner core. Also this must have been
reduced to a rapid drop in temperature to the boundary between the in­
ternal and external nucleus.

During the formation of the region of the external nucleus, the

radioactivity of the short-lived isotopes had already practically
vanished. In this way, if the effect of these isotopes were told in the
early history of the Earth, then the melted area should be the inner
nucleus rather than the outer. However, the geophysical facts indicate
the fact that the inner nucleus of the Earth should now be firm and the
outer melted.

Just like Fish, Goles, and Anders (Ref. 1) we come to the deduction
that the action of the short-lived isotopes can be appreciable only for
very small planetary nuclei-"planetesimals". Their cores can pass through
the state of melting. These planetesimals can then fall out on to the
growing nucleus of the Earth bringing on themselves traces of melting,
but the entire Earth on the whole could not have been melted.

b) The emission of gravitational energy; the release of elastic

energy. Certain authors (Refs. 5 through 7) consider that the emission
of gravitational energy during the process of planetary formation can be
the source of the initially molten condition of the Earth. The potential
gravitational energy which is being released during the condensation of
an object of mass M and radius R is equal to

3 GM^_
5 R (1)

Latimer (Ref. 6 ) indicated that during the accretion of the Earth from a
cloud of dust energy must have been released on the order of 4 • 10^
J/gm of matter. Fesenkov (Ref. 5) has calculated according to formula
(1) that W for a homogeneous sphere with a mass and radius of the Earth
39
is equal to W pa 4 • 10 erg. The more careful estimate of Urey (Ref. 8)
and Beck (Ref. 9) conducted with the calculation of the uniform distri-
39
bution of density gives W ^ 2.5 • 10 erg. Verhoogen (Ref. 7) indicates
that this figure is equivalent to the emission of 9000 cal/gm of heat./101
This is sufficient for the complete melting of the entire Earth which,
as he considers, has taken place. Fesenkof on the basis of the virial
theorem considers that half of the energy should have been converted into
 116

heat. It is necessary to note, however, that this theorem is inappli­

cable in the case of the precipitation of bodies on a hard surface.

The large magnitude of the potential gravitational energy still

cannot serve as any kind of basis for the initially melted condition of
the Earth. Actually, during the union of the particles, this energy is
partially converted into the internal energy of the substance increasing
its temperature and deformation and partially being lost through radia­
tion. The portion which should go into the increase of the temperature
is substantially dependent on the speed of accumulation and the speed
with which heat can be radiated in space.

The examination of concrete schemes of the process of accumulation

led V. S. Safronov (Refs. 2, 3, 10) to the deduction that the enormous
energy which the particles, that have been striking against the surface
bear with them, must be rapidly reradiated in space. Only an insignifi­
cant portion of the energy went for heating the Earth.

Later, we shall show that a significant portion of the energy W

should have been expended also for the execution of only one elastic
deformation of the self-gravitating globe of the Earth. Actually, the
elastic energy Ae of an element with a volume of AV of a hard body
characterized by the elastic moduli K (the modulus of compression) and
M- (the modulus of rigidity) is given by the formula (Landau and Lifshitz,
Ref. 11)

A, - | AV + „ ( U.k - f »u 8lk y AV, (2)

2
where U., is the sum of the components of the tensor deformation; U is
XK JCJO
the sum of the squares of the components of the tensor and 5.. = 3 . In
the case of spherical symmetry = 0 (i ^ k)

(3)

where u is the shift in the radial direction. The full inner elastic
energy of a homogeneous ball with a radius R is determined by the inte­
gration of the expression (2 ) according to the volume:

2,
e = r d r . (4)
V 0
 117

The shift u in a gravitating elastic medium is determined as a solu-/102

tion of the equation of equilibrium of the elastic medium

, -* l - 2a -* - > ( l + a ) ( l - 2 a) ,
grad div u - 2 "(1 I rot rot u = - pg xO-T)
--- ’ (5)

where E is Young's modulus and g is the Poisson coefficient. By a

spherical symmetry for a homogeneous sphere, we have

... - d
grad d i v u ^ L-j
T 1 d fr2 u)l
dr J’
rot u = 0 ,

r
8 8 R *

Then (5) will be reduced to the equation

E (1 - g)_______ d_ T _1_ d (r2 u) ”] _ r

(1 + a) (1 - 2 a) dr L r 2 dr J pg R ‘

A marginal condition will be the absence of normal strains on the surface

r = R:

_______ E________ . 3u , „ u
arr (1 + a) (1 - 2a) g) ^—
or
+ 2g —
r
= 0, (7)
r=R

The final solution when r = 0 has the form

(1 - 2 a) (1 + a) ~ 3 - g
u = - gpR (8)
10E (1 - a) -(1 + cr)

We estimate the energy e when g =0.25:

 118

6 ' J ( f + 0 { [ ^ C 0-25 4 ■ °-183 )]2 +

o R

12 2 12 2
Assuming that K = 2 * 10 dynes/cm , (J- = 1 ‘ 10 dynes/cm , E = 1.5 K,
2 3
g = 1000 cm/sec , p = 5 . 5 gm/cm we obtain

6 = 0.5 • 1039 erg. (10)

This energy according to its magnitude composes 1/5 of the full

gravitational energy of the Earth's sphere. Relative to what we have
said, the complete melting of the Earth due to the release of gravi-/103
tational energy is only slightly probable. It is difficult to release
the potential energy used up in the execution of the deformation under
gravitational action. It could have been released only if the complete
relaxation of the elastic strains had occurred. An insignificant re­
laxation, of course, could have taken place. This is undoubtedly
attributed to the tangential strains but to a certain degree to the
normal strains also. In the process of the relaxation, heat should have
been emitted. But this process was slow. One can pose the question
concerning the new source of heat in the interior of the Earth which
arises as a result of the release little by little of the elastic energy
in the process of the elastic strains. In the article "The Thermo-Elastic
Strains Within the Earth's Sphere (Ref. 12) we proved that the release of
only the energy of thermo-elastic deformation arising due to the uneven
distribution of temperature in the Earth can guarantee the annual emission
of seismic energy during the existence of the Earth. However, the
quantitative solution of the problem concerning this source of heat is
complicated by the absence of experimental data concerning the times of
relaxation in the Earth.

c) The emission of energy in gravitational differentiation.

Ye. N. Lyustikh (Ref. 13), Urey (Ref. 8 ) and V. A. Krat (Ref. 14) calcu­
lated that during the changeover of the Earth from a more or less
homogeneous silicate-metallic mixture into the contemporary Earth with a
nucleus of iron which has a more stable state (the state of equilibrium)
a certain portion of gravitational energy must have been emitted. This
portion has turned out to be equal to the type in the following equation
 119

1.5 • 10^® erg (Lyustikh)

O Q
AW 2 • 10 erg (Urey)
5 • 10^® erg (Krat)

38
Depending on the figure 2 • 10 erg, Ringwood (Ref. 15) concluded
that the emission of energy during the gravitational differentiation was
enough for the passage of the Earth's sphere through the molten state.
Ringwood proposes that the process of the metal's introduction into the
nucleus was catastrophic and was executed by means of a convective
cataclysm. Lyustikh and Krat consider that the emission of the energy
occurred gradually during the life of the Earth.

A simple calculation shows that this energy was insufficient for

the complete melting of the Earth even if it were instantaneously emitted.
The gravitational energy which was uniformly emitted throughout the entire
Earth would have called for an increase in temperature of the Earth's
sphere on a magnitude of

AW (1.5 v 2.0)
— --- ^ = 1900 * 2600° ,
M • c 27
10 0.3

which is close to the melting temperature in the upper layers of the/104

Earth but significantly lower than the melting temperature of the sub­
stance in the Earth's crust. If you consider that the energy was emitted
only in the nucleus of the Earth, then the temperature of the nucleus
could have been raised on a magnitude of

90

^ 2 - ° V ; -10--- = 6000 ^ 8000° .

me , „ ,_27 _ _

This could have been entirely adequate for the melting of the Earth's
nucleus. Urey (Ref. 8) has already indicated this. However, there is
no suitable explanation as to why the energy of the gravitational
differentiation occurring throughout the entire Earth should have been
emitted only in the region of the nucleus. The emission of energy, also,
should have occurred throughout the entire volume. If it is clear that
the nucleus of the Earth consists of iron, then the change of gravita­
tional energy during the shifting of the Earth's masses into a position
more suitable from the viewpoint of equilibrium (as is the change of this
energy during the decrease or increase of the radius of the Earth under
the effect of temperature) should be taken into consideration in the
 120

examination of the thermal evolution of the Earth. Then it is necessary

to take into consideration that this process was not instantaneous and,
in a rough approximation, one can consider that the emission of heat
occurred as if with a uniformly distributed source with an intensity
q = (A W/mt) cal/gm-sec, where t is the period of the existence of the
process of gravitational differentiation, and m is the mass of that
volume where the process occurs.

Fig. 3. The Intensity of the Emission of Energy

Dependent on the Magnitude of the Magnetic
Moment of the Neutrino.

d) The hypothesis of the neutrino. Ya. B. Zeldovich and Ya. A.

Smorodinskiy (Ref. 16) indicated that the energy density of an unobserved
form (density of neutrino, graviton, etc.) can be not less than the
-29 3
density of common matter 10 gm/cm (the average density of the nucleons
in the universe).

According to Bethe (Ref. 17) in the nitrogen-carbon cycle process

of the Sun, neutrino particles should be emitted during the decomposition
13 15
of N and 0 . Seven percent of all energy lost by the Sun should occur
from neutrinos. The flux of neutrinos from the Sun should have a value
10 2
of 7.4 * 10 neutrinos/cm ■ sec. Cormak (Ref. 18) stated the assumption
that if the neutrinos were to possess magnetic moments, they should have
interaction with the electrons of the metallic iron nucleus of the Earth
 121

through a kind of inelastic collision. Thereby, he evaluated the inten­

sity of the energy emission as it is dependent upon the magnitude /105
of the magnetic moments of the neutrinos (Fig. 3). Certain investigators
hold that the upper limit for n has a magnitude of n^ = 180 • 10 ^ Bohr
magnetons. In that way, the probability of the peak (on the curve -
“8 “15
Fig. 3) value of energy in 3 • 10 erg;/gm • sec = 0 . 7 • 10 cal/gm •
sec is not excluded. This energy, which corresponds to the magnetic
*6
moment and n = 8 • 10 Bohr magnetons is not excluded. The heating,
due to the absorption of neutrinos during the existence of the Earth can,
in this case, give

-15
0.7 10 4.5 10' 3.15 10'
T =
= Q • t 300
c 0.3

i.e., a practically small value.

e) The emission of heat due to tidal friction. The simple

calculation made by P. P. Cotov (Ref. 19) showed that the change in the
duration of a day within the lifetime of the Earth from 4 hours to 24
hours leads to the decrease of energy of rotation from 107 • lO3^ erg
36 in
to 3 • 10 erg. The difference in the energies is 104 10 36 erg.
,36
During the departure of the Moon from the Earth, 13.5 • 10 erg should
37
have been depleted. The remaining 9 • 10 erg should have been in some
way absorbed inside the Earth. This energy has a ratio of 5:1 less than
the energy of radiogenic origin. This is the energy which is emitted
during the lifetime of the Earth. Therefore, the contribution of this
effect in the energetic balance of the entire Earth's sphere is insig­
nificant. Ye. N. Lyustikh (Ref. 20) and V. A. Magnitskiy (Ref. 21) have
indicated that the deceleration of the Earth's rotation is mainly due to
the tidal friction in the seas. But a small part of this energy can be
absorbed by the hard part of the Earth owing to its deviation from ideal
elasticity. This energy undoubtedly is less than the energy of gravi­
tational differentiation.

The long-lived isotopes. In recent years much work has been

dedicated to the detailed investigation of the role of 11^38^ AcU^35 j
^232, j,40 the thermal evolution of the Earth (Refs. 12, 15,
22-32). Until now, the content of radioactive elements in the Earth's
sphere appears to be the greatest undetermined parameter in this problem.
For its determination the mean composition of the Earth is usually
identified with the mean composition of the meteorites. Actually Birch
(Ref. 31) and MacDonald (Refs. 28, 32), whose works are based on the
 122
semi-emperical equation of state for matter in the Earth's crust, come
to the conclusion that by the contents and elastic properties, the
composition of the crust most closely approximates the substance of
meteorites of the chondrite type. Many authors have usually identified
the nucleus of the Earth by its composition with iron meteorites (Refs.
7, 22). The latest experiments on the expansion of shock waves in rock
formations have proved to be in greater agreement with the supposition
concerning the iron nucleus and not silicate which is transferred into
a metallic phase (Refs. 33, 34).

In our first calculations of the thermic history of the Earth

(Ref. 25), the schemes of the silicate nucleus were investigated more
frequently than the schemes of the iron nucleus. Two extreme /106
evaluations A and B have been distinguished for the mean concentration
of radioactive elements throughout the entire Earth. This concentration
in the initial stages of the development of the Earth was considered to
be uniform. Then the ratio of iron to rock meteorites was taken as 1 to
3, which corresponds to the iron content in the volume of the Earth's
nucleus. As a result (Ref. 27) the value C for which this ratio equaled
1 to 7 was utilized, which corresponded more nearly to the silicate
composition of the nucleus and to the portion of iron which was scattered
throughout the volume of the Earth in the form of oxides .

H IO "‘
S C AL/C M S SEC

depth , i o 3 km

Fig. 4. The Curves of the Fig. 5. The Scheme of the Dis­

Generation of heat by long-lived tribution of Temperature in the
isotopes. The Continuous line is Earth with an Iron Nucleus
the value A ' . The dotted line is According to the Calculation of
A, the broken line is C and the the Energy of Differentiation
dash and dot line is C/2. (in °K) .
 123

According to data from the new method of discovering traces of

radioactivity by means of the radiation activation analysis, it is
established that in the iron meteors there should be a significantly
238 232
smaller content of U and Th than was considered earlier. From these
data, it also follows that among our evaluations, A appears to be much
more probable, but it should be made more exact in relation with the data
of the radiation activation analysis on iron meteorites.

The content of U and Th in rock meteorites according to the

evaluation of A was taken by us to be equal to 1.3 • 10"® gm/gm U,
_ g
3.9 • 10 gm/gm Th. This was practically confirmed by recent data
_ O _ Q
(Ref. 35) which give 1.1 • 10 gm/gm U and 4.4 . 10
gm/gm Th. By
~8
defining the new evaluation by A' we shall have 0.87 • 10 gm/gm U;
3.5 • 10 ® gm/gm Th and 8 • 10 ^ gm/gm K.

The corresponding generation of heat is shown in Fig. 4. As a

comparison, the curves of the generation according to our previous values
AC and also the evaluation of C/2 utilized by B. Yu. Levin and S. V.
Mayeva (Ref. 30) were offered. It is obvious for the Earth with an /107
iron nucleus, the curve of the heat emission should be below the results
obtained earlier. For a heat due to radioactivity, the heat accumulation
should be less, and the resulting temperatures should be lower. The
temperature variation was evaluated for the model of the Earth containing
an iron core. However, in addition to radioactivity the heat emitted
in the process of gravitational differentiation should have been consid­
ered in the calculations.

On the basis of the recent paleomagnetic reduction (Ref. 36) the

magnetic field of the Earth, approximately of the same force as it is now,
should have already existed 2 • 10^ years ago. This means that the for­
mation of the nucleus must have been concluded before this period. If we
9
accept, as before, the age of the Earth being equal to 4.5 • 10 years we
consider that the changeover of the Earth with the formation of an iron
9
nucleus occurred during the first 2.5 • 10 years. During this time
concentration of the radioactive elements in the nucleus of the Earth was
reduced to zero as follows from data given in the paper (Ref. 35). During
9
the last 2 • 10 years the temperature of the nucleus could have risen only
with the influx of heat across its boundaries from internal layers of the
crust. In Fig. 5 the temperature curves corresponding to the described
scheme are shown. They give the minimum temperatures due to radioactivity.
If we take into consideration the fact, that in the process of formation
of the nucleus during the first 2.5 billion years, the emission of heat
124

in the process of gravitational differentiation of equal intensity, has

been added to the radioactive heat generation (equally throughout the
Earth), then T should be increased to 2000°C. We see that as a result
of the influx of heat from the crust, the temperature of the external
parts of the nucleus in this new scheme could reach the melting point.
Thus, it is not obligatory for the explanation of the external liquid
nucleus to resort to the hypothesis of the initially molten and slowly
cooling Earth as did Jacobs (Ref. 37) and Verhoogen (Ref. 7) recently.

From what we have said, it follows that the evolution of the

Earth was directed toward a gradual secular heating under the effect of
heat of slowly disintegrating radioactive elements and possibly of the
gravitational differentiation of the Earth.
 125

REFERENCES

1. R. A. Fish, G. G. Goles, E. Anders. Astrophysical Journal 132, 2^3, I960.

2. V. S. Safronov. Astronomicheskiy Zhurnal 31> ^99> 195^*

3- V. S. Safronov. Voprosy Kosmogonii (Problems of Cosmogony) 6,

63, 1958.

k. Ye. A. Lyubimova, A. G. Starkova. Astron. Zh. 31, No. 5, *+29, 195*+«

5. V. G. Fesenkov. Astron. Zh. 3*+, No. 1, 105-120, 1957*

6. W. M. Latimer. Science 112, 101-10*+, 1950*

7. J. Verhoogen. Science 25, No. 1, I960; Geophysical Journal of the

Royal Astronomical Society 4, 71, 1961.

8. H. Z. Urey. The Planets, Their Origin and Development, London 1952.

9. A. E. Beck. Journal of Geophysical Research 66, No. 5, 251, 1961.

10. V. S. Safronov. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk, SSSR, Seriya Geofizicheskaya,

No. 1, 139, 1959. /108

11. L. D. Landau, Ye. M. Lifshits. Mekhanika Sploshnikh Sred (The Mechanics

of Continuous Matter), Moscow, Gosudarstvennoye Izdatel'stvo
Tekhnicheskoy i Teoreticheskoy Literatury, 1953, P» 629 .

12. Ye. A. Lyubimova. Trudy Instituta Fiziki Zemly, No. 20 (I87 ), 1961.

13- Ye. N. Lyustikh. Doklady Akademii Nauk, SSSR, 6 9 , No. 8, 1*+17, 19*+8.

1*+. V. A. Krat. Voprosy Kosmogonii (Problems of Cosmogony) 7, 97,i960 .

15* A. E. Ringwood. Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta 20, No. 3-*+» 2*+l, i960 .

16. Ya. B. Zeldovich, Ya A. Smorodinskiy. Zhurnal Experimentalnoy i

Teoreticheskoy Fiziki *+l, No. 3 (9), 1961.

17. K. Be the. Phys. Rev. 55, *+3*+, 1939-

18. N. Cormak. Phys. Rev. 95, No. 2, 195*+*

126

REFERENCES (Cont'd)

19- P- P- Botov. Priroda No. 3, 122-129, i960 .

20. Ye. N. Lyustlkh. Priroda No. 3, 123, I960.

21. V. A. Magnitsky.- Priroda No. 3, 123, I960.

22. J. A. Jacobs. Travaux, Sci. Ser. A, France 18, 1959.

23 . J. A. Jacobs. Nature 185, No. 97 12, 521, i960 .

29. J. A. Jacobs and D. W. Allan. Transactions, Royal Society of Canada,

98, Ser. Ill, 1, 33, 1959.

25. Ye. A. Lyubimova. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR. Ser. Geofiz. No. 2,
3, 1952.

26. Ye. A. Lyubjmova. Doklady A. N. SSSR, 107, No. 1, 55, 1956.

27- H. A. Lubimova. Geopfrys. J. R. A. S. 1, No. 2, 1958.

28. G. J. F. Mac Donald. J. Geophys. Res., 6 l, No. 2, 387, 1956.

29. S. P. Clark. J. Geophys. Res., 66, No. 9, 1231, 1961.

30. B. Yu. Levin, C. V. Mayev. Tzv. A. N. SSSR. Ser. Geofiz. No. 2,

243, I960.

31. F. Birch. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 69 , 9-83-986,

1958.

32. G. J. F. Mac Donald. J. Geophys. Res. 69, No. 11, 1959.

33* E. V. Altshuler, K. K. Krupnikov, B. N. Lebedyev, S. B. Kormer, and

M. I. Brazhnik. Zh. Eksperim. i Teor. Fiz., 7, 606, 1958.

39. L. V. Altshuler, S. B. Kormer. Izvestiya A. N. SSSR, Ser. Geofiz.

No. 1, 3 3 , 1961.

35* H. Hamaguchi, G. W. Reed and A. Turkevich. Geochim. et Cosmochim.

Acta 12, 337-397, 1957.

36. A. Coxa, R. R. Doell. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 71, 695-768, i960 .

37- J. A. Jacobs. Geophys. J. R. A. S. 9, 89, I96 I.

 127

REVIEW OF CONTEMPORARY DATA CONCERNING THE MOON /109

By

B. Yu. Levin and Ye. L. Ruskol

This review includes the contemporary data concerning the motion

of the Moon, its atmosphere, photometric characteristics, surface temper­
ature, nature of the surface layer, relief, origin of the Moon, its thermal
history and internal structure.

I. The Orbital Motion, Rotation and Librations

1. The motion of the Moon about the Earth which takes place in
the first approximation, along an elliptical orbit, is extremely compli­
cated. This complication is explained by the enormous disturbances from
the Sun, a large part of which is connected first with the proximity of
the Earth (and the Moon) to the Sun and -second with the comparatively
great remoteness of the Moon from the Earth (in comparison with satellites
of other planets). At the same time, the proximity of the Moon to the
Earth (in comparison with other celestial bodies) permits a very accurate
observation of its motion, and in an accurate theory this compels the
consideration of even small disturbances from Venus, Mars and Jupiter and
also disturbances coming from the oblate shape of the Earth.

2. Due to the fact that the period of axial rotation of the Moon
is equal to the period of its revolution about the Earth, approximately
half of the lunar surface is observable from the Earth. However, the
inclination of the lunar equator to the plane of its orbit creats an
optical libration along the latitude permitting a view of somewhat more
of the Moon in the regions of its poles. The uniform rotation of the
Moon in conjunction with the varying velocity of its motion in orbit from
the law of areas (the second law of Kepler) creates an optical libration
along the longitude enabling us to see more of the Moon in its regions
along the east and west boundaries. Because of the powerful /IIP
perturbations of the Moon's orbit, the magnitude of the librations does
not remain constant but changes somewhat. The maximum libration in
latitude is 6°50' and the maximum libration in longitude is 7°54'. Thus
the general optical libration can exceed 10° in rare cases.
 128

Furthermore, there is also a parallactic libration. By observing

the Moon not from the center of the Earth but from its surface, and also
by observing it not while it is at the zenith but at the horizon, we can,
in addition, see more because of the daily parallax (about 1°) .

As a result of these reasons, one can observe 59j of the surface

of the Moon, while only 41$ of its surface is constantly turned toward the
Earth.

Because of the libration, the center of the visible disc of the

Moon shifts along its surface. The speed of this shift is determined
primarily by the shift of the observer. This shift is relative, due to
the diurnal rotation of the Earth, i.e., by the change of parallactic
libration. The diurnal changes are such that the speed of the shift is
at its maximum during the culmination of the Moon and is at its minimum
during its rising or setting. (In addition, this speed is essentially
dependent on the latitudes where the observer is located and the incli­
nation of the Moon.)

3. The equality of the periods of rotation and revolution of the

Moon is not an accidental coincidence but a stable state stipulated by
the triaxial nature of the ellipsoid of lunar inertia. This stable state
was reached as a result of a gradual braking of the once rapid axial
rotation of the Moon by mundane tidal forces. Thereby, in accordance
with stability requirements, a small axis of the inertia ellipsoid proved
to be directed on Earth, i.e., axis along which the contour of the Moon
is most elongated.

4. The optical libration (with the exception of a small part

connected with the daily parallax) leads to the fact that the major axis
of the lunar contour (i.e., the small axis of the inertia ellipsoid)
declines at times from the direction toward the Earth and then there
appears a pair of forces striving to return this axis to the radius
vector. As a result, a constrained physical libration occurs, i.e., an
actual lunar oscillation of an extremely small amplitude (approximately
2'). Nevertheless a study of physical libration is of great interest,
since it enables us to identify the difference of the equatorial axes
of the Moon's ellipsoid of inertia. Generally speaking, a free libration
of the Moon is also possible, but it is so small that it cannot be observed.

5. The exact determination of the lunar contour from optical

observations is very difficult. The contour of the Moon is distorted by
irregularities at the rim of the lunar disc, which vary in the presence
of different librations, and the determination of the most probable/111
curvature which represents the lunar disc, requires prolonged systematic
observations. A. A. Yakovkin (Refs. 53, 54) came to the conclusion that
the contour of the Moon is asymmetrical. The visible contour of the
 129

northern hemisphere approaches a circle, whereas the contour of the

southern hemisphere is better described by an ellipse with the major
semiaxis oriented at a small angle toward the southern polar axis. The
deviation of this ellipse from a circle (ellipticity) is approximately
1:1300. However, the observations of the lunar profile by Vaymer (Ref.
5) showed that the smoothed contour of the lunar disc can be presented
as a circle, and that the conclusion concerning the asymmetry of the
Moon's contour has no basis. An indication of another type of asymmetry:
a weak ellipticity (1:1200) with the major axes inclinated at an angle
of 36° toward the polar axis of the Moon, was obtained from a study of
a single observation of the Moon during its full stage [Potter (Ref. 31)].

Evidently the deviation of the Moon's contour from a circle is

specified by its relief and is not related to its dynamic shape.

Baldwin (Ref. 57) utilizing determinations by Frantz and Saunder

of the heights of points on the lunar surface and while investigating
separate points located on the continents and seas, found that the
average level of the seas is by 1.5 km lower than the level of the
continents and that the protuberance directed toward the Earth has an
altitude of 2 km. However, this result is very inaccurate.

As a result of low accuracy of previous measurements on old

hypsometric charts of the Moon [Frantz (Ref. 69), Ritter (Ref. 103),
Schrutka-Rechtenstamm and Hopmann (Ref. 105)], the isohyps traverse
the seas and continents, without exposing the seas in the capacity of
depressions and the continents in the capacity of protuberances [see
also Du-Fresne, (Ref. 65)]. This appears only on the new hypsometric
chart of the Moon which was recently published by Baldwin (Ref. 58) and
which is based on his personal measurements of the elevations. However,
the elevations as such and the general data obtained from them concerning
the lunar contour have not as yet been published.

6. It has been proven for a long time that the dynamic contour
of the Moon, i.e., its ellipsoid of inertia does not correspond to the
hydrostatic equilibrium at the present character of its motion. The
theory of the Moon's motion, makes it possible for us to find, with great
C - a
accuracy, the relation — -— (A, B, C are the moments of inertia in
relation to the main axes) , according to the inclination of the lunar
equator toward the elliptic.

— ^ = 0.00063,
L

which is 17 times greater than the equilibrium value (0.0000375). The

observations of the amplitude of the Moon's physical vibration permits us
 130

to find the relationship but with little accuracy. We obtain/112

B - ~ ~ = 0.00012 0.00020
L

instead of the equilibrium value 0.0000281. The difference in the

equatorial axis of inertia is several times less than the difference of
the polar and equatorial axis; as in the case of the tidal raise, these
differences should be almost identical at any distance between the Moon
and the Earth, since during the hydrostatic equilibrium and the equality
C - A 4
of the periods as well as rotations are always ---- — =— . The basic
B - A 3
deviation of the dynamic contour of the Moon from the equilibrium is its
oblate nature on which only a small elongation along the direction to
the Earth is superimposed.

If the Moon had a homogeneous density, then the difference of its

axis of inertia would signify that the polar diameter is approximately
2 km less than the equatorial diameter and that the difference in the
equatorial diameters is about 0.3 km. Thereby there should exist in the
center of the Moon, stresses of about 20 km/cm^, which is only possible
in the presence of a lunar rigid state of matter. However, according to
present concepts, the central parts of the Moon should be heated, and
not molten, then in any case they would be softened and therefore in­
capable of withstanding similar stresses over a period of several million
years. Therefore Urey, Elzasser, and Rochester (Ref. 114) have considered
a model of the Moon, in which the stresses at the center equalled zero
and the observed triaxial nature of the ellipsoid of inertia is caused by
a varying distribution of density along various radii. (The density is
at its maximum along the polar axis and at its minimum in the direction
towards the Earth.) Thus, the absence of stresses in the center is
achieved in this model by means of the introduction of such stresses into
the shell, for which it is easier to admit a solid state.

In the future, studies on the mass distribution of the Moon will

be accomplished by means of observations from aboard artificial lunar
satellites.

II. The Atmosphere

7. Because of the Moon's small mass, the force of gravity on its

surface is 6 times less than on the Earth (g„, = 0.165 g„ = 162 cm/
^ “Moon “Earth
sec ). Also of a correspondingly lower magnitude is the velocity of
escape, or according to rocket terminology the second cosmic velocity
 131

(u = 2.38 km/sec). This velocity is less than 5 times greater than

the mean quadratic velocity of the molecules of common atmospheric gases
and hence the condition necessary for the existence of a sufficiently /113
stable atmosphere is not fulfilled. Therefore, the Moon is practically
deprived of an atmosphere.

8. The absence of any perceptible atmosphere- on the Moon is

apparent in the blackness of shadows and the sharpness of all details.
This is also evident in the absence of the phenomena of refraction in the
occultation of stars by the Moon, this is most apparent during obser­
vations of the points at the narrow sickle of the Moon (about new Moon).
At this time the conditions of illumination are such that even a rarefied
atmosphere should have given a perceptible scattered light. The absence
of this light showed that the density of the atmosphere near the surface
9
of the Moon is at least 10 less than the density of the atmosphere at the
surface of the Earth [Dollfus (Ref. 63)].

9. If C, N, 0, H were present in the lunar atmosphere in a

sufficient quantity, then the florescence of neutral and ionized molecules,
-{- "}*
primarily CO and N might be observed. The absence of the similar
fluorescence shows that the quantity of the molecules which are capable of
^3 ^ 2 7
fluorescing is less than 10 to 10 /cm , which at an altitude of 10 cm
of the homogeneous atmosphere means, that their density near the surface
6 7 - 3
is less than 10 to 10 cm [Urey (Ref. 113)].

10. The extremely rarefied lunar atmosphere should be partially

ionized,and therefore its presence can be studied by observations during
a period when the Moon is located between the Earth and the cosmic sources
of radio emission. Observations of occultation of the Cancer nebulae were
conducted in 1956 by Elsemore (Ref. 68) at a wavelength of 3.7 meters.
These gave the deviation of the observed duration of occultation from the
theoretical at 0.4 ± 0.26 minute. If you consider that the deviation is
actual, this indicated the concentration of electrons at the surface of
3 -3 -3
the Moon to be 10 cm . Since 10 molecules should be ionized, this
corresponds to a density of the molecules 10^ to 10^ cm i.e., 1 0 ^
times less than the density of the near Earth atmosphere.

Nevertheless, the contemporary data concerning the rate of the

gas loss by the Moon compels us to doubt that the Moon has even a rarefied
atmosphere.

11. It was once considered that the Moon could possess an atmos­
phere of heavy inert gases - krypton and xenon formed during radioactive
 132

processes and under the effect of cosmic rays. As Urey (Ref. 113) indi­
cated, in the conditions when the layer of dissipation (exosphere) is
siutated at a considerable altitude from the surface and is very hot,
even these gases are quickly lost. But when the exosphere adjoins the
surface, and has as in the last case a comparatively low temperature,
the dissipation continues slowly and there is a possibility for the
g
existence of an atmosphere with a density not greater than 10 atoms
, 3
per 1 cm .

However, the calculation of the ionizing activities of ultra­

violet solar radiation which was conducted by Opik and Singer (Ref. 99),
has shown that the repelling effect of the positively charged lunar /I14
surface on the ionized atoms of krypton and xenon accelerates this
process to such a degree that the period of semi-decomposition and the
rarefied krypton-xenon atmosphere is on the order of 10® years. The
unpublished data by these authors which was quoted by Watson, Murray and
Brown (Ref. 115) give the period of photodissociation and the loss of
water vapors in the atmosphere of the Moon as being of a magnitude on
the order of one day.

12. The most effective mechanism which removes the lunar atmos­
phere is evidently the solar wind created by a proton flux, which travels
with a velocity of about 10® cm/sec. At a density of the flux of 10^
protons/cm®, the period of semi-decomposition of the atmosphere is on the
order of one day [Harring and Licht (Ref. 77, 78)].

At the same time, the rain of the proton fluxes on to the Moon
leads to the existence of a constant atmosphere consisting of neutral
hydrogen with a density of about 10® atoms/cm®.

13. The discharge of gases in the Alphonsus crater observed by

N. A. Kozyrev (Ref. 20) shows that there still takes place the process of
degasification of the lunar interior, i.e., the process of discharge of
those volatile substances which went into the composition of the Moon
during its formation and which have basically already been discharged for
the most part 3-4 billion years ago during the time of the maximum heating
of the interior. According to the spectral photometric investigation by
A. Kalinyak (Ref. 16), the radiation band photographed by Kozyrev
apparently belongs to the molecule fluorescing under the action of
solar radiation just as it occurs in the heads of comets. Although the
unique observation of Kozyrev gives no means of judging the frequency
and the abundance of such discharges, it is possible to doubt the fact
that in the presence of solar wind, they are able to create a lunar
atmosphere with a density of even 10^ to 10 ^ particles/cm®.
 133

14. It was considered until recently that the absence of lunar

atmosphere made the existence of ice on its surface impossible. This is
undoubtedly true for the parts of the surface illuminated by the Sun
where ice can exist only at a certain depth in the form of an "eternal
frozen state", protected by a blanket of dust. However, according to
Watson, Murray and Brown (Ref. 115) , there exist places on the Moon
which have never been illuminated by the Sun, where there is a possibility
of unprotected ice accumulations. In the lunar polar regions, the
mountain slopes turned toward the poles are never illuminated by the Sun,
and therefore these are "cold traps" with a temperature of about 120°K.
At such a low temperature, the melting of the ice occurs extremely slowly,
and on the other hand the accumulation of ice deposits in such traps can
occur since a perceptible portion of the water vapors emitted in any
spot on the lunar surface should fall into these "cold traps" prior to/115
being "blown off" by the solar wind. Since we observe the Moon from the
same direction along which the Sun shines during the full Moon, these
cold traps are not accessible for observation from the Earth.

The calculations by Watson, Murray and Brown require a revision,

since the illumination of the "traps" by light reflected from the
surrounding mountain summits and other illuminated areas of the surface,
as well as meteoric erosion, are not taken into consideration.

III. Photometric Data

15. During the full Moon, the lunar disc has an almost uniform
brightness (if you disregard the spots caused by the presence of regions
with a varying reflecting capability), i.e., it does not display a
systematic darkening toward the edge. Under such conditions of illumi­
nation, the smooth sphere shows sharp drops in brightness toward the
border of the disc. As Galileo noted in his "Dialogues" concerning the
two systems of the universe, "the uniform brightness of the full Moon
indicates the fact that it has an extremely "rough" surface. Along its
border as well as about the center of the disc, the visible brightness is
created by a large number of elements from the surface. These elements
are equally diversely oriented in relation to the solar rays which are
illuminating them.

The uniform brightness of the full Moon to which Galileo turned

his attention was only comparatively recently supported by photometric
measurements [A. V. Markov (Refs. 25, 26).

16. Approximately during the full Moon, the brightness of the

lunar surface is at its maximum [N. P. Barabashev (Ref. 59)]. It decreases
rapidly with the increase of the phase angle (i.e., the angles between
134

the bearings toward the Sun and toward the Earth) , and then the decrease
slows down [V. V. Sharonov (Refs. 48, 49)]. This indicates the fact that
the surface is not simply rough, but deeply "eroded". On it there exists
numerous depressions or gaps between the block masses or dust particles
(concerning the dimensions of which it is impossible to judge on the
basis of one set of photometric data). At such a proximity of the direc­
tion of illumination and observation, which occurs during a full Moon,
the shadows are practically invisible, but they become visible at the
slightest variation of these directions, and this decreases the overall
brightness of the surface.

The presence of a sharp illumination maximum during the full Moon

is observed at all lunar formations in spite of the diversity of their
structure and reflecting characteristics. These are thereby independent
of the position of these objects on the lunar disc: at the bottom of the
craters, by the seas, on continental areas, and near crater rays. In the
case of the latter, the maximum luminosity is particularly sharp [V. A.
Fedorets (Ref. 44), Van Diggelen (Ref. 62)]. This testifies to the fact
that the microrelief of the lunar surface is similar throughout. The/116
similarity with the photometric characteristics of the lunar surface is
displayed by models of surfaces, 65 to 75$ of which are covered with
holes, the depth of which is greater than their diameter (spherical
depressions, as well as spherical protuberances do not give any comparison.)
It is interesting to note that the best coincidence with the photometric
curve of the lunar surface is given by a curve for lichen (Cladonia
Rangiferina). This graphically attests to the extreme roughness of the
lunar surface.

17. The great brightness of the Moon, particularly under obser­

vations with a telescope, creates a deceptive impression of its whiteness.
(In the past this has led to falacious ideas that the Moon is covered
with ice or snow. This contradicts the dominating physical conditions
of the Moon.) Indeed, the Moon reflects only 7$ of the light falling on
it. The albedo of the Moon's surface in the optical range amounts to
0.05-0.09 for the dark planes (seas), 0.1 for the continental areas, and
0.17-0.18 for the brightest formations such as the rays of the craters
or the bottom of the crater Aristarchus. The limits of the change of
albedo on the opposite side of the Moon do not differ appreciably from
the corresponding values for the visible part of the surface [A. V.
Markov (Ref. 27)]. Thus, the reflective capability of the lunar surface
is very low; i.e., the Moon is almost black.

In the radio frequency range, in the 1 cm waveband, the surface of

the Moon also has a low albedo, about 0.07 [Hughes (Ref. 79)].

18. The photometric investigations of the lunar surface were

encumbered by the circumstance that for any detail the angle of observation
changes owing to the libration of the Moon, but only within narrow limits.
 135

The angle of illumination of the detail changes within wide limits with
changes in lunar phase. As Minnaert (Ref. 93) already indicated, 20
years aso, the application of the principle of the mutual substitution
of angular alignments of the illumination and observation can prove to
be a substantial help. Unfortunately, this principle is little utilized
for the photometric investigations of the Moon [N. P. Barabashev and
V. I. Yezersky (Refs. 3, 4)].

19. In spite of the significant distinctions in brightness of

the individual areas of the Moon's surface, color differences on it are
practically non-existent [L. N. Radlova (Refs. 33, 34), V. V. Sharonov
(Ref. 50)]. The light-color diagrams for the Moon's surface are not
similar to analogous diagrams for all known models for the Earth [N. N.
Sytinskaya (Ref. 40)] since the limits of the changes of the albedo and
the indicators of color for the Earth's formations are significantly
wider than those for lunar objects. Apparently this monochromatic
condition is caused by the influence of external cosmic factors on the
Moon's surface (meteor erosion, the influence of corpuscular fluxes and
cosmic rays). /117

Luminescence of the features on the Moon's surface under the action

of ultraviolet and corpuscular solar radiation is theoretically possible,
but at present, it can not be considered as being conclusively established
although certain observation data is available [Dubois (Ref. 64),
N. A. Kozyrev (Ref. 19)].

20. The light reflected by the Moon's surface is partially

polarized. The measurement of the magnitude of polarization [Lyot (Ref.
89, Dollfus (Ref. 63)] has shown that its maximum occurs at the ± 90°
phases of the Moon, i.e., about the first and last quarters. For the dark
areas (seas) this maximum amounts to 12-16Jo and for the brightest areas
(the inner parts of the bright craters) about 5$. Furthermore, the plane
of polarization is parallel to the equator of intensity ("positive"
polarization). During the 0° phase (full Moon), polarization does not
occur; and during the phases from 0 to 23° the plane of polarization is
perpendicular to the equator of intensity, i.e., the polarization is
"negative" with the extreme value of about 1°. It is possible that the
"negative" polarization is^explained by the repeated reflections from
diversely oriented areas [Ohman (Ref. 96)].

The observations in the blue and in the nearby ultraviolet regions

of the spectrum have shown greatly increased polarization of lunar light
in them [Gehrels (Ref. 71)].

Laboratory measurements of the polarization of light reflected by

Earth formations [Lyot (Ref. 89), Dollfus (Ref. 63)] have shown that the
best similarity with the curve of polarization for the Moon (and in both
136

a qualitative and quantitative relationship) is given by curves for dark

volcanic ash.

IV. Radio Location Data

21. If, relative to radio waves, the Moon were "white" and so
rough regarding light waves, then all parts of its disc would strongly
reflect radio waves toward the Earth. The difference between the distances
to the center and to the borders of the disc (equal to the radius of the
Moon R) would lead to a duration of the reflected signal of tg = 2R/c
= 11.6 milliseconds. However, in the first experiments on the radio
location of the Moon, the duration of the echo signal was equal to about
1 microsecond; i.e., it was found that reflection occurs only from the
central part of the disc with a diameter of about one third the general
diameter. Such a duration of echo signal was observed with wavelengths
of 2.5 meters [Evans (Ref. 67], 1.6 meters [Trexler (Ref. 112)] and
10.5 centimeters [Japlee and others (Ref. 80)]. This shows that relative
to radio waves, even those of 1 decimeter, the surface of the Moon appears
to be quasi-smooth and gives an almost mirror-like reflection. This
result agrees with the hypothesis that the surface consists of /118
small particles which resemble sand [Grant and Japlee (Ref. 75)] because
in the conditions on Earth during the location of dry sandy deserts from
the air, a mirror-like reflection is observed, i.e., a bright spot
exactly under the radio locator. This characteristic of the Moon of
giving a "mirror" reflection has been utilized for intercontinental radio
transmissions.

The analysis of the echo signal showed that after the arrival of the
reflection from the central high-light, which has the greatest amplitude
(usually several times greater than the noise level from the limb), there
fall on reflections from the side high-lights which interfere with one
another. These high-lights are formed by the non-horizontal surface
areas which are perpendicular to the line of vision and thus give a
mirror-like reflection to the Earth. The dimensions of the region from
which the side high-lights come show that there is a considerable number
of sections on the lunar surface with inclinations up to 5° to the
horizontal, but only a small portion of the surface has a high degree of
pitch. This portion is so small that the reflections from these areas
are often lost among the noises. The application of the present computers
of calculation has permitted the separating of signals which are much
weaker than the noise. This made it possible to receive the entire echo
from the Moon with a duration of 11.6 microseconds [Pettengill (Ref. 30)].
An analysis of the curve of dependence of force of the reflected signal-
the angular distance from the center of the disc, showed that along with
the "mirror" reflection, from the series of large areas, the lunar surface
 137

also gives a diffuse scattering of radio waves. The curve consists of

two parts: at first sharply falling according to the law of exponents
(-10.5 sin A), where A is the angle between the incident ray and vertical
at the point of incidence or the horizontal distance from the center of
the disc; and a more gently sloping part decreasing as (cos A)"5' . The
character of the entire curve can be explained on the supposition that
92$ of the surface of the Moon is made up of "smooth" area, covered by
particles with dimensions less than the length of the radio waves, and
8$ is made up of "rough" parts with details larger than the wavelengths.
The "smooth" part is mainly seas and the "rough" parts are rocky areas.

22. The time of arrival of the reflected signals, measured with

extremely high accuracy (one tenth of a millisecond), gives us the
distance from the disc's center of that circle where the reflecting area
is located. Simultaneously, the doppler measurement of wavelength which
is distinguished, up to a magnitude of 2 • 10 ^ , from the wavelength,
permits to the observer a very accurate establishment on the surface of
the planets a line with even departure velocity or approach velocity.
The intersection of this line with the circles gives the location of two
symmetrical areas relative to the equator from which the given signal is
obtained. The energy of the signal and the degree of its polarization
give information concerning the reflective surface. At present, the
radio location topographic chart of the Moon with a detailed /119
resolution of up to 100 kilometers [Pettengill (Ref. 100)] has been
drawn up according to this principle. It is true that on this chart, the
lunar disc appears is if "folded in half" along the equator. The
acquisition of similar charts under various librations of the Moon will
certainly permit the construction of a full (not folded in half) radio
location chart of the lunar disc.

The radio location method has great possibilities since there is

almost no limit to its resolution capacity during the increase in power
of the locators. The resolving capability of the time frequency analysis
is not dependent upon the distance to the object; therefore, its advan­
tages should be disclosed particularly during the study of remote planets.

V. The Temperature of the Surface

23. The radiometric observations have shown that the temperature

of the surface of the Moon rises to approximately + 100 to 120°C in the
Sun and falls to - 150°C and even lower in the unlighted (night) hemis­
phere [Pettit and Nicholson (Ref. 102)].
138

The distribution of temperature along the Moon's disc during full

Moon is such that the isotherms appear to be concentric circles. This
indicates the fact that the temperature very rapidly reaches an equi­
librium value corresponding to the given height of the Sun above the
horizon. Hence, the conduction of heat of the surface layer which
determines the outward flow of heat deep within, is very small. This is
also indicated by the absolute value of the temperature in the Sun. This
value is very close to the equilibrium for a surface which is practically
non-conductive of heat. The surface gives off all of the received heat
in the form of radiation.

24. The measurement of the temperature of the surface area (close

to the border of the disc) during the lunar eclipse in 1927 showed a very
sharp decline during the penumbral eclipse which corresponds to the
specific eclipse of the Sun for the studied area of the Moon's surface.
Within the time of passage of the Earth's shadow through this area, its
temperature dropped very little, and then with the convergence of
penumbral arrival it rapidly rose to the previous value [Pettit and
Nicholson (Ref. 102)]. During the eclipse in 1939, with a more precise
technique Pettit measured the temperature at the point near the center
of the lunar disc. The curve of the change of temperature was found to
be similar to the curve in 1927 [Pettit (Ref. 101)].

According to the data concerning the temperature change with lunar

phase, at the surface idealized in the form of a planar semi-space they
- 1/2
usually get a numerical value of the magnitude (k c p) , where k is
the heat transfer, c is the heat capacity, and p is the density of the/120
upper area of the lunar surface. Since this value proves to be very
large (about 1000), then when p = 2.0 and c = 0.2 (as with rocks on
Earth), the heat transfer k proves to be exceptionally low, on the order
"6
of 2 ■ 10 [Wesselink (Ref. 116)]. Such a low heat transfer was not
observed in any of the known terrestrial specimens, some of which were
exceptionally porous. Only the heat transfer of powders in a vacuum
approach this value [Smolukhovskiy (Ref. Ill)].

A low value for the dielectric constant of the lunar surface was
obtained from radio observations. This implies a low density for the
3
surface layer of 0.4 - 0.5 gm/cm , i.e., much lower than that of Earth's
formation [A. E. Salomonovich (Ref. 37)]. Since the surface layer itself
consists of dust, its density must be exceptionally loose. Such a surface
area structure explains its low heat transfer: the small dust particles
in the vacuum transfer heat only across small areas of the contact of
individual particles.

The thickness of the surface layer that has low heat conductivity
is not the same in various regions of the Moon. Measurements of the
 139

thermal flux which is emitted by the Moon during a lunar eclipse show
that the temperatures in various spots fall unevenly. Craters with rays
(young formations) cool off more slowly than the regions surrounding
them. Sinton (Ref. 38), during the eclipse of September 5, 1960,
measured the flux of heat on a wavelength 8.0-9.5 p. along the chord
crossing the Tycho crater (the center of the largest ray system). During
the eclipse, the temperature in the crater remained 30-40° higher than
the surrounding regions. This result can be explained by the assumption
that the bottom of the Tycho crater is only partially covered by a dust
layer and that in certain spots on the surface rocks emerge. (By
calculation, 89$ is a dust layer and 11$ is rock.) Solid rock formations
possessing a higher heat transfer during the eclipse continue to radiate
the heat coming from the deeper layers. Another explanation amounts to
the fact that the thickness of the dust layer within the crater must be
about 0.3 mm, and much thicker outside it. The origin of the dust
blanket apparently is connected with the bombardment of the lunar surface
with meteorites. The fact that this blanket is so thin is in agreement
with the relatively young age of the Tycho crater.

Analogous results were obtained by Saari and Shorthill (Ref. 104)

for the craters Copernicus, Aristarchus, and Kepler, as well as Tycho.

Evidently, a model of the non-homogenous lunar surface, which

would be partially covered by a layer of dust of varying thickness and
partially by protruding solid rock formations, is close to actuality.
Such a model would agree with the data concerning the surface temperatures
much better than the single layer or the solid double layer model.

25. In recent years, measurements of the Moon's specific /121

thermal radiation have been conducted. The depth penetration of electro­
magnetic waves is two to three times greater than their wavelength;
radio emission from different layers beneath the Moon's surface is there­
fore measured during observations on various wavelengths.

The observations of radio emission give the brightness temperature,

i.e., the temperature of the dark body radiating with the same intensity
in the area of the spectrum which is under study. In the dark body, the
brightness temperature coincides with the true temperature. Thanks to
the fact that the Moon, in the radio frequency range as in the visible
region, possesses a very small reflective capacity for the center of the
lunar disc (in a direction which is normal to the surface), the brightness
temperature exceeds the true temperature by only 2 to 3$. However, since
the reflectivity increases in the case of an inclined direction, the
brightness temperatures drop at the border of the lunar disc. In other
words, the form of the brightness temperature isotherms usually in the
capacity of radio observation results, differ essentially from the form
of the true isotherms.
140

The measurement ot radio emission on wavelengths from 75 cm to

10 cm originating at depths which exceed the wavelength approximately
on the order of one, indicated that the temperature there remains almost
constant, during all lunar days and equals 230°K [N. L. Kaydanovskiy,
M. T. Turusbekov, S. E. Khaikin (Ref. 15) and Seeger (Ref. 106)]. This
temperature stability at a small depth is more independent proof of the
very small heat conductivity of the surface layer.

On wavelengths less than 3 cm, originating at depths up to half

a meter, a change in temperature relative to the lunar phase has been
observed, whereby these changes increase with decrease of wavelengths
[M. R. Zelinskaya, V. S. Troitskiy, and L. I. Fedoseyeva (Ref. 14);
N. A. Amenitskiy, R. I. Noskova, and A. Ye. Salomonovich (Ref. 1)]. On
a wavelength of 1.5 mm, the temperature fluctuations are close to those
which are observed in the infrared region [Sinton (Ref. 109)]. On a
wavelength of 1.5 mm, as well as in the infrared rays, the temperature
maximum of the central parts of the disc appears during a full Moon, and
on wavelengths of 12 to 16 mm, the maximum is delayed by approximately 3
days; i.e., it occurs during a phase shift of 35 to 40°.

26. Because of the fact that the axis of rotation of the Moon
is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, the polar regions
of the Moon are always less heated by the Sun. Therefore, at such depth
where the temperature remains constant, the latter should decline sub­
stantially from the equator toward the poles. Observations with large
radio telescopes on ultra short waves, when the dimensions of the antenna
beam widths are less than the dimensions of the lunar disc, make it
possible to measure the temperature distribution along the lunar disc.
The shape of the isotherms, obtained at a wavelength of 8 mm, /122
confirmed the decrease of temperature toward the poles.

Near the equator, the temperature is approximately -40°C at a

depth where the temperature is constant. Near the poles, the temperature
might drop by 100 to 200° . A similar latitudinal change of the
"stationary" temperature of the surface layer should be accompanied by a
corresponding change of temperature distribution along the Moon's radius
from the equator toward the poles.

VI. The Structure of the Surface Layer (Micro Relief)

27. Due to the absence of an atmosphere on the Moon, all of the

meteoric particles down to the smallest dust specks, reach and erode the
surface without encountering any obstacles, creating a layer which is
known as the dust layer. In the terrestrial conditions a dust substance
is friable. This may be explained by the fact that dust particles in
 141

the air are always covered with a film of adsorbed molecules. This
film impedes the contact and adherence of the dust particles with each
other. In a vacuum, when the adsorbed film is absent, adherence
(agglomeration) of the dust particles occurs.

The return of dust particles to the lunar surface, after they have
been thrown upward during explosions of meteoric particles which impacted
the Moon, leads, as a result of this adherence, to the formation of ex­
tremely friable, porous structures. These structures should cover not
only horizontal sections of the lunar surface, but also slopes.

Because of the high speed with which meteors strike the lunar
surface, there occurs in addition to the granulation and scattering of
the particle matter as well as the surface itself, also a vaporization
of a certain part of this matter. The condensation of atoms and molecules
which penetrate into crevices between the dust particles increases the
strength of adherence of the particles, and in addition, it imparts to
the surface a black color, which is characteristic of porous, hetero­
genous substances in which diverse molecules are mixed unsystematically.
Such a porous, brittle layer, formed under the effect of meteoric impacts,
carries in fact those characteristics which were disclosed by observations:
extremely low heat transfer, the corrugation of the micro relief and
blackness [N. N. Sytinskaya (Refs. 39, 41, 42) and F. Whipple (Ref. 117)].

It should be added that the micro relief of the lunar surface is

defined as a characteristic of structures, which are formed during the
ejection and adherence of dust particles, as well as by indentations and
small craters, created during meteoric impacts and during an ejection of
large fragments. (The latter are capable of creating not only indentations
but also mounds.)

28. The speed of the meteoric impacts is so great that the mass
of the pulverized substance of the surface itself is tens and hundreds of
times greater than the mass of particles which impacted. Therefore, the
external porous layer consists primarily, not of meteoric matter, /123
but of the pulverized lunar matter. As a result, in the reflective
ability of various areas of the lunar surface, (for example, the "seas"
and the "continents") the difference in the optical characteristics of
the rock formations which make up these areas is disclosed. This also
shows that the substance is usually not scattered at great distances.

After the formation of the layer of perceptible thickness, the

further impacts of small particles affect only this layer and only the
more infrequent impacts of large bodies break up the matter beneath it.
Thereby, the speed of the thickness growth in the porous layer gradually
slows down and its contents (of meteoric matter) increases. The increase
in thickness in the layer can completely cease in the case of negative
142

over-all mass balance. This can take place during a sufficient quantity
of high speed impacts during which a significant part of the matter which
is scattered acquires speeds exceeding the escape velocity (2.4 km/sec)
and is lost by the Moon. In this case, quasi-equilibrium is reached
during which the rate of loss of matter by the Moon is statistically equal
to the rate of destruction of the underlying matter over a period of time
[Whipple (Ref. 117)]. At present, the scarcity of information concerning
the quantity and speeds of meteoric impacts and concerning the processes
of explosion and crater formation does not permit the evaluation of the
character of the mass balance or the thickness of the quasi-equilibrial
converted layers at various conditions. An indirect property indicating
the extremely significant role of the meteoric erosion of the lunar
surface is the smoothed out nature of the reflief of ancient lunar craters.
Since the discussion concerns the differences noticeable in medium sized
telescopes, erosion should have destroyed layers with a thickness of
hundreds of meters or even greater [Gold (Ref. 73)]. This is in accord­
ance with the maximum evaluations of space density of matter in meteors.
However, the hypothesis of Gold according to which all of this dust was
accumulated in the lunar depressions forming layers with a thickness of
hundreds of meters is not confirmed (see Section 36), and therefore it
is extremely probable that the over-all mass balance is negative.

Since the Moon is bombarded not only by small dust particles but
also by large meteorites, and even by asteroids and the nuclei of comets,
the thickness of the porous converted layer should be extremely irregular.
As was already said in Section 24, the floors of young craters, such as
Tycho, Copernicus, Kepler and Aristarchus, is covered with a layer about
0.3 mm thick. Probably ancient caverns exist with an especially great
thickness of porous matter.

The accumulation of dust particles in the caverns could have

occurred due to lunar quakes breaking down the fragile dust structures
and shifting them downward along the slope. It is also possible /I24
that there are two mechanisms participating. This was proposed by Gold
(see Section 36). Although they are not able to explain the shift of
dust particles, at hundreds of kilometers, as is necessary by his hypoth­
esis, it is possible that they are suitable for comparatively small
distances.

29. The absence of an atmosphere on the Moon also leads to the

bombardment of its surface by solar corpuscular fluxes. The mass of
matter brought by these fluxes as comparable with the influx of meteoric
matter and may even exceed it (10^0 protons/cm^ sec or 2 • 1 0 ' ^ gm/cm^
sec). This does not create an accumulation of matter on the surface of
the Moon since hydrogen is rapidly dispersed. On the contrary, this
creates a surface dispersion analogous to the cathode dispersion since
the energy of the protons amounts to 10^ to 10^ electron volts. At such
 143

great energy, the dispersion process continues extremely intensively and

can play a role which is no less significant than that of the meteoric
erosion. The high speeds being acquired by a significant part of the
dispersed matter can create a negative over-all mass balance, and the
remaining molecules and grains while settling on the surface should
impart to it a dark color (together with the condensing molecules which
were vaporized during meteoric impacts).

Cosmic rays and also ultraviolet radiation of the Sun evidently

play an insignificant role in the reformation of the surface layer of the
Moon. The effect of cosmic rays results mainly in nuclear conversions
during which unstable isotopes arise in particular (similar to the
process taking place in meteorites). The ultraviolet solar radiation
probably gives rise to small changes in the optical characteristics of
the surface layer. These changes are analogous to those that appear on
Earth when mountain tops are illuminated by the Sun.

VII. The Relief of the Moon's Surface

30. The appearance of the Moon's surface changes remarkably with

changing conditions of illumination. At about full Moon, the visibility
of details is determined by differences in their brightness, i.e., prac­
tically by differences in their coefficients of reflection. However,
since close to full Moon, the brightness is strongly dependent upon the
phase angle and thereby is somewhat different in regard to different
details, the appearance of the Moon's surface changes even with small
variations of this angle. Besides, the conditions of illumination and
observations of any area of the Moon's surface are also dependent upon
the phase of libration in latitude and longitude. The variety of
illumination conditions arising from this and the observations is almost
impossible to calculate. This has led and continues to lead to fallacious
conclusions concerning changes on the Moon's surface.

On surface areas being observed under conditions of indirect /125

illumination, the appearance of details due to variations in their
brightness is placed second in comparison with the appearance of surface
relief due to shadows cast by the slopes that are turned away from the
Sun and partly according to the increased brightness of the opposite
slopes. With the approach of the terminator to the area being observed,
the more gentle slopes, if they are only sufficiently drawn out in a
meridional direction, begin to cast noticeable shadows, changing the
appearance of the surface. In the case of very gentle slopes, the
penumbrae, i.e., the regions only partially darkened, play a substantial
role.
144

Kuipers descriptions of the lunar surface (Refs. 17, 85, 86) are
considered to be the best at the present time. His "Atlas of the Moon"
(Ref. 87) introduces a systematic selection of lunar photographs under
five different conditions of illumination. These observations were
taken with the help of the world's best modern telescopes.

31. On the surface of the Moon, the brighter regions thickly

dotted by craters and the dark plains with a fare more level surface
stand out. The first are conditionally called "continents" and the
second "seas". As was already stated (see Section 5), the surfaces of
the seas are on the average 1.5 km lower than the continents.

32. Hypsometric data concerning the relative heights of the

separate mountain formations are still extremely fragmentary and in­
accurate. Presently the accumulation of this data is intensive in the
USA, England, and France.

It is assumed that one of the summits in the Leibnitz mountains

at the border of the lunar disc has the greatest altitude, equal to 9 km.
The western border of the bank of the Newton crater has an elevation of
more than 7,200 meters above the surrounding area.

According to measurements of the lengths of the shadows conducted

by Medler in the beginning of the 19th Century encompassing 1,095 summits
(because of the absence at that time of accurate charts of the Moon the
identification of measured summits was frequently almost impossible), the
following distribution according to altitude [J. Frantz (Ref. 45)] was
obtained:

6,000-7,000 meters 6 summits

5,000-6 ,000 meters 21 summits
4,000-5 ,000 meters 82 summits
3,000-4,000 meters 184 summits
2,000-3,000 meters 289 summits
1,000-2,000 meters 320 summits
less than 1 ,000 meters 192 summits

Such measurements met difficulties connected with the non­

horizontal nature of the surface on which the shadow falls. For the
calculation of this, the study of the velocity of the displacement /126
of the shadow is necessary. This is accomplished now with the help
 145

of a slow-motion filming [MacMath and others (Ref. 92); Kopal (Ref. 21,
84, and others].*

33. The most characteristic formations on the Moon are the craters
and the circuses-circular depressions surrounded by a gently sloping
annular bank. The craters are those depressions with a concave cup-like
floor, and the circuses are the depressions with a planar smooth floor
usually as dark as the surface of the seas. The circuses are found only
among the large formations with a diameter of 10's and 100's of kilo­
meters.** The number of craters and circuses increases with the transi­
tion from large to small down to the limit of the resolving power of the
telescopes (depressions with a diameter of 0.5 to 1 km). The number of
very small craters comprises hundreds of thousands. There is no doubt
that the number of smaller craters which are inaccessible to present
telescopes is still greater.

The statistical investigation by Young (Ref. 83) has shown that the
distribution of all craters according to their dimensions is close to the
law of the reciprocal power N « Ax m (x is the diameter of the crater)
whereby m ca 2.5.

34. Practically all of the explorers (with the exception of Gold,

see Section 36) believe that the seas are evacuated areas which were at
some time filled with molten lava. The small number of craters in the
seas is explained by the fact that we observe only those which were formed
after the hardening of the lava. With favorable conditions of illumination,
on certain areas of the seas, the annular crests and the bright circles
become visible. All the data indicate the fact that these are traces of
craters which existed before the appearance of the seas and which are
partially or fully filled with lava. In exactly the same manner, the
individual mountains rising above the surfaces of certain seas (for
instance Mare Imbriem) evidently are the remainders of a previous relief
which remained above the level of submersion.

In the presence of very oblique illumination on the surface of the

seas, the gently sloping banks with an altitude of 100 to 200 meters and
extending to 10's and 100's of kilometers become visible. The slopes of

The "Astronomical Contributions from the Manchester University"

Series III, No. 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, began to publish in 1959 a series
of papers entitled "Topographic Explorations of the Moon", which contain
results of hypsometric measurements of separate sections of the lunar
surface.

Certain authors, i.e., A. V. Markov, (Ref. 27) refer to all large

craters, regardless of the shape of the crater's floor as circuses.
146

the banks are inclined to the horizontal at an angle of only 1 to 1.5°

[van Diggelen (Ref. 61)]. It is considered that the banks arose as a
result of the lava's motion and compressions occurring during its
cooling.

Certain seas have a circular form and are surrounded by mountain

chains which as a rule become detached from the side of the sea with a
precipice having an altitude of 2 to 3 km. (Individual summits rise to
above 4 km.) These mountains are not of the folded type but are fill
deposited formations. The largest circular sea - Mare Imbrium - reaches
1000 km in diameter, and the small circular seas with a diameter of 300
km and less form a continuous transition to the large circuses [Vegener
(Ref. 6)]. The seas with an irregular form of the type Mare Nubium are
not surrounded by mountain chains and evidently are covered with lava
which over flow from the circular seas [Kuiper (Refs. 85, 86)]. In the
irregular seas, judging from the abundance of half-submerged craters and
other mountain formations, the layer of lava is thinner than in the
circular seas where submerged formations are more infrequently observed
and thereby only in the outlying sections.

35. The lunar circuses, i.e., the annular plains with dark very
planar floors (in the case of very large circuses, for example Ptolemaeus,
these are protuberant in relation to the curvature of the lunar surface)
are craters filled with lava. These circuses are situated usually in
seas or in the vicinity of seas and are filled with lava from them, i.e.,
judging by the period of their formation, these are undoubtedly of a
"marine" type. However, there also exist circuses situated far from the
seas or even at elevated places (the latter is only conjectural because
of the inaccuracy and incompleteness of the hypsometric data). In these
cases it is necessary to assume that the lava arose from beneath. The
crater Vargentine is the only one of its type represented as a table
mountain since it is filled with lava considerably higher than the
surrounding area to a height of the lowest part of the bank [Kuiper
(Ref. 86, Dollfus (Ref. 13)].

It is possible to trace the continuous transition from circuses

with dark flat floors toward the half-submerged craters at the bottom of
seas, from which only low circular crests or parts of crests remain,
rising above the surface of the seas, toward completely submerged craters
which are scarcely distinguished in the form of bright circuses only.
According to the period of their formation, the submerged and semi-
submerged craters are of a "pre-marine" type.

At the bottom of certain circuses, for example Ptolemaeus, along

with the miniature craters of a normal shape which were formed after the
hardening of the lava there are very gently sloping depressions, noticeable
only under the most oblique illumination. These depressions are undoubtedly
 147
the traces of overflowing craters which were formed during the last stage
of hardening.

36. According to the hypothesis by Gold (Refs. 9, 73, 74), the

dark floors of the seas and of the circuses is covered not with hardened
lava as is assumed by a majority of specialists, but by a thick layer of
dust, perhaps several kilometers thick. From the viewpoint of future
landings on the Moon, the assumption that such a layer may be similar to
quicksand [Gold (Ref. 74)] is of great concern, and has been /128
repeatedly discussed in the literature. The main difficulty for Gold's
hypothesis is the problem of the shifting of dust at large distances
along the lunar surface in the absence of air and water flows. Actually,
according to these assumptions, the particles of dust which were formed
on elevated parts of the Moon's surface-''the continents", should be
shifted on the order of hundreds and thousands of kilometers in order to
reach the sea depressions and remain there. Gold considers that the
electrostatic charges formed during the photoionization of the ground
must impart motion to the dust particles. He considered two mechanisms
of motion-jumps and sliding. In the first mechanism, the repulsion of
similar charges is examined which, according to the calculations of Gold
is capable of breaking away individual dust particles from the surface
layer and forcing them to jump. The change of position of dust particles
downward along the slope should be the statistical result of the number of
such jumps. In the second mechanism, the suspension of the charged dust
particle at a short distance (about 1 mm) from the oppositely charged
surface is assumed and in the case of a non-horizontal nature of this
surface, sliding downward along the slope will occur.

However, the surface of the continental regions of the Moon is too

uneven for these mechanisms to give the effect which Gold has assumed.
Neither the jumps nor the sliding can take the dust particles out of a
crater depression or from regions surrounded completely by crater banks.
Nowhere can Gold's assumed "dust rivers" "flowing" slowly toward the seas
be seen. Therefore, his hypothesis, although it received wide acclaim,
is not shared by specialists.

37. At the present time, the nearly century-long argument among

the supporters of the "volcanic" (more accurately-endogenic) and the
supporters of "meteoritic" or "impact" origin of lunar craters still
continues. The majority of explorers of the Moon now recognize the
formation of the craters as a result of the bombardment of the lunar
surface by bodies with diameters of sometimes tens of kilometers. This
occurred on the background of radio-active heating and melting of the
lunar interior, and because of this they were accompanied by lava flows.
The first stages of this bombardment are related to the formation of the
Moon itself (see Sections 49, 50, and 51), and the last stage, which is
still in progress is related to collisions of asteroids and comet nuclei
148

with the Moon. These asteroids and comet nuclei fly into the internal
part of our planetary system. Opik (Ref. 98) compared the surface
density of the craters at the Mare Imbrium with the present frequency
with which large bodies-small asteroids and nuclei of comets, impact
our Earth. Opik (Ref. 97) evaluated this earlier. He came to the
conclusion that these data are in mutual accord in the supposition that
the formation of the craters in the Mare Imbrium occurred during /129
the last billion years almost periodically. This is confirmed by the
geological investigations of the crater-like structures on the territory
of the USA which indicate that the rate of the Earth's bombardment within
the last half-billion years, was probably the same as the rate of bombard­
ment of the lunar surface which has created post-marine craters [Shoemaker
and others (Ref. 108)].

The distribution of impacting bodies in respect to their masses

can be derived from the distribution of lunar craters in respect to their
dimensions, which was obtained by Young (Ref. 83). The thus derived
distribution of crater forming bodies in respect to their masses is in
agreement with such a distribution for asteroids [Jaschek (Ref. 81)].

A number of small craters of a "secondary" origin exist side-by-

side with the craters formed through impacts of extra lunar bodies, at
the banks and in the vicinity of large craters. These small craters
were formed during the impact of returning fragments of the lunar surface
which were thrown upward during the formation of these large craters.

The energy of the impacts which formed the smallest lunar craters
with diameters of about 1 km, was equivalent to the explosion of 1 to 2
23
megatons of TNT; i.e., it amounted to about 10 erg. (This was deter­
mined, for example by a comparison of the meteorite crater on the Earth
in Arizona with the craters formed during American underground explosions
of atomic bombs [Shoemaker, (Ref. 107)]. The energy of the explosions
which formed the largest lunar craters and the circular seas should have
30 32
reached 10 to 10 erg.

About half of this energy was converted into an energy of seismic

tremors the intensity of which during the formation of large craters
exceeded the energy of the cataclysmic earthquakes on Earth. Because of
the small dimensions of the Moon, the surface waves, the attenuation of
which is very small, could have been focused in a diametrically opposite
point creating what seemed like a second epicenter (Kopal, 1959). The
"meteorite" hypothesis of the formation of lunar craters in its present
form explains all observed forms of the lunar relief [B. Yu. Levin (Ref.
23)].
 149

The "volcanic" hypothesis is primarily presently supported by

several geologists (Sperr, Khabakov, Byulov) who are not concerned with
the physical foundation of the processes which they proposed and are not
taking into consideration the development of the lunar interior. This
leads them to unrealistic concepts.

38. The craters throughout the surface of the Moon are not
distributed randomly as it should be since in the seas, only a small
number of craters, which have been formed after the hardening of the
lave, are visible. Furthermore, the deviation from the random distri­
bution of the observed crater centers is stipulated by the fact that the
formation of a large crater nullifies the smaller craters which earlier
existed in this place. Finally, there are small craters of a /130
"secondary" origin in the vicinities of the large craters (see Section
37) .

If we exclude the secondary craters, or take into consideration the

influence of the above indicated factors, then within the boundaries of the
homogeneous regions of the lunar surface-continents and seas-the distri­
bution of craters is at random. On the surface of Mare Serenitatis where
the impositions are nearly absent, the distribution satisfies the Poisson
law [Arthur (Ref. 55)]. For Mare Imbrium, small deviations are noticed
that are evidently related to the presence of secondary craters which
were formed by ejections from the Copernicus crater. Due to the absence
of statistical methods for an analysis of the crater distribution in
regions where the impositions are substantial, Arthur arranged purely
random distributions of superimposed circles with various diameters and
showed that these models do not differ from the crater fields in the
Moon's continental regions.

An investigation of the surface density of large craters (with a

diameter greater than 20 km) at individual areas of the continents, which
were conducted by Green (Ref. 76) led also to the conclusion that they
are distributed at random.

39. The cases of imposition of one crater on top of another, which

are especially frequent in the continental regions enable us to determine
their relative age: the superimposed craters are younger than the craters
beneath them. The comparison of their outer form shows that the young
craters have a more abrupt relief at the floor and banks while the old
craters relief is rather smooth. The latter is connected with seismic
destructions, by meteoric erosion and erosion caused by corpuscular
fluxes. The most abrupt relief can be found in craters with rays which
are the most recent whereby, as now disclosed, they are not only relatively
younger, but absolutely younger.
150

The study of distribution and the outer form of the craters which
was conducted by many investigators has made it possible to segregate
them by their respective ages. The "pre-marine", "marine", and "post-
marine" craters, that is, the craters which were formed before the seas,
during the seas, and finally, after the seas, are now distinguished
[A. V. Khabakov (Refs. 46, 47) with no basis has introduced an inter­
mediate era when the process of crater formations has diminished for some
reason.]

40. The lunar craters are extremely planar formations, the depths
of which are many times less than their diameter. The apparently great
depth of the craters is an illusion related with the fact that we are
accustomed to the shadows which are cast by objects when the Sun is high.
At the same time a planar crater, illuminated obliquely does not differ
at first sight from a deep crater which is sharply illuminated. The
images of very steep crater banks and of lunar mountains on many /131
illustrations made even by specialists-astronomers are based only on this
illusive impression.

Measurements show that in craters with a diameter of 20 to 30 km

the entire depth (counted from the summit of the bank) amounts to a
10$ diameter on an average, and in craters with a diameter of 100 km
about 5$, and in still larger craters 2.5 to 3$ [Ebert (Ref. 66)]. At the
same time in the smallest measured craters with a diameter of 2 to 3 km
the depth reaches 20$ of their diameter [Baldwin (Ref. 57)].

The elevation of the bank rose with the increase of the crater's
diameter comprising approximately a permanent portion of its depth
(about 1/3 of the entire depth or about 1/2 of the true depth, which is
counted from the level of the surrounding plain).

The slopes of the bank are very gentle, whereby the curvature of
the interslope decreases with the increase of the crater's diameter.
This is evident in the following data of Faut (Ref. 43):

Diameter of the Mean Diameter Number of Mean Angle of Incline

Crater in km in km Craters of the Inner Slope in
degrees

30 12 113 33.5
30-50 38 14 22.7
50-100 76 27 14.8
> 100 144 8 11.6

The outer slopes are even more gentle and have an incline of 1 to 6°.
 151

The photometric measurements of the profile of the lunar rim during

eclipse of the Sun are an independent confirmation of the small curvature
in the relief forms of the lunar surface [Fujinami, Ina, and Kawai (Ref.
70)] who showed that a predominant part of the observed slopes is within
3 to 14° for a scale greater than 30 km.

As a comparison, it is necessary to indicate that the natural

angle of repose for a fine volcanic ash amounts to 30 to 35° in the case
of a deeper detritus. The fastest flowing basaltic lava of the Hawaiian
and Icelandic volcanos while cooling forms slopes, the angle of incline
of which rarely exceeds 8°.

41. Many craters have a gently sloping central mound sometimes

consisting of several elevations.

Among the "youngest" craters (that is, the craters with an abrupt
uneven relief) with a diameter of more than 16 km, about 80$ have central
mounds. In the small dimension craters, the presence of a central mound
is, as a rule, uncertain. This evidently is related to the large curvature
of their inner slopes. This leads to the fact that at a low position of
the Sun, which is necessary for the disclosure of the central mound, /132
the floor of the crater proves to be in the shade cast by the bank. In
the case of "young" craters, the height of the central mound amounts to
about 1/2 of the true depth of the crater on an average. Its summit
raises only in three cases above the level of the surrounding plain but
never reaches the level of the bank. In the case of "old" craters with
a smooth relief, the central elevations are also smooth, and therefore
are only rarely observed.

As a rule, circuses have no central mounds since they are sub­

merged in lava.

There exist miniature craters on the central mounds of certain

craters. Although their external appearance indicates a random super­
position of the small crater on the central protuberance, the supporters
of the volcanic hypothesis on the origin of lunar craters have considered
them as important proof in their favor. Baldwin (Ref. 57) after having
evaluated the relative area of the central mound found that in a purely
random crater distribution, there should be observed about 15 cases of
superposition of the small craters on the central mounds and actually
there were twelve such cases known at that time. Baldwin's results
caused special searches on the Moon for mountains with craters near their
summits. This led to the increase of their numbers to 50 [Moore (Refs.
94, 95)]. However, the expanded list included not only the central
mounds, but also the lava domes which are of a different nature (see
Section 47).
152

42. The so-called "law of Schreter" is exceptionally important,

according to which, the circumference of the bank on the average is
equal to the circumference of the depression. The reality of the "law
of Schreter" is negated by certain investigators on the basis that it is
accomplished only on the average. However, the deviations from it often
have a natural explanation. Thus, for example, cases when the circumfer­
ence of the depression are found at submerged craters (i.e., those having
a planar dark floor). Baldwin (Ref. 57) has shown, that based on the
Schreter law and considering the width as being equal to 1/4 of the
crater's diameter, as well as the average dimensions of the central mound,
it is possible to calculate the theoretical dependence of the bank
elevation by the observed dependence of the crater's depth on its diameter
(see Section 43). This is in excellent agreement with the observed
dependence.

In this way, the lunar craters are on the average "0" shaped
relief unlike the Earth volcanos which are "positive" relief forms and
the Earth calderas which, relative to their nearest surroundings, are
"negative" relief forms. (Calderas are dip formations situated on the
summit of volcanos and volcanic domes. This is a unique type of volcanic
formation somewhat similar to the lunar craters).

43. In the lunar craters relationships exists between the /133

diameter and the depth and also between the diameter and the height of
the bank. They are a rolling continuation of analogous relations
established for shallow holes and craters which are formed on the Earth
from explosions of munitions, bombs and more powerful charges of explosive
material [Baldwin (Ref. 57). The interval between the maximum explosion
craters on the Earth and the minimum lunar craters accessible to study
are covered by the Earth's meteoric craters. (Recently Shoemaker (Ref.
107) established the complete similarity between the Arizona meteoric
crater and two craters formed during the American underground atomic
explosions.) These relations bear a merely statistical character, and
for the lunar and Earth craters the deviations from strict regularity
are very great. For the Earth caldera, this dispersion is immeasurably
large.

The relations between the diameter, the depth, and height of the
bank and also the direct study of the outer form of the craters show that
all craters form a continuous succession. Furthermore, the circular seas
surrounded by mountain ranges form a further continuation of this sequence
[Vegener (Ref. 6)].

44. The youngest craters are surrounded by a crown of long bright

rays extending (for example, in the Tycho crater) more than a thousand
kilometers in individual cases. The rays are visible at about full Moon
and disappear during oblique illumination. They are extended across seas
 153

and continents and are undoubtedly deposited formations. Even during

extremely oblique illumination, the rays do not cast shadows, i.e., the
height of the substance deposit is very small. Photometrical investi­
gations have shown that the rays do not change the dispersing properties
of the underlying surface. This also indicates the thinness and scarcity
of the substance deposit [N. P. Barabashov and V. I. Yezerskiy (Ref. 4)].
Certain rays are not radially directed but are tangent to the crater or
deviate even more from the radial direction. This seemed to create
difficulties in the explanation of their ejections from the crater.
Giamboni (Ref. 72) on the basis of calculations of ballistic trajectories
on the surface of a rotating planet showed that deviations from the radial
directions can be explained by the formation of rays at the time of a
rapid lunar axial rotation (with a period of 0.5 to 3.5 days). After it
was disclosed that the craters with rays are not only relatively, but
absolutely young, this explanation was no longer valid. Even if their
5 6
age does not amount to 10 to 10 years as Levin (Ref. 23) admits but is
7 8
10 to 10 years as Sinton (Ref. 110) holds, all the same the Moon during
their formation did not have a rapid axial rotation.

However, the strictly radial direction of the rays could have

arisen only during very special conditions of the ejection of /I34
substance: during the ejection of substance in one definite direction
with different velocities or with a planar vertical fan of ejections.
The inclined shower of ejections or the changing of direction of the
"stream" being thrown out should have led to the non-radial direction of
the ray, which is the geometric position of the intersections of tra­
jectories of individual particles with the Moon's surface.

Certain rays of the Copernicus crater consist of separate

successive lines each of which is strictly radial, but their totality is
not radial. Apparently each line arose as a result of pulverization
during an impact on the surface and scattering along the direction of
motion of the ejected fragments of bright substance.

Not all the ejected fragments are frangible; there are those which
remained in one piece. One can even see furrows drawn by them [Kuiper
(Ref. 86)]. Along the rays, a number of elevated small craters is also
observed. This indicates their formation as a result of the falling of
fragments ejected during the formation of a large crater. It is possible
that the fragments which dug the furrows flew along flat trajectories,
and fragments which formed small craters flew along curved trajectories.

Certain young craters, in particular those which were formed on the

even surface of the seas (for example Copernicus), are surrounded by a
corona of craters caused by radial ejections the extent of which approx­
imates the diameter of the crater. As along the rays with the boundaries
154

of this corona an increased number of miniature craters is observed.

This is due to their formation during impact of fragments which returned
to the surface after ejection.

In a number of lunar regions, there exist chains of small craters

which are sometimes partially superimposed upon each other. Their for­
mation is evidently related to the ejection of a series of fragments,
analogous to those which produced the echelon type rays of Copernicus.

45. On the surface of the Moon, numerous fissures are observed

extending in a straight line or with small deviations to distances of
50 to 100 km and more. Their width generally amounts to several km. The
majority of the fissures are situated on the surface of the seas and at the
floors of craters submerged in lava. The formation of these fissures is
evidently related to the cooling and shrinkage of the lava layer. Such
for instance is the system of fissures on the floor of the Alphonsus
crater which is approximately concentric to its embankment, or the system
of echelon fissures along the surface of Mare Tranquillitatis. The
latter (like many others) have a planar floor. Kuiper explained this
phenomenon with the theory that the craters were filled with liquid lava
during the period of fissure formation.

Systems of fissures also exist that are concentric and radial to

the circular seas. The formation of these systems of crevices is un-/135
doubtedly related to the formation of the seas. The three arc-shaped
fissures stretching along the western edge of Mare Humorum and the radial
crevices which emanate from Mare Imbrium incompassing the Alpine valley
and the so-called Straight Wall, are examples of this configuration.

The fissures of the above indicated type do not exhibit perceptible

differences in the height of both rims. The only exception is the
Straight Wall. It consists of an embankment 220 to 370 meters high
extending along a distance of 500 km [Ashbrook (Ref. 56)]. However, the
wall of the embankment is not vertical as is sometimes claimed in the
literature, but consists of a gentle slope, the inclination of which is
only 18? .

Finally, a third variety of fissures must be considered. This is

exemplified by the system of crevices which surrounds the plateau of
Archimedes, which is a large polygonic section near the Archimedes crater,
that is, slightly raised above the surrounding surface. Horizontal
displacements along fissures are, as a rule, not observed. Only two or
three cases of such shifts are known.

46. Besides the narrow fissures on the surface of the Moon, there
exist wide furrows and flat valleys. In the central region of the lunar
disc, the majority of these formations are oriented radially to Mare
Imbrium. The furrows, particularly when they extend along the highest
 155

points of the lunar relief, obviously originated during the formation of

the Mare Imbrium when enormous fragments were ejected in a nearly hori­
zontal direction. The radial valleys could have originated either as
voids between neighboring radial ridges, or as a result of the accumula­
tion of falling debris deposited at sufficiently low velocity not to
produce an explosive action but to create a canyon in the form of a
drawn-out crater. It is necessary to note that descriptions of similar
formations presented by various authors and the terminology used are quite
dependent upon assumptions concerning the mechanism of origination for
these furrows and valleys.

47. On the surface of the shallow (submerged) seas and circuses,

one notices lava domes in the form of circles or sometimes ovals. At the
pinnacles of 10 to 15 of these circular domes, whose diameters are 5 to
10 km, tiny craters are noticeable at the limit of visibility, that is,
with a diameter of about 0.5 km. The angles of the slopes of these domes
are 5 to 8°, that is, they are similar to Earth volcanos formed by liquid
basalt lava. There exists a basis for the assumption that these formations
are in fact extinct lunar volcanos of the type found in Hawaii.

The fact that no craters were observed on the pinnacles of some of

the domes can be explained on the basis of their possible small dimensions.
The statement made by Arthur (Ref. 2) that certain domes are topped by
protuberances rather than by craters lacks confirmation.

VIII. Origin, Internal Structure, and Thermal

History of the Moon

48. Until the 1940's, during the era of the cosmogonic hypotheses,
it was postulated that the Earth and the planets were formed from molten
coagula of matter. An identical origin was ascribed to the satellites of
the planets including the Moon. The formation of the Moon was explained
on the basis of Darwin's hypothesis, although this hypothesis was found to
be erroneous long ago. According to this hypothesis, the Moon was separated
from the rapidly rotating molten Earth. The thinness of the Earth's core
at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean and the absence of a granite layer
provided a basis for the assumption that the Moon emanated from a spot in
the Pacific Ocean. Darwin's hypothesis was primarily based on his inves­
tigation of the equilibrium shapes of a rotating liquid mass. According
to his findings, a mass with a sufficiently high rate of rotation could
separate somehow into two unequal masses. One of the masses would begin
to rotate about the other at a small distance apart. Second, the Darwin
hypothesis is also based on his investigations of the resonance fluctua­
tions of a rapidly rotating liquid Earth out of which arose the possibility
of a coincidence between the period of its own fluctuation and the period of
156

solar tides. Darwin's analyses of equilibrium shapes were questioned in

the work of A. M. Lyapunov, and at one time the answers were disputable.
However, the validity of A. M. Lyapunov's work was established long ago,
and Darwin's deductions, as well as the supporting results of Jeans
(Cartan) (Ref. 60) and Littleton (Ref. 88) were shown to be incorrect.
Darwin's research on the resonance fluctuations was based on the use of
linear approximation and did not take into consideration the dissipative
forces that occur at large fluctuation amplitudes. As Jeffrey's (Ref.
82) showed, the amplitude of the fluctuations of the liquid Earth could
not have exceeded 20 km, i.e., even if they did exist, they could not have
played any kind of role in the separation of the Moon. Furthermore, inves­
tigations of the ocean floors showed that the Pacific Ocean has the same
floor structure as the other oceans. Nevertheless, the hypotheses con­
cerning the separation of the Moon from the Earth to this time continues
to be considered by certain authors as though it had a scientific foun­
dation.

49. At present, an overwhelming majority of the investigators in

the area of planetary cosmogony consider that all the planets or at least
the planets in the Earth's group were formed through the accumulation of
cold bodies and particles and were initially cold themselves (0. Yu.
Schmidt, Urey, Kuiper, Hoyle, Gold). It is assumed that the Moon was
formed in an analogous manner. However, no matter how strange it may
seem, the assumptions on the origin of the Moon are closely related to
the problem concerning the nature of the dense nucleus of the Earth.

If it is assumed that the nucleus of the Earth consists of iron,

3
then it appears that the Moon, with its small mean density, 3.33 gm/cm
cannot contain as much iron as the Earth; i.e., it has a different /137
chemical composition. In this case, it could not have been formed
simultaneously with the Earth from the same substance. A supporter of this
point of view, Urey (Ref. 52) proposed that the Moon was formed at some
distance from the Earth. This provides an explanation for the Moon's
different composition. The Moon was subsequently captured by the Earth
in the course of a near approach. However, the probability of capture
as Urey himself recognizes it, is very small. In addition, it is very
unlikely that the Moon traveled in a plane near that of the ecliptic in
a manner to be captured into an almost circular orbit.

If, in accordance with Ramsey's hypotheses, the nucleus of the

Earth is assumed to consist of silicates which have passed into a metallic
state under the influence of high pressure, then the Moon and the Earth
should be of similar composition, which would readily explain their
simultaneous formation. This leads to the concept that the Moon was
formed from a cluster of bodies of various dimensions which surrounded
the Earth during the period of its formation.
 157

0. Yu. Schmidt (Ref. 51) assumed that this cluster was formed as
a result of inelastic collisions of bodies which took place in the
vicinity of the growing Earth and which helped form the Earth. V. V.
Radziezsky (Ref. 32) proposed a mechanism for the merging of particles
based on the increase of the Earth's mass. As E. L. Ruskol (Refs. 35,
36) showed, the mechanism of 0. Yu. Schmidt is fully capable of providing
for the formation of a cluster of particles of sufficient mass orbiting
the Earth, at a time when the V. V. Radzievskiy mechanism exerts very
little influence.

50. The density of the cluster of bodies which was captured as a

result of inelastic collisions should have decreased sharply as a function
of distance from the Earth; therefore the Moon should have been formed in
the dense part of the cluster 5 to 10 times closer to the Earth than its
present position [Ye. L. Ruskol (Ref. 36)]. The Moon subsequently shifted
to its present position in consequence of tidal interaction with the
Earth. The increase in the diameter of the Moon's orbit occurred rela­
tively rapidly at first, but is currently changing at a very slow rate.

This mechanism is in agreement with the commonly accepted theory

of the tidal evolution of the Earth-Moon system; but contrary to the
Darwin hypotheses, at the beginning of the tidal evolution the Moon was
located not within the Roche limit, but rather outside it.

51. The formation of the Moon from a near Earth cluster of

particles permits us to conditionally subdivide the history of the surface
bombardment of the Moon into the following three immediately consecutive
stages:

1) The bombardment in the process of the main accumulation of

the Moon which should have ceased within 3-5 • 10® years after the beginning
of the accumulation because of the exhaustion of the material in the
"zone of nurishment" of the Moon;

2) The bombardment due to the increase in the lunar orbit radius,

which should have ceased within 1-2 • 10^ years due to the Moon's depar­
ture from the dense part of the near Earth cluster. /138

3) The still continuing bombardment by bodies that travel along

highly eliptical orbits about the Sun (small asteroids and comet nuclei).

During the first stage of bombardment and in the beginning of the

second stage, the Moon's interior was still solid. However, the second
stage lasted for such an extended period of time that the interior of the
Moon had time to heat up and become partially molten (see Section 52).
The traces of the first stage are barely preserved. In the beginning of
158

the second stage, ancient "pre-marine" craters should have been formed.
At the end of the second stage, the lunar seas, circuses submerged in
lava, and "marine" craters in general should have been formed. In the
third stage, the "post-marine" craters, particularly all the craters on
the surface of the seas, were formed. At the end of this third stage, -
cosmogonically quite recent - the craters with rays were formed.

The differences in the velocities and the nature of the bodies

which bombarded the Moon should have created the differences in the
character of the craters engendered by their impacts. During the first
two stages of bombardment of the Moon, mainly stoney bodies from the
near-Earth cluster, possessing low selenocentric velocities reached the
surface. Even after acceleration caused by lunar attraction, these bodies
impacted the surface with velocities of 3 to 5 km/sec. Since the transi­
tion from a partial to an almost complete explosion takes place in this
narrow energy interval, the influence of the impact velocity on the
structure of the crater is significant. During the third stage of bom­
bardment, the velocities reached meteoric values (up to 72-73 km/sec),
with an average value of 20 to 30 km/sec. Thus, the "post-marine"
craters would differ somewhat from the "marine" and "pre-marine" types.
In addition, differences in the structure of the "post-marine" craters
produced by rocky asteroids and glacial nuclei of comets are possible.

The secondary craters were caused by ejected fragments impacting

at velocities of 1 to km/sec. The explosive phenomena were affected by
the simple compression and displacement of the surface material. Therefore,
many secondary craters exhibit a somewhat drawn out shape, rather than
being circular.

52. The temperature of the Moon could not have been substantially
increased by impacts of bodies which contributed to its formation, because
heat due to impact was emitted on the surface and was easily radiated into
space. The "initial" temperature of the Moon, which was established at
the moment of the practical completion of its formulation, has been deter­
mined on the basis of its radiogenic heat. The central regions, which
were the first to be formed had sufficient time to reach higher tempera­
tures than the external parts, which had only recently been formed.

The average content of radioactive elements in the Moon as /139

well as the average content in the Earth is assumed to be the same as the
average content in meteors. The latter, unlike the Earth's rock forma­
tions are specimens
r
of a non-differentiated silicate substance. O If the
formation of the Moon took place during a period of 3 to 5 • 10 years,
then, with the present (low) evaluations of the content of radioactive
elements in meteorites, it is found that the "initial" temperature in the
center of the Moon amounted to about 500°C.
 159

Calculations of the further evolution of heat of the Moon by

radiogenic means [B. Yu. Levin and S. V. Mayeva (Ref. 24); B. Yu. Levin
(Ref. 23)] show that within 1 to 1.5 • 10^ years after its formation, its
interior should have been partially melted. Since the pressure in the
interior of the Moon is small, the melting signified the transition of
matter into a liquid state and should have been accompanied by a differen­
tiation in density and by its chemical composition.

In the case of a greater content of radioactive elements, the

melting would have occurred earlier within 0.5 to 1 • 10^ years after the
beginning of the accumulation and would have been, not partial, but
complete. Since the evolution of heat and the melting were accompanied by
a decrease in density of the matter, this might have led to the instability
of the external rigid layer. This layer should have been completely
broken and submerged under the floor of lava. However, the dark lava maria
occupy only a part of the lunar surface and the bright continental regions
probably are remainders of the "initial" matter deposits [Kuiper (Ref. 86 )].

In the case of a partial melting, which is more probable, the

instability of the external layer should have been significantly less.
Therefore, the formation of the lava eruptions ("maria")was not spon­
taneous but rather was evoked by the falling of large "planetesimals" on
the Moon.

The decrease of the over-all quantity of radioactive elements due to

their disintegration, their rising to the surface in the course of the
differentiation of the interior which facilitated the escape of heat into
space, and also a significant loss of temperature during lava eruptions
9
(3 to 3.5) • 10 years ago has led to a transition from the Moon's heating
to its cooling off. The present distribution of the temperature of the
Moon is dependent primarily upon the present distribution of its radio­
active elements. Most probably, the Moon is now entirely rigid. Even in
the case of a significant content of radioactive elements in the Moon's
interior, the external layers down to a depth of 500 to 700 km prove to
be rigid.

53. The evolution of heat of the lunar interior should have been
accompanied by their degasification. The extent of this phenomenon was
dependent on the poorly known content of gases and volatile matter in the
primary lunar substance. Because of the small force of gravity on /140
the Moon, the gases are relatively quickly dispersed into space, without
forming a stable atmosphere (see Section 7).

The ejection of the gases which was observed by N. A. Kozyrev (Ref.

19) shows that even during the period of heat evolution of the Moon, not
all of the gases reached the surface, but part of them still remains in
the Moon's interior.
160

Certain authors, for example Green (Refs. 10, 76), connect the
formation of the craters with the degasification of the Moon, considering
the former as formations of a type of caldera . However, the form of the
craters and the gigantic dimensions that many of them have cannot be
explained by such a process. But the existence of small calderae on the
summits of lava domes is not excluded (see Section 47).

54. The heat evolution of the lunar interior should have evoked
an increase in the Moon's radius of 5 to 15 km (relative to the value of
the coefficient of thermal expansion [Mac Donald (Refs. 90, 91)]. The
stretching of the external layer by the expanding interior probably was
not accompanied by the formation of large fissures of a planetary scale
at that time, this external layer still consisted of a poorly consolidated
matter deposit. If any fissures were formed regardless, then on the
continents there was time for them to fill up during the formation of the
craters and of the meteoric erosion, and on the seas they were covered
with lava eruptions.

During the cooling stage, the shrinkage of the radius was insig­
nificant since the interior of the Moon today is hot although it is not
rigid. Primarily, cooling and shrinkage of the external layers which
rested on the slower cooling inner layers, occurred. This should have led
and continues to lead to the accumulation of thermo elastic stresses
(mainly expanding) which ceased by the formation of internal eruptions.
Their formation should be accompanied by seismic jolts.

The absence of a substantial shrinkage of the Moon's radius during

the last 2 to 3 billion years is confirmed in view of its surface - because
of the absence on it of folded formations and by the almost complete a
absence of noticeable horizontal shifts of individual portions of layers
[Mac Donald (Refs. 90, 91)]. (Mac Donald believes that the respective
shifts go quite unnoticed. However, A. V. Khabakov (Ref. 46) presents as
an example the Capella crater divided by a crack along which a shift of
6 to 7 km occurred).

On the present surface of the Moon, the fissures are observed only
in the seas and in the lava-filled circuses, i.e., where a stable layer
of cooling and hardening lava existed.

The presence of craters, situated in the center of a star-like

pattern of fissures or in the cracked areas, and the greatest width of the
crevice indicates the formation of these fissures as a result of the
impact of a crater forming body into an expanded surface area. Along with
this, since the explosion which created the craters damages the /141
entire surrounding ground, cases are possible where the fissures passing
through the craters were formed after the crater.
 161

55. Observations with the help of cosmic rockets have shown that
the Moon does not have a noticeable over-all magnetic field [Sh. Sh.
Dolginov (Ref. 12)]. This agrees with present assumptions concerning
the absence of a liquid nucleus in the Moon.

If the Moon contains, as do the meteorites, about 10$ iron and if

this iron could have flowed to the center during the differentiation and
could have formed a liquid nucleus, then with a more probable content of
radioactive elements it could have hardened later. If it had remained in
a liquid state, it is scarcely probable that convective motions necessary
for the creation of a magnetic field, could exist in this nucleus, which
is almost void of radioactive heat sources and which is surrounded by a
rock cover containing such sources.

However, the low density of the Moon and certain geophysical data
are in favor of the hypotheses that in the Moon and Earth, unlike
meteorites, practically all of the iron is found in the oxide state
[Urey (Ref. 52)]. In this case there is absolutely no basis in expecting
the presence of an over-all magnetic field on the Moon.

56. The oblate nature of the Moon's dynamic contour, which is its
main deviation from equilibrium can be explained by the fact that the
Moon hardened during a state of free rotation [B. Yu. Levin (Ref. 22)].
In such a case, this rotation was decelerated later on due to the dissi­
pation of energy during tidal deformations of the Moon's already rigid
body. Hence, the rheologic characteristics of the Moon's substance are
such that these deformations do not occur in perfect elasticity
(analogous characteristics of the Earth's substance were explained by
N. N. Pariyskiy (Ref. 29) during his study of solid influxes in the
Earth).

57. Since the pressure in the interior of the Moon is small (even
in the center, it amounts to about 50,000 atmospheres, i.e., it corresponds
to the pressure in the Earth at a depth of about 150 k m ) , the melting
temperature only slightly increases from the surface to the center.
Therefore, the partial melting and differentiation should have encompassed
practically the entire Moon (with the exception evidently of the "conti­
nental" regions of the external layer). According to the geochemical data,
from the silicate substance of a meteorite type, it is quite possible to
melt up to 15$ of the light silicic substance which is similar to the
substance in the Earth's core [A. P. Vinogradov (Refs. 7, 8). Therefore
on the Moon, the silicic substance with a density of about 2.8 gm/cm^
can amount to 10 to 15$ of its mass. If all of it were raised to the
surface, having substituted the initial substance deposit, then the Moon's
core would have been formed with the thickness of 80 to 100 km. However
162

the presence on the Moon of the "seas" and the "continents" forces us /142
to assume that the process of differentiation did not reach completion up
to the time of the Moon's hardening.

If the Moon's interior substance was entirely homogeneous and

located under isothermic conditions, then its density would have increased
to the center by 2 to 5$ relative to the pressure increase. However, the
temperature increase with depth is greater than the compensation of the
pressure increase so that a decrease in density with depth would have been
found in a homogeneous substance, i.e., it would have become unstable
[S. V. Kozlovskaya (Ref. 18)]. One can assume that a small concentration
of heavier substances to the center, created by differentiation led to
the nearly homogeneous density of all the lunar interior or, if there is
an iron nucleus in it, to an almost homogeneous density of the cover
(mantel) of the Moon.
 163

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64. J. Dubois. Comptes Rendus de la Societe de Physique de France, Oct., 1956.

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65. E. Du-Fresne. Astronomical Journal 124, No. 3» 638-642, 1956.

66. H. Ebert. Astron. Nachr. 122, 263 , I 889 .

6?. J. V. Evans. Proceedings of the Physical Society, London, 70, 1105,

1957.

68 . B. Elsemore. Philosophical Magazine 2, No. 20, 1040, 1957.

69 . J. Franz. Astronomische Beobachtungen der Sternwarte. Koenigsberg,

38, No. 5, 1899-

70. S. Fujinami, et al. Publications of the Astronomical Society. Japan.

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71. T. A. Gehrels. Astronomical Journal, 64, 332, 1959*

72. L. A. Giamboni. Astrophysical Journal, 130, No. 1, 324-335> 1959*

73* T. M. N. Gold. Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society 115, No. 6 j

585-604, 1955.

74. T. Gold. Vistas in Astronautics, 2, 261, 1959.

75* C. R. Grant and B. S. Yaplee. Proceedings of Institute of Radio

Engineers 49, 976, 1957.

76. J-. Green. Proceedings of the Lunar and Planetary Exploration Colloquium,
Griffith Observatory, 1-18, 1959*

77. J. H. Harring and L. Licht. Science, 130, 266 , 1959-

78. J. H. Harring and L. Licht. Symposium of COSPAR, Nice, i960 .

79- V. A. Hughes. Nature, 186, No. 4728, 873-874, i960 .

80. Japlee, et al. Proc. I. R. E . , 46, 293> 1958.

81. C. Jaschek. 0. R. Observatory, 80, No. 916 , 119-120, i960 . /144

82. H. Jeffreys. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 91» l69-173> 1930.

83 . J. Joung. Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 50, No. 9>

309-326, 1940.

84. Z. Kopal. Nature I83 , 169-170, 1959.

85- G. P. Kuiper. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Washington,

40, No. 12 , IO96 -IIII, 1954.
 168
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86. G. P. Kuiper. Vistas in Astronautics, 2, 273, 1959.

See a lso the Russian translation in the publication "Eksperimental'noye
Issledovaniye Okolozem nogo K osm icheskogo Prostranstva" (Experimental
R esearch on C osm ic Space Near the Earth). Moscow, Izdatel'stvo
Inostrannoy Literatury, 1961.

87. G. P. Kuiper. The Photographic Lunar Atlas, University of Chicago

P ress, 1960.

88. R. A. Littleton. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. , 98, 646, 1938.

89. B. Lyot. Annales de l'O bservatoire de Paris, Sect, de Meudon, 8,

1929.

90. G. J. F. MacDonald. Planetary and Space Science, 2, No. 4, 249-255,

1960.

91. G. J. F. MacDonald. Science, 133, No. 3458, 1045-1050, 1961.

92. R. R. MacMath, et al. Publ. of the O bservatory of Michigan 6,

No. 8, 67-76, 1937.

93. N. Mannaert. Astrophys. J. , 93, 403, 1941.

94. P. Moore. J. Brit. Astron. A ssoc., 64, No. 1, 1954.

95. P. Moore. Sky and Telescope, 15, No. 5, 201, 1956.

•1
96. J. Ohman. Stockholm O bservatory Annales, 18, No. 8, 1950.

97. E. J. Opik. Irish Astronom ical Journal, 5, No. 1, 34-36, 1958.

98. E. J. Opik. Astrophys. J. , 132, No. 2, 502-503, 1960.

99. E. J. Opik and Singer. S. F. Journal of G eophysical Research, 65,

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100. G. H. Pettengill. Proc. I. R. E. , 48, (5), 933-934, 1960.

101. E. Pettit. Astrophys. J. , 91, 408, 1940.

102. E. A. Pettit, S. Nicholson. Astrophys. J . , 21, 102, 1930.

103. H. Ritter. Astron. Nachr. , 252, 157, 1934.

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Wein, 167, H. 8-10, 283, 290, 1958.

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107. E. Shoemaker. Reports of the International G eological C on gress

XXXI Session, Norden. 1960. part XVIII Copenhagen, 1960.

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Astronautical Society, 1961.

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110. W. Sinton. Lowell O bservatory Bulletin, 5, 1, 1960.

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112. J. H. Trexler. Proc. I. R. E . , 46, 286, 1958.

113. H. Urey. Handbuch der Physik, Springer-Verlag, 3, 1959.

114. H. Urey, et al. Astrophys. J. , 129, No. 3, 842-848, 1959.

115. K. Watson, B. Murray, and H. Brown. J. Geophys. Res. , 66, No. 9,

3033-3045, 1961.

116. A. J. Wesselink. Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth. , 10, 390, 352-361, 1948.

117. F. L. Whipple. Vistas in Astronautics, 2, 261, 1959.

170

ON THE PROBLEM OF THE MOON'S INNER STRUCTURE /145

By

S. V. Kozlovskaya

A number of models, made of ordinary silicates which are

characteristic for the Earth and meteorites, are calculated. These
models are divided into two groups: homogeneous models and those with
a lighter crust, constituting 5, 10, and 15% by their mass, for two
values of compressibility. The decrease of the Moon's density as a
result of heating up of the interior and the decrease of the values of
compressibility and the coefficient of thermal expansion are evaluated.
Under these conditions, we have either a stable or an unstable model.
The inner structure of the Moon is approximated by the two-layer model,
with a shell that is inhomogeneous in composition but constant in
density.

An attempt is made in this paper, to find out which deductions

can be drawn concerning the inner structure of the Moon, on the basis
of present data on the properties of rock formations and on the thermic
history of the Moon.

Much data is available on the compressibility and the coefficient

of thermal expansion of various minerals and rock formations for pressures
up to 50,000 atmospheres, which are predominant in the Moon's interior.
It is therefore possible to conduct direct calculations of lunar models,
made of ordinary silicates. It follows from cosmogonical considerations
that meteorites are approximately indicative of the matter content of
the Earth and Moon. The composition of iron in chondrites amounts to
about 10%. We did not consider this when we calculated the silicate
models of the Moon.

As in the preceding works, (Refs. 1, 2) the models of the Moon are

calculated by means of the numerical integration of the equation of
hydrostatic equilibrium. The lunar mass used in these calculations is
25
accepted as being equal to 7.32 ■ 10 gm, its radius is 1738 km, and the
3
mean density 3.33 gm/cm .

Isothermic models of the Moon. A one-layer model. In the capacity

of a first approximation we will calculate a fully homogeneous Moon model,
-12 2
for two values of compressibility: p.. = 1 • 10 cm /dyne and p =0.5 •
-12 2 ^ ^
10 cm /dyne. Within these limits lies the compressibility of those
 171

minerals and rock formations (Ref. 3) of which the Moon should be

primarily composed, if the assumptions that the Moon, Earth, and /146
meteorites have an identical composition are correct.

The compressibility changes insignificantly within the interval

of pressures up to 50,000 atmospheres (Ref. 3). Therefore, by dis­
regarding this relationship, we can calculate the density according to
the following formula

p = pQ (1 + pP) , (1)

where p q is the density at a normal temperature and pressure, (3 is the

compressibility, and P is the pressure.

The calculation has shown that in the case of p^ it is possible

to construct a lunar model, homogeneous in contents from a substance with
3
a density of = 3 . 2 6 g/cm and in the case of p^ from a substance with
Pq = 3.30 g/crn^ (Table 1).

The two-layer model of the M o o n . A single-layer model of the

Moon is, of course, far from the truth. The investigations on the thermal
history of the Moon (Refs. 4, 5) shows that the interior of the Moon
passed through a stage of partial or even full melting. On the surface
of the Moon, we see traces of enormous lava flows. The melting must have
caused a stratification of the Moon and the formation of a crust. This
should be taken into consideration during the calculation of the model.

However, we do not know what portion of the Moon's mass its

crust contributes. Due to the variation between the masses of the Earth
and Moon and the pressures in their interiors, the process of matter
differentiation by density and chemical composition, i.e., the /147
processes which lead to the formation of a crust, have occurred somewhat
differently on the Earth and on the Moon. In the case of the Earth, the
differentiation is still far from complete and thus, the mass of the
Earth's crust is very small, less than 1$. Calculations show that from
meteoric type matter, a maximum of about 7$ SiC^ (Refs. 6 , 7) can be
extracted. At a full extraction, the Earth's crust might reach 15$ by
mass.

At low pressures in the interior of the Moon, the melting and

the escape of lighter substances toward the surface begins at a signifi­
cantly lower temperature than the temperature in the interior of the
Earth. Thereby, the escape of light substances is facilitated by the
fact that the melting on the Moon signifies a transition of matter into
172
(U CO
ft a <u
a H ft o o o

52 000
o O o o
in <u o o o o o o o
CO ** 4 3 o 1—1 o o CO uo
<u cu .f t. CL
_
M ^ 41 «1 o o rH CM o o CM
a u w o m UO U0 uo uo uo in

oa
PL) -ft
5B
o cd

4J
•H «
CO

3.375
C a) J-tCO CO 00 p*. 1—1 o vO uo
<D 43 0) e <1* CO -d uo >d- uo
ai 4-1 4-1 O
o C^ CO CO CO co co CO CO
e 0) G
§ a -h o Eb
ft
tn
i—1 4-1
”
3 /•"Ni—1 (I) CO
to <U CO o
ft 43 cd Li
»ft • H CO.a o UO vO 1—1 o vO
o CO o CM 00
S cu a) <DCO CO CO CO CO CO
ai
T)
<U 43 4=
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«d %-✓ a)
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• 10
>2 ■u O
isd *H g
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3-345
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4-> »H CO CO 43 60 CM CO CO CO CO CO CO co
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>> CO ft W 3 43 co
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H
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0) <U^ ,£> d o O o o o o o o
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o CL ft in 43 -a
e -h ft —
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o g i— l UO r4 UO rH UO i— l r—1
,0-l-lOU • • •
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o
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 173

a liquid volatile state. Therefore, with a sufficiently great content

of radioactive elements, it is possible to assume an almost complete
differentiation. Nevertheless, it is possible that such a division was
not general. Thus, according to Kuiper (Ref. 8) the bright continents
are actually ancient crust deposits, i.e., sections of the Moon's non-
differentiated substance.

The considerations indicated above do not permit us to evaluate as

yet the potential of the Moon's crust. Therefore, we have calculated
some two-layer models of the Moon for three versions of crust thickness,
with the assumption that the lunar crust, having a density of = 2.8
gm/cm^ (exactly as in the Earth's crust), amounts to 5, 10 and 15$ by
mass. In any case, the mass of the actual crust of the Moon should not
exceed the indicated upper limit. The models were calculated from matter
with a constant compressibility identical by crust and shell for two
values of p. The calculation has shown that in the two-layer silicate
models of the Moon, the density of the shell substance can be quite high.
Immediately beneath the crust, the density is close to or exceeds the
mean density of the Moon (Table 1) .

Lunar models with the consideration of a temperature change along

the radius. We will however, examine the influence which the consideration
of temperature has on the calculation results. The dependence of density
on temperature t is determined by the formula

PQ
p 1 + at ’ (2)

where a and p according to formulae (1) and (2 ) are determined by the

following expression.

1 + BP
(3)
p p0 1 + at

The results of the calculation of the present temperature distri­

bution in the Moon's interior (Ref. 5) depends essentially on the /148
accepted concentration of radio-active elements, on their distribution,
and on heat conductivity. In this work, we have found the temperature
distribution along the Moon's radius corresponds to the average values
of the parameters which are examined in the work (Ref. 5). The progress
of pressure and temperature along the Moon's radius is shown in Table 2
(Rq is the radius of the Moon, r is the distance from its center).
174

Table 2. Distribution of Pressure and Temperature

Along the Radius of the Moon Adopted
for Calculation

r /R0 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

t,°C 0 800 1 185 1 360 1 420 1 450

P, atm. 0 16 600 30 000 39 600 46 100 51 000

Strictly speaking, it is necessary to conduct the calculations by

way of consecutive approximations since the distribution of pressure is
related to the distribution of density. However, the pressure distri­
bution is very stable, as far as various suppositions on the inner
structure are concerned, as can be seen in Table 1, where the pressures
in the centers of various models are shown (the pressure variations are
at a maximum in the center). As a comparison, calculation data for a
non-isothermic model is given. Therefore, in Table 2, the mean pressure
distribution is taken graphically from the pressure distribution of the
models in Table 1.

The non-isothermic models of the Moon are calculated for the same
values of p and for two values of a: ql = 3 • 10 ^ and
= 6 • 10 ^ a.
-1 ^1
deg . The value of a
obtained experimentally for olivine (Ref. 3)
approximates and the theoretical Q! for the substance of the Earth
(Refs. 9, 10) approximates . From formula (3) and Table 2, the change
in the magnitude p /Pq along the radius of the Moon for accepted values of
ot andp and for the accepted temperature distribution in its interior was
determined.

In the upper parts of the Moon where the pressure is still small,
the influence of temperature is so significant that the density decreases
-12 2 -5 -1
with depth. When p < 1 • 10 cm /dyne and > 3 • 10 deg a.
, the
inversion of densities is found at all depths. The stable model in which
the density increases with depth and the layers are chemically homogeneous
-12 2
is found with the following values for CL and p: p > 1 • 10 cm /dyne
and a. < 3 • 10 ^ deg ^ (see illustration) .

The actual picture is, of course, quite different from the picture
seen in the illustration. The formation of the crust led to a decrease
 175

in mean density in the surface layer. On the other hand, with the
evolution of heat and softening of the lunar interior, the denser /149
components should have sunk, and the lighter should have floated up
eliminating the inversion of densities. As a result of the differen­
tiation by chemical composition, the density of the substance of the
Moon should increase from the surface to the center.

Change in p /Pq along the Radius R^ of the Moon

(r is the distance from the center of the Moon)
for various values of p and a.
Isothermic models: I and II are one-layer models
-12 -12
for P = 1 - 1 0 and 0 . 5 - 1 0 , respectively;
III and IV are two-layer models, the curst is 10$
-12 -12
in mass, p = 1 • 10 and 0.5 • 10 , respectively.
-12 , a =
Non-isothermic models: V - p = 1 % 10
3 • 10 -5 deg-1; VI - p = 0.5 • 10-12; a = 3 ■ 10-5;
VII - p = 1 * 10-12, a = 6 * 10-5; VIII - p = 0.5 •
-12 -5
10 , a - 6 •10 .

The effect of temperature on the density of the substance in the

lunar interior is greater than the action of pressure. Nevertheless, the
increase of density due to the change in chemical composition with depth
could have led to the fact that the density in the Moon's interior could
have proved to be almost constant.
176

Thus, one can construct a model of the Moon from the same rock
formations which, as assumed, are the most common in the composition of
the Earth. Since the density change in the Moon's interior is small, then
one can approximate the inner structure, of the Moon by means of a
two-layer model in which there is a crust having a constant density and
a core that is homogeneous in chemical composition with a different but still
constant density.

REFERENCES

1. S. V. Kozlovskaya. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 92, No. 5» 903-906, 1953*

2. S. V. Kozlovskaya. Doklady A. N. SSSR 108, No. 3, 409-412, 1956 .

3. F. Birch and others. Spravochnik dlya Geologov po Fizicheskim

Konstantam (Handbook of Physical Constants for Geologists)
Izdatel'stvo Inostrannoy Literatury, 1949.

4. B. Yu. Levin and Ye A. Lyubimova. "Priroda", No. 10, 81-84, 1955*

5. B. Yu. Levin and S. V. Mayeva. Doklady A. N. SSSR, 133> No. 1, 44-47, i960 .

6. A. P. Vinogradov. Izvestiya A. N. SSSR, Seriya Geologicheskaya, No. 10,

5-27, 1959.

7. A. P. Vinogradov. Khimicheskaya Evolyutsia Zemli (The Chemical Evolution

of the Earth) Izdatelstvo A. N. SSSR, 1959•

8. G. P. Kuiper. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA,

40, No. 12, 1096-1112, 1954.

9. V. N. Zharkov.Izv. A.N.SSSR, Ser.Geofiz., No. 9> 1414-1419, 1959*

10. J. A. Jacobs. Handbuch der Physik, 47, 364-406, Berlin, Springer-Verlag,

1956.
 177

ON THE PROBLEM OF THE ROTATION OF PLANETS /150

By

V. S. Safronov

In this paper is analyzed the explanation of the rotation of

planets, which was suggested by 0. J. Schmidt, based on his theory that
planets were formed through a junction of solid particles and bodies
of a protoplanetary cluster. An analysis of the equation for energy and
momentum balance of the amount of motion, revealed the inadequacy of the
simplified system which 0. J. Schmidt considered, i.e., the system which
suggests that the particles of the cluster traveled along circular orbits.
The condition of direct rotation which 0. J. Schmidt found is not fulfilled
in this system at the present rotation speed of the Earth. It would have
been necessary for the Earth to rotate 10^ times faster, in order to ful­
fill this condition.

The angular and energy momentum equations for a more general case
of the motion of bodies in elliptical orbits are deduced. It is shown
that in this new model, the contradictions mentioned above are eliminated.

■The relation between the planet rotation and the heat losses during
the formation process is analyzed. A revision of the former concept
of that relation is dictated by the consideration of the planet's rotation
energy. It has been shown that the heat losses diminish with the increase
of speed of rotation.

It follows from the expressions obtained that the simplest suppo­

sition about the velocity of rotation derived from dimensional considera­
tions leads to the proportionality between the rotational energy increase
and the potential energy on the surface of the growing planet. This in
turn leads to the approximate constancy of angular velocity during the
process of growth, in agreement with the results obtained earlier on the
assumption of the asymmetry of shocks of falling bodies and with the fact
that the differences in the periods of rotation of the planets are
comparatively small.

In Laplace cosmogony, the direct rotation of the planets is /151

usually connected with the action of the Sun's tidal forces. Poincare'
(Ref. 1) gives the following schematic description of this process. Due
to the forces of friction, the gaseous ring begins to rotate around the
Sun as a rigid body. Subsequently, it becomes unstable and breaks apart.
The individual parts of the ring begin to move along circular orbits.
178

The joining of two clouds, of which the distances from the Sun differ
slightly leads to their opposite rotation since the inner cloud orbits
faster than the outer. However, the tidal forces of the Sun stretch
this cloud out and impart to it a direct rotation with a period equal to
its period of revolution. The contraction of the clouds due to their
cooling, decreases the effect of tidal forces and increases their velocity
of rotation.

At present none of these suppositions are acceptable. The forces

of friction in a ring rotating around the Sun do not cause it to rotate
like a rigid body. They merely draw the inner part of the ring nearer to
the Sun and move out the outer parts, the rotation all the while remaining
Keplerian. The idea of the break-up of the protoplanetary cloud into
small gaseous clouds and their subsequent rejoining is also unacceptable.
Such clouds are unstable and would tend to disintegrate farther, not to
rejoin. This difficulty could be avoided only by dropping the gaseous
cloud concept in favor of that of dust concentration, but dust con­
centrations are small and shrink so rapidly that the tidal forces could
not perceptibly change their rotation (Ref. 2).

V. G. Fesenkov (Ref. 3) explains the rotation of planets using the

hypotheses of massive protoplanets. It is assumed that the density of
the gaseous component of the cloud had reached the critical value (Roche
density) and that the set-in instability had caused massive clots to form
in the cloud. The process of condensation is conceived as an accumulation
of matter along the initial clot's orbit. It is further assumed that
turbulent mixing had led to the equalization of angular velocity of ro­
tation in the cloud. For the determination of planet rotation, the
moment of the momentum of the cloud rotating as a rigid tore with a
diameter of 2JL around the axis through the center of its cross section
is calculated. I
Then, is chosen such as to make the moment of that tore
equal to the rotating moment of the initial planet rotating with an angu­
lar velocity of rotation equal to the present one. The moment of the tore
emerges so great that we end up with a very small value ofI . The /152
diameter of a tore having the rotating moment of Jupiter was found to be
equal to 59 diameters of the planet, i.e., 70 times smaller than the
width of Jupiter's zone. For the protoplanet Earth having a mass 30 times
greater than at present, the diameter of the tore would be 300 times the
width of the Earth's zone. With the gravitational instability in a flat,
rotating layer, the dimensions of the non-disintegrating clots should
exceed the thickness of the layer by one order (Refs. 4, 5). The previous­
ly indicated values of &do not satisfy this condition - they are a
magnitude of 1.5 orders smaller in the Earth's zone and of 1 order in
Jupiter's zone. Hence, the protoplanets could not be formed by the con­
solidation of substance included in a tore of such a small cross section.
But the real non-disintegrating clots would have had a specific moment
bigger by two orders than the necessary moment in Jupiter's zone and by
three - in the Earth's zone.
 179

The turbulence in the rotating medium equalizes not the angular

velocity but rather the moment of the momentum (Ref. 6 ); besides, the
turbulence in the protoplanetary cloud should have been dying off.
There is therefore no basis for the assumption that the tore is rotating
as a rigid body and it would be more natural to proceed from Kepler's
rotation. It is necessary to note that in this case, the rotation of the
forming consolidations is also found to be direct, except that the velocity
proves to be somewhat smaller (Refs. 2, 7). Indeed, the mean velocity of
rotation of a local area having a circular form is determined by the
equation

“- i i rot vi « (VR>-
where V is the linear velocity at a distance R from the axis of rotation.
With the Kepler circular motion V = ■/GMfl/R and w = (1/4) , where =
/ g m 0 /r3 . Thus, at the Keplerian motion of the substance, the moment of
the momentum of the formed protoplanet is merely four times smaller than
at a rigid rotation, but still too great.

The protoplanets hypothesis meets with no less serious difficulties

with regard to the mass of the protoplanetary cloud. For the gravita­
tional instability in the gas, it is necessary for the cloud's mass to be
not less than the Sun's mass (Ref. 8 ). At Roche's density in the Earth's
zone alone, the mass °f the gas of the Earth's zone alone should
reach one tenth of the Sun's mass. This is directly observed from the
-2 1
relationships AM- « 2jtRp H A R; H % 10 R, AR sa — R and according to
J R ~ ^
V. G. Fesenkov, p = 4M_/R . Here at once emerge two problems: 1) Why
K. u
did merely one thousandth of the entire zone's mass go into the proto­
planet formed in the Earth's zone? 2) What forces could have removed /153
from the solar system a mass of the order of the Sun's? J. Kuiper (Ref.
9) showed that it would be impossible to explain the dissipation from
the solar system of a mass greater than l/10th the mass of the Sun. The
difficulties with the dissipation and sorting out of light gases from
the massive protoplanets were especially emphasized by I . S. Shklovsky
(Ref. 10). The first question also remains unexplained.

The excessively great moment of rotation of the planets which we

find by assuming their formation from massive protoplanets which have
condensed due to gravitational instability in the gaseous component of
the protoplanetary cloud is one more item against this hypotheses.
180

F. Hoyle (Ref. 11) proposed an explanation of the planets'

rotation proceeding from the conception of the planet's growth through
the accretion by the massive nucleus of a planet of the scattered
substance visualized as a continuous medium. As the probable radius of
capture for the massive nuclei (mass m and radius r) he assumed half the
distance at which the tidal force of the Sun is equal to the gravity
1/3
pull of the nucleus: r = 1 / 2 (m/2M_) R. The rotational moment A K
a 0 ^
which is brought in by the accrueing substance is taken 2/5 ior Am
(spherically symmetrical accretion) , where, as above, co = 1/4 to . The
c
period of rotation has proved to be equal to 3-4 hours without taking
into account the concentration of substance toward the center of the
planet, which would have involved still faster rotation. Hoyle allowed
for such a great velocity of rotation under the influence of Littleton's
idea of the rotational instability of the primary planets and the separa­
tion of satellites from them. Although Littleton has supported this
idea up to the present, (Ref. 12), its bases are not sufficiently valid.
On the other hand, "accretion" played a substantial role only during the
growth of Jupiter and Saturn when their embryos became sufficiently
massive for absorption of gaseous hydrogen. Recently even Hoyle (Ref. 13)
himself abandoned the idea of applying the mechanism of accretion to the
planets in the Earth's group. As for the rotation of Jupiter and of
Saturn it apparently could be satisfactorily explained within the bounds
of the theory of accretion. However, for this, a closer estimate of the
"capture" radius would be necessary. If it turns out to be two or three
times smaller than the value taken by Hoyle, it could be regarded as
confirming the theory.

L. E. Gurevich and A. I. Lebedinskiy (Ref. 4) have shown the

feasibility of the idea of the protoplanetal dust disc's breaking up into
numerous concentrations, the consolidation of which should have led to
the formation of planets. Having determined the masses and radii of the
concentrations, they found that the rotation moment of the concentration
was proportional to the expression k g M ^ M ^ / M g ) ^ , where kg is the unit
orbital moment and M is the mass of the planet. From this it was deduced
n
that the rotation moment of the planet should be equal to the orbital
moment multiplied by a function of the planet's mass. The deduction /154
was illustrated by an empirical relation which checks out well for all
planets except Saturn and Neptune. This conclusion is essentially founded
on the non-self-evident supposition of central collisions of the consoli­
dating concentrations. At non-central collisions of the consolidating
concentrations - besides their own rotation moments, account must also be
taken of the considerably larger moments connected with their relative
orbital motion. Until such an analysis is made it would be imprudent to
extend the relationship found for the rotation moments of the concentrations
to planets.
 181

In his analysis of the problem of planet rotation 0. J. Schmidt

(Ref. 14) proceeded from consideration of the general principles of the
process of consolidation of matter into a planet. He wrote out the
conditions for the conservation of energy and of the moment of momentum
during the transition from a cloud of particles to a system of planets.
The full moment of the particles located in a planet zone is transformed
into the orbital and rotation moments of the planet. The smaller the
orbital moment, i.e., the smaller the radius of the planet's orbit, the
greater the rotation moment must be. But the smaller the radius of the
planet's orbit, the smaller is its orbital energy, and hence, according
to 0. J. Schmidt, the greater are the thermal energy losses in the
process of the planet's formation. From this 0. J. Schmidt draws his
main deduction: since the losses of energy in this process are great,
then the planet's rotation must be direct. The mathematical formulation
of the result boils down to the following.

A cloud of particles moving in a plane circular orbit around the

Sun is being considered. From these particles a planet with an orbit
radius of R_ is formed. Let R and R be the mean distances of the
0 e m
particles in the cloud, derived for the energy and the moment respectively:

1_
J 0 (R) dR /r 0 (R) dR

/R“ (1)
R R, m

J0 (R) dR 0 (R) dR

where 0 (R) is the function of the particle mass distribution according

to their distances from the Sun, and R^ and R^ are those of the boundary
of the zone of the subject planet.

It can be shown that R is always greater than R . Therefore, if

m e
the condition

R
0
R
e (2)

is satisfied then the inequality 1155

< R (3)
*0
182

should be satisfied, i.e., the rotation should be direc t , since the

orbital moment of the planet which is proportional to / Rq , is less than
the moment of the cloud which is proportional to / R .
m
No analysis was made of the conditions at which relationship (2)
is satisfied. 0. J. Schmidt assumed that "we cannot determine the sum of
these losses quantitatively, but there is no doubt that the losses are
great". He further assumed that the same causes condition the direct
revolution of a majority of the planet's satellites and that the opposite
revolution of distant satellites is connected with the failure to fulfill
the conditions (2). It is apparent from this that the problem concerning
the planets' rotation requires a more detailed quantitative analysis.

Let us examine again the balance equations of energy and momentum

moment derived by 0. J. Schmidt. In the case of particles moving along
circular orbits the sum of their kinetic and potential energy relative
to the Sun is equal to

GM P 0 (R)
dR,
2 J H

While their total momentum moment relative to the Sun is equal to

/GM J /R 0 (R) dR,

where M is the mass of the Sun, and G is the gravity constant. Let us
introduce the symbols:

the potential energy of the planet relative to the Sun,

U the potential energy the planet as a sphere,

P
U the potential energy of the particles' interaction with one
c
another,
E the orbital energy of the planet (the potential plus the
0
kinetic),
E the kinetic energy of the planet's rotation.
r
E t - the losses of energy of the mechanical motion due to trans­
formation into different forms of energy -- heating, radiation,
phase transitions, etc..
 183

m - the mass of the planet,

Rq - the radius of the planet's orbit,
Kq - the planet's orbital moment,
K - the planet's rotational moment.

The balance equations will appear in the form /156

GM
2
@ R
dR + U = E. + U + E + E t ,
c 0 p r t*

(4)

/5TT / R 0 (R) dR = Kn + K .
*j u r
R,

It is obvious that

E0 = " 2R^ ’ K0 = m /GMR0 ’ m = J ^ (R) dR* (5)

The relationships (4) can be rewritten in the form

0 (R) dR = ttt (U + E + E )
GM p t r

(6)

f K
0 (R) dR - /R^ J 0 (R) dR = — £

or, taking into consideration (1 ), in the form

184

R0 = a - e> v
(7)
R = (1 + k ) 2 R ,
m u

where

2*0
6 ■ 6p + e t + 6c ■ Gtto (Dp + E t + Er - Dc> ’

(8)
k =
m /GMR.
0

eliminating R^ we get

9 R
(1 + k)Z (1 - e) = , (9)
e

in view of the smallness of k and e in comparison with the unit

2k - e (10)

The relationship (R - Re)/Rg is mainly dependent on the width of

the zone supplying the planet and is only slightly dependent on 0(R). For
_2
the Earth's zone, it is ~ 10 [see (18)]. The ratio of the rotation to
the orbital moment of the Earth k % 3 • 10 ^ . With these numerical /157
values, it follows from the second equation (7):

*0 ~ Rm <1 - 2k> > * e - 01)

Thus, the stipulation for direct rotation of planets (2) arrived

at by 0. J. Schmidt for the case of particles in circular orbits is not
fulfilled for the Earth. If it were fulfilled, and R„ < R then the
4 0 e
Earth would have rotated 10 times faster than it does now.

If we were to assume that condition (2) is not an indispensible

but merely a sufficient condition for direct rotation of the planets and
that the actual Rq is determined from (11 ), another difficulty would
 185

arise then: at k corresponding to the present rotation of the Earth, the

relationship (10) is not fulfilled. The right side, as we have already
-2 -1 -4 -7
seen, is ~ 10 . The components e are: e - 10 , pa 10 , £c « 10 ,
and e « - e and it is hardly less than - e - e . Therefore, the left
t p 3 P r ’
side appears to be of a magnitude of at least two orders smaller than
the right. In order to satisfy (10) we would have to reduce the thermal
losses to a magnitude of approximately - 0.9 e . It is uncertain whether
such an action is warranted. ^

One has to look for the cause of such a result in the shortcomings
of the system itself. Generally speaking, the assumption of initial
motion of the particles in circular orbits seems natural. At the small
masses, of the planets' embryos, their gravitational disturbances were
weak and the particles moved along orbits which were close to circular.
With the growth of the embryo, and of other bodies, the deviations from
circular orbits increased, and all the bodies in the zone were gradually
consolidating into one planet. The above described balance would have
been quite correct if the planet zone all the while remained self-
contained. However, the result arrived at earlier indicates the in­
accuracy of just such an assumption. As the eccentricities of the bodies
increase due to their drawing together with the embryo and with one
another, a part of them moves out beyond the outer boundary of the zone
and remains there (sticks), carrying away from the zone a surplus moment,
another part moves out beyond the inner boundary of the zone carrying off
a moment which is below the mean moment. Simultaneously bodies from the
outside are moving into the zone. These processes of interchange do not
compensate each other, as a result of which the full moment of the
momentum of the substance in the zone and the total energy (including
thermal losses) do not remain constant.

The formulation of the problem would be more correct if one took

into consideration the eccentricities and inclinations of the orbits of
the bodies and particles and included in the function of their distri­
bution along the major semi-axis 0 (a) only those which actually get/158
on to the embryo. Then the difficulties connected with the crossings
of the zone's boundaries and with the increase in the eccentricities of
the orbits and of the zone's dimensions, could be by-passed to a con­
siderable degree by analyzing not the full balance between the initial
and final states, but rather the "differential" balance, i.e., the
balance for a set of given values of m, e and i and the one due to a
small increment ZVjn of the embroy's mass. It would not be necessary to
consider specifically the moment and energy exchange between the bodies
getting on the embryo and those that do not, because the orbit eccentri­
cities e and inclinations i, taken as characteristics of the initial
state would be the very result of such exchange. One could, apparently.
186

completely disregard the effect on the motion of the embryo from the
bodies which did not get on it, though the possibility could not be
completely excluded that the embryo moving on its circular orbit might
experience a slight braking effect as a result of coming close to bodies,
whose centroid velocity is, as is known, somewhat smaller than the
circular. However, the decrease of the embryo's orbital radius connected
with it should, apparently, be quite insignificant.

For the sake of simplicity, we will assume that all bodies and
particles have identical eccentricities and inclinations to the plane
of the embryo's orbit. We will emphasize that by a, e and i we mean the
average undisturbed elements, i.e., those corresponding to the time
intervals when the body is not found in the state of consolidation with
other bodies. Let us assume that while the substance quantity A m is getting
on the embryo, the bodies and particles having orbits whose large semi­
axis are between a and a + da, bring in the mass Am0 (a) da. Then
a2
■
»

l
0 (a) da = 1. Let us further assume that the embryo is moving in a

al
circular orbit (ag = Rq ) . The potential energy of the interaction among
particles and bodies outside of a consolidation is very small and can be
excluded.

Instead of the equations (6 ) we get

J£IaIda-i ( £ ) J0 (a) da - - <U + E t + Br).

r (i2 )
AK
Am / a (1 - e^) cos i0 (a) da - A (m .faT) f 0 (a) da = — — .
0 J ym

We also have

A ( i t ) = ( 1 " 7) z: * A ( m ^ = ( 1 + 2 ) /ioAm>
d In a.
where y = :----
d In m
 187

Applying expressions (1) to the major semi-axes of the orbits,/159

instead of to radii, we obtain from (12 ) , by analogy with (7),

aQ = (1 - e' - y) ae .

(1 - e2) cos 2 i am = ( 1 + k' + | ) a0 . (13)

where
2 a_ ,
e' = T~ (U + E + E ) , k' =
i_____ 1
dK r
(14)
GM dm p t r / G M aQ dm

Eliminating a^ we will get

(1 - e2) cos 2 i a^ = (1 - e 1 - 7) 1 + k' + — ^)2 ag (15)

The magnitude 7 which characterizes the change in length of the

orbital radius of the planet's embryo can be evaluated from the second
equation (12 ) by making in it 0 (a) = ca n and AK^ = 0 because of its
smallness. Calculations show that with the acceptable values of n the
2
magnitude of 7 will be of the order of e . In (15) 7 enters only in the
4
terms of e and higher powers of e. Confining ourselves by small values
to the second order for e and i and to the first order for k ' , we obtain

m e 2 . .2 . • • ....
-------- sa e + 1 + 2k - e . (16)
a
e

Comparison of (16) and (10) reveals that the taking into account of
eccentricities and inclinations of the orbits introduces additional terms
2 2
e and i of the same order as the others which can substantially change
the result. Hence, a system based on the analysis of circular orbits of
particles is clearly inadequate.

For the determination of the left part of (16) we will introduce

a dimensionless "distance"
a
1
x
a
1
188

and let us express the distribution function (a) in terms of x 0

confining ourselves to terms of the second order

0 = 01 (1 + CjX + c 2x 2) . (17)

Having substituted this expression for 0

in (1), in which, instead
of R we must now use a throughout, we can find am and ag . The calcula­
tions show that, correct to the third power of x, the expression (16) is
not dependent upon c^ and c^:

a a
m e
•). (18)
a
e

The value corresponds to the outer boundary of the zone a^. /160
Taking the zone boundaries according to 0. J. Schmidt or to L. E. Gurevich
and A. I. Lebedinskiy (they differ but little) we obtain for the Earth
0 .6 .

Since

_ Ro _ **0 (19)
al 1 + e ’ a2 1 - e *

then

Substituting this value in (16) we find

e' « | + i 2 + 2 k ’, (20)

or

E ’ + E' »
t r
- U ’+ -• V 2
p 2 c v 4
( ~
e 2 + i 2 ^)+
y
k'V 2
c
.(21)

This expression can be presented in a more obvious form by introducing

the velocity v of the bodies relative to the embryo and not yet affected
 189

by its pull (the velocity before the joining). The component of the
velocity perpendicular to the plane of the embryo's orbit v « i V^here V c
is the circular velocity and the component in the plane of the orbit

v _ eV /
/I - cos 2 i|r, where i]j is the angular distance of the body from
C 2 2 2
perihelion at the moment of encounter. Let v„_ = \e V . Then
R9 c

2 2 2 2
v ta (\e + i ) (22)

and from (21 ) we find

2„ 2
E' + E'
t r
U' +
p
~r2 + k'V 2 +
c
\ 2(Vf-4 - \ y e V
c
(23)

The exact value of X is difficult to calculate. For this,

generally speaking, it is necessary to know the density distribution in
the cluster 0
(a). In any case X is close to 3/4 and the last term of
(23) is at least by one order smaller than V 2 3
.

The examination of this equation leads to the following deductions.

2
1. At the accuracy to small e with which the calculations were
carried out, the thermal losses occurring at the landing of particles on
the surface of the planet embryo are equal to the sum of the potential
energy released by the particles at landing and of their kinetic energy
prior to joining the embryo. (Precisely such a magnitude of losses was/161
assumed by us (Ref. 15) in the evaluation of Earth's initial temperature).
Here we do not encounter the contradiction which emerged at the analysis
of circular orbits, when the natural assumptions regarding the losses
[condition (2 )] led to inadmissibly high rotation values.

2. The relationship (23) derived from the balance equations

contains two unknown quantities -- the velocity of the planet's rotation
and the thermal losses during the process of accumulation. Hence, it is
inadequate for the solution of the question regarding the rotation of the
planets. Only the analysis of a concrete mechanism of collisions makes
it possible to determine, with the help of balance equation, both the
rotation and the losses.

3. From (23), at first glance, it appears that the greater E|. is,
the greater k' is, i.e., at great thermal losses the rotation should be
direct. However, the actual picture is much more complicated. The term
with k' is the smallest in (23) and it would be futile to attempt to
190

determine it from it, since it appears in (23) as a difference of two

values greater than it by four orders. It is therefore impossible to
tell from (23) anything concerning the direction of the planet's rotation.
Since at the present velocity of the Earth's rotation the term k' is by
2.5 orders smaller than E' that characterizes the energy of the rotation,
it is more correct to judge the connection between the rotation and losses
not by k' and E^ but rather by E^ and Ej.. But these values appear every­
where as a sum. Hence, for given eccentricities of the bodies' orbits,
the faster the rotation of the planet, the smaller should be the thermal
losses of the process of accumulation. This deduction is physically
conceivable from the following: The rotation is accelerated more
intensively, (a) the greater the number of particles impinging in the
direction of rotation, and (b) the smaller the number of particles
impinging against the rotation, i.e., the smaller the velocity at which
the impingements occur; and hence the smaller the thermal losses. By
the way, this deduction is also valid for 0. J. Schmidt's analysis of
the motion of bodies in circular orbits. In his balance equations, the
energy of the losses also appears together with the energy of rotation,
as a sum of the two.

Thus, the calculation of the planet's rotational energy, which in

balance equations plays a considerably greater role than the rotational
moment of the planet, leads to the new conclusion that the thermal losses
decrease with the increase of rotational velocity.

It is possible to find a planet rotation corresponding to maximum

thermal losses. Let us assume that a certain set of particles and bodies
is consolidating into a planet in two ways differing in their thermal
losses. In the first case, the planet is formed on a circular orbit with
the radius R. In the second case it is formed on an orbit with the
radius R + SR. The full moment of the momentum should be identical;
therefore, the change of the orbital moment is compensated by the /162
change in the rotational moment

This will lead to a change in the rotational energy1

1 2
E = — I cj , K = I c o ; S E = I c j Soj = co SK ;
r 2 r r r rr r r r r r r
 191

The change in the orbital energy

6 En = SR = - — SE
0 2R 2 “r r

proves to be mush smaller than BE^ due to the smallness of the orbital
angular velocity in comparison with the rotational velocity
Therefore, the change in the total mechanical energy

BEn + BE = — (to - a) ) BR (24)

0 r R r c

is determined by the change of BE^. If the thermal losses are increased,

i.e., the mechanical energy is decreased, then at to > to , BR > 0 and the
velocity of rotation will decrease.

The losses of energy are maximum when the sum of the orbital and
rotational energies is minimum. For this, it is necessary that BEq +
BE^ = 0, according to (24), that u = wc • Hence, the thermal losses are
maximum when the planet rotates about its own axes with the velocity of
rotation of the cluster itself, i.e., when it does not rotate relative
to the cluster. At the maximum thermal losses, the rotation would be­
come direct but it would be too small in comparison with the actual
rotation of the planets. The greater the rotation is relative to the
cluster, the smaller the thermal losses. In addition, as far as the
losses are concerned, it is quite immaterial in which direction, counting
from w , the rotation is occurring, as it is possible to show that the
losses are identical for the velocity and for the velocity
to - A(io. For the question of direction of rotation remains open.

The conclusion of direct rotation at sufficiently large heat

losses was arrived at also by G. F. Khilmi (Ref. 16). It was based on
an inequality, identically satisfied, and valid for any system of bodies
independent of the character of their motion. /163

2
“ ■ ^ 2T - E m r '.2 , (25)
J
2
where ® and J are respectively the orbital moment of the momentum and
the moment of inertia of the system. The right side of this inequality
is always greater than 0 since the radial velocities of the bodies r!^
192

are smaller than their full velocities entering into the orbit kinetic
energy of the system T. Therefore when T -* 0, the right side also
approches 0. Hence, according to G. F. Hilmi, with an appropriate
decrease in T, the orbital moment of momentum of the system should
decrease, i.e., it should transform into a rotational moment. The
thermal losses at collisions lead to the over-all decrease in T, and
hence to direct rotation of the forming bodies.

However, the deduction of the substantial decrease in T and the

direct rotation is justified only in the case of all the bodies in the
system consolidating into one (central) body. But then, it is self
evident, as the full moment of the system (not equal to 0 ) is trans­
formed into the rotational moment. In the case of the formation of a
system of bodies moving in circular orbits, a substantial decrease in T
does not occur. The extinction of relative velocities of the bodies at
collisions decreases the right side of the inequality to a magnitude
2 2
mvz ~ i T. A change in T due to the consolidation of the bodies into a
planet depends on the distance of the forming planet from the Sun.
Prior to the consolidation of the bodies and particles into a planet,
their orbital kinetic energy T is proportional to a \ and after the
-1 6
consolidation, T °= . From (13) in which 7 < 0 and on the order of
- e', it is seen that aq ;=» a& , i.e., that T changes only slightly. The
condition for direct rotation (2) assumed by 0. J. Schmidt < R even
e 0
leads to T^ > T, i.e., not to a decrease in kinetic energy T at the
consolidation of bodies into a planet, but, on the contrary, to its
increase.

The planet will rotate the faster, the smaller its orbital
moment, i.e., the smaller its orbital radius, and hence the greater the
orbital kinetic energy T. Thus, the relationship between the orbital
energy T and the rotation of the planet is actually reversed; this is in
no way reflected in the inequality used by G. F. Hilmi. The very minute
effect of the origination of rotation, connected with the transition of
only one millionth part of the orbital moment into a rotational moment,
can not be revealed in an inequality in which the difference between the
right and left sides may reach more than 10 $.

It must further be pointed out that the rotation energy of the

planet does not appear as such in (25); it is combined with the energy
of the losses. Because of that, an increase in rotational velocity would
appear to be coupled with a decrease in thermal losses, as was deduced
above by means of (24) . It has the appearance of rotational energy /164
accounting for an economy in thermal losses. Thus, the relationship
between rotation and thermal losses really also emerges as reversed.
 193

In his subsequent book G. F. Hilmi (Ref. 17) analyzing the same

inequality (25) imposes on the system an additional restriction. He
assumes that the moment of inertia of the system decreases with time.
However, even with this supposition it does not follow from the in­
equality (25) that direct rotation of the planets is a requisite of the
process of their formation.

It is necessary to emphasize that all the objections cited above

do not concern the bases of 0. J. Schmidt's theory of formation of
planets by means of accumulation of rigid bodies and the important role
played in that process by the thermal losses. The objections are directed
only against the idea that great thermal losses expressly conditioned the
direct rotation of planets. The rotation of the planets as well as the
thermal losses themselves were conditioned by specific concrete colli­
sions of the consolidating bodies. The first is not a consequence of the
second, since each is determine by basic rules of motion of the consol­
dating bodies. If, for example, the planets were forming in a non­
rotating cluster they would not have acquired a direct rotation even if
the losses reached magnitudes of the same order.

It is natural to connect the direct rotation of the planets with

the general rotation of the entire cluster whose members are consolidating
into planets. The bodies landing on the embryo of the planet actually
may happen to impinge some to the right and some to the left of the axis
of rotation bringing either a positive or a negative moment. However,
the over-all rotation of the entire cluster of the bodies creates a
certain small asymmetry of impacts which in the final analysis determines
the rotation of the planet (Ref. 18).

The moment which is imparted to the planet's nucleus m by an

impinging body of mass dm which prior to the encounter had velocity v
relative to the planet's nucleus is equal to arvdm, where ar is the
distance in line of aim of the impinging body (in a tangential impact
2
7 1 + — —). The average moment which is imparted by many bodies
v r
will be determined by the sum of these vectors. Let a be the average
value of a unencumbered by random fluctuations arising at impingements
by larger bodies. Then the planet's rotational moment increment coin­
ciding in direction with the moment of the entire cluster is equal to

dK^ = arvdm. (26)

The magnitude a exactly characterizes the degree of asymmetry

of the impacts. Arising from the fact of the planet's embryo and of the
impinging bodies' motion around a central body - the Sun.
194

Assuming, as a first approximation, that a

remains constant /165
during the process of the planet's growth and taking for v the generally
Gm
0r

2 2/3 5/3
dK r dim « m dm and K am .
r r

Hence, in the course of the entire process of growth

to « const (27)

It may also be assumed that the degree of asymmetry of the impinge­

ments determined by the rotation of the total cluster was essentially
not dependent upon the distance of the growing planet from the Sun. This
would lead us to the deduction of approximate equality of the periods of
rotation for all planets, independent of their mass and distance from
the Sun. It is known that one of the features characteristic of the
solar system is precisely the small difference in periods of the planet's
rotation despite the tremendous differences in their masses. Therefore,
it follows that the above assumptions are close to actuality. The
impingements by larger bodies caused deviations of the actual moments of
the planets from the average, resulting in inclinations of equatorial
planes of the planets to the central plane of the cluster. In view of
the large magnitude of the moment that may be imparted by individual
bodies, it must be concluded from the fact of the planet's direct
rotation, that the masses of the largest impinging bodies during the final
stage of the planet's growth were less than 1 0 ”2 of the mass of the planet
itself. In the case of Uranus, this condition evidently was not ful­
filled and the random component of the rotational moment turned out to
be greater than the average.

Thus, it is possible to assume that the concept of the asymmetry

of the impingments being the cause of the planet's rotation is basically
correct. It leads to the deductions about the small variation in the
periods of rotation of the planets and about the identical direction of
their rotation, which it is more natural to assume as coinciding with
the direction of rotation of the entire cluster than as counter to it.

This result is derived from the natural assumptions about the

variation of the rotational moment in the nucleus-planet during the
process of its growth. In a similar way it is possible to make certain
most seemingly natural assumptions about the rotational energy of the
planet's nucleus and then compare the obtained result with the previous
 195

result. From the relationships (23) it is seen that the only simple
assumption regarding E' which directly derives from dimensional consid-
t Gm
erations, is to allow that T' — since on the right side U and /166
r r D ---
2 Gm
v are proportional to GM/r and since consequently, E “ — . Then we
obtain dE <= m
2/3
dm, i . e . , E “ K u ^ m
5/3 t
, and since K
r
^ m
5/3
co, we
r r r r
again come to the conclusion that lj ^ const.

The agreement of results arrived at by two different methods and

also the general agreement with the actual data of the rotation of planets
attests to their probability. However, it is necessary to emphasize that
this result must still be regarded as a first approximation only.
For a more rigorous solution of the problem concerning the planet's
rotation, it is necessary to produce a quantitative evaluation of the
magnitude of asymmetry a based on a statistical examination of the
restricted problem of three bodies.

However, this still would not have given a complete solution of

all the problems connected with the planet's rotation. The following
questions would still have remained unanswered.

1. Why are the orbits of the satellites located, as a rule, in

the plane of the planet's equator? Is this related to the landing on
the planet of a considerable quantity of matter from the satellite
cluster (or is this connected with some other manifestation of the
consolidation process) , or is this related to the long dynamic evolution
of the satellite systems that took place after their formation? If such
a dropping of matter from the satellite cluster did occur, then in what
way did it affect the rotation of the planets?

2. What was the initial rotation of the Earth like? There are
serious arguments in favor of the idea that the Moon was at first at a
considerably closer distance to the Earth than now, arguments deriving
from considerations of tidal evolution, as well as from contemporary
concepts of the process of the Moon's formation (Ref. 19). Did the
recession of the Moon from the Earth occur because of tides or because
of the Moon's consolidation with matter having a much greater moment of
momentum relative to the Earth? In the first case, the Earth should
have been initially rotating several times faster, but then it would
have been rotating considerably faster than the other planets and would
have thus, for some reason, deviated from the general rule.

3. Can the moment of the momentum of the Earth-Moon system be

considered constant? E. Holmberg (Ref. 20), in particular, suggested
the considerations that the semi-diurnal pulsations of the Earth's
atmosphere could support the rotation of the Earth with a period close
 196

to the period of the natural oscillations of the atmosphere. Observations

reveal that the maximum compression (the protuberance) lags hours behind
the Sun orientation. The tidal effect of the Sun on the atmospheric
protuberances could, according to Holmberg, impart the necessary moment
of momentum to the Earth. However, presently, the acceleration of /167
the Earth's rotation by solar atmospheric tides is of an order less than
its deceleration by lunar sea tides (Ref. 21) and the supposition that
in the past, the acceleration was much greater is not very convincing.
So far, there is still no meeting of minds on this question, and further
investigations are necessary.
REFERENCES

1. H. Poincare. Lecon sur les Hypotheses Cosmogoniques (Lesson on

Cosmogonic Hypotheses). Paris, 1911.

2. V. S. Safronov. Voprosy Kosmogonii (Problems of Cosmogony) 7, 121,

I960 .

3. V. G. Fesenkov. Astron. Zh. 28, 492, 1951-

4. L. E. Gurevich and A. I. Lebedinsky. IzvestiyaA. N.SSSR, Seriya

Fizicheskaya 14, ?65, 1950*

5. V. S. Safronov. Doklady A. N. SSSR, 130, 53, i960 .

6. V. S. Safronov and Ye. L. Ruskol. Voprosy Kosmogonii (Problems of

Cosmogony), 5, 22, 1957.

7. K. E. Edgeworth. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,

106 , 470, 1946.

8. Ye. L. Ruskol. Voprosy Kosmogonii (Problems of Cosmogony), 7» 8 , i960 .

9. G. P. Kuiper. Extr. Mem. Soc. Roy. Liege 4, Ser., 13,361, 1953.

10. I. S. Shklovskiy. Astron. Ah., 28, 234, 1951-

11. F. Hoyle. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 106, 406, 1946.

12. R. A. Lyttleton. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 121, 551, I960.

13. F. Hoyle. Voprosy Kosmogonii (Problems of Cosmogony), 7, 15, I960.

 197

REFERENCES (Cont'd)

1^-. 0. J. Schmidt. Chetyre Lektsii o Teorii Proiskhozhdenia Zemli

(Four Lectures on the theory of the Origin of the Earth) 3rd
Revised ed. Izd-vo A. N. SSSR, 1957-

15. V. S. Safronov. Izvestiya A. N. SSSR, Ser. Geofiz., No. 1, 139j 1959*

16. G. F. Hiimi. Problema n Tel v Nebesnoy Mekhanike i Kosmogonii

(The Problem of n Bodies in Celestial Mechanics and Cosmogony).
Doklady A. N. SSSR, 77, 589, 1951.

17. G. F. Hiimi. Kachestvennye Metody v Problemye n tel (Qualitative

Methods in the Problem of n Bodies) Izd-vo A. N. SSSR, 1958.

18. V. S. Safronov. Voprosy Kosmogonii (Problems of Cosmogony) 7, 59, I960.

19. Ye. L. Ruskol. Astron. Zh. 37, 690, i960.

20. E. R. Holmberg. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., Geophysical Supplement, 6,
325, 1952.

21. W. H. Munk and G. J. F. MacDonald. The Rotation of the Earth, Cambridge,

Mass., i960, p. 221.
198

ON THE DISPERSION OF VELOCITIES IN ROTATING SYSTEMS /168

GRAVITATING BODIES WITH INELASTIC COLLISIONS

By

V. S.Safronov

The energy increase of irregular motion in a system of gravitating

bodies of identical masses m and radii r with a differential rotation is
evaluated by a well-known method of determining the heating of viscous
medium in the presence of a velocity gradient. The expression for quantity
of liberated energy which is applied in rotating systems having a great
mean free path is derived. The inelastic collisions of bodies decrease
the energy of irregular motion more than the relative velocities. From
the conditions of the equality of the emitted and absorbed energy of
irregular motion, the expression was derived for the (equilibrial) rela­
tive velocity of bodies in the system. This velocity has practically the
same character of dependence on m and r as the equation found earlier by
2
L. E. Gurevich and A. I. Lebedinskiy (v ^ Gm/r). The coefficient of
proportionality is determined by the degree of inelasticity of collisions,
and it is also dependent upon the parameter which is connected with the
characteristics of the energy and momentum transfer in rotating systems
with a long duration of free flight. The numerical value of this param­
eter is not accurately known.

The problem concerning the dispersion of the velocities of gravi­

tating bodies which are subjected to inelastic collisions presents a
spontaneous interest in planet cosmogony since the process of accumu-/169
lation of planets primarily is reduced to collisions and junctions of a
great number of protoplanet bodies. Having been formed in a planar dust
disc, these bodies had initially small relative velocities and moved
practically in Keplerian circular orbits. But in the course of their
combination and increase in mass, they began to interact gravitationally
with one another, and their relative velocities gradually grew, i.e., the
eccentricities of their orbits grew.

An approximate expression for the dispersion of the velocities in

protoplanets was formulated in 1950 by L. E. Gurevich and A. I. Lebedinskiy
(Ref. 1). The period of the bodies' conjuncture is much less than their
periods of revolution around the Sun. Therefore, the conjuncture might be
considered as a two-body problem: the vector of the relative velocity v
of the approaching bodies having masses m does not change in magnitude
 199
Gin
and merely rotates through an angle of 0 sa — — or 0 4~ . Therefore,
Dv 1
a change in the eccentricity e of the body's orbit occurs, This can be
approximated by the equation

. Gm ...
eAe — - ,(1)
D\T
c

where is the circular velocity, and D is the target distance. Accord­

ing to the authors, if you further assume that there is a change in the
orbit's eccentricity Ae at the closest conjunctures when D = 2r (r is the
radius of the body) will by its order of magnitude equal the value of the
eccentricity e, then from (1 ) it is possible to find e and consequently
the relative velocity of the bodies

The conclusion is qualitatively correct. However, it is not

sufficiently rigorous. The correlation (1) is only valid with small values
of 0, i.e., during (distant) conjunctures. Since ^^^ « 0, then in
this case, Ae <? e. But the authors applied (1) to the close conjunctures
taking D = 2r and assuming that with this, Ae ^
e . The error that is
introduced is not clear since with large values of 0 , the correlations
prove to be more complex and it is impossible to obtain from them an
expression for v which would be analogous to (2 ).

The dispersion of the velocities in gravitating bodies in a system

with a differential rotation occurs as a result of the transition of
energy of regular motion into energy of irregular motion. The potential
energy of the system with respect to the central mass decreases; the
system is somewhat compressed in the direction of the axis of rotation.
In the case of absolute elastic collisions their velocities would /170
increase all the while and would be no correlation of type (2). In an
actual system with inelastic collisions, the dispersion of the velocities
is determined by the balance between energies that are acquired during
the conjunctures and energies lost during collisions. In the work (Ref.
1) the assumption Ae « e when D = 2r is essentially an obscure expression
of such a balance. The essential "characteristic" dimension should be
actually on the order of 2r. However, equation (2) does not show the way
in which the dispersion of the velocities is dependent on the character
of the bodies' collisions from the degree of their inelasticity. There­
fore, the problem must be approached in greater detail in order to find
this relationship more clearly.
200

1. The Dispersion of Velocities During Short Periods

of Free Flight

We will consider that all bodies have identical masses m and

radii r. So far periods of free flight of bodies are short in comparison
with the distance from the Sun (i.e., so far the bodies themselves are
small) the growth of the dispersion of their velocities can be evaluated
by ordinary formulae of hydrodynamics. In a flux possessing axial
symmetry and rotating with an angular velocity of w(R), the amount of
3
energy dissipated in 1 cm /sec due to the molecular viscosity is deter­
mined by the equation

E T)R (3)

where T| « 1/3 pv\, is the coefficient of viscosity; and R is the distance

from the axis of rotation. Having applied (3) to our system of bodies,
we obtain the amount of energy which goes into the increase of their
relative velocities. The correlation (3) has a simple physical inter­
pretation. On the average, 1/3 of all particles travel in a radial
direction. During the period of free flight path t following the path
A. they acquire a relative velocity of the differential motion Av =
R ^ A. which transfers from a regular into a chaotic velocity. During
2 1 2 /'duis\2 2
the period t = \/v the thermal energy 1/2 Av = ~ R X is emitted

per one unit of mass. Since A. = 2X , then by having divided this

expression by t and multiplying it by 1/3 p, where p is the density of
the medium we obtain (3).

So far only the bodies of small mass are being investigated, their
gravitational interaction with one another is small and the period of
free flight is determined by their geometric cross section. Between the
two consecutive collisions the body acquires from the differential rota­
tion an energy of the random motion which equals on an average one unit
mass /171

e
E
— T
1 2 2
= J R X
f dw ~\2
(4)
1 P V dR J
Let us assume that during the collision, the body loses an energy
of e per unit of mass. This energy amounts to a portion £ of its
2
 201

energy of relative motion. After having designated the velocity of the

body after the collision by v^ and the velocity before the following
collision by v^ we have

V 1 + 2 € 1 = V 2 ’ 2 € 2 = ^V 2 * (5)

Then

e2 = f <vl + 2eP = f (v2 + » (6)

2 2 2
where v is the average value between v^ and v^. As a result of the
total action of both effects, the body acquires per unit of mass per
second the energy

(7)

In Keplerian circular motion

r dto N2 = 9 ^ 0 = 9tt2
V dR J 4 _3
4 R3
,2 ’
ra2
(8)

where P is the period of revolution around the Sun. In a system of

identical bodies with a radius r, the geometric cross section of the
collision is equal to 4jtr^. But the collisions close to tangential have
little effect. Therefore, we designate the actual cross section by
2
, where § is on the order of one unit. Then the time of the period
of free flight between collisions is equal to

_ \ _ 4rS
(9)
T " V " 3 /25pv

where 6 is the density of the body and p is the density in the cluster,
i.e., the mean mass of the substance entering into the bodies per unit
volume.

In planar rotating systems with the central field of gravity, the

values of p and v are related with the surface density of the cluster and
the period of rotation by the simple correlation (Ref. 2)
Therefore

PSr
T = ------ O')
3 /2?a

By substituting in (7) the expressions (8) and (91), we find /172

-v 2-2 2
(2 - C) it 5 r
e (11)
2t 2 2
6C5 cr

The analysis of this correlation allows the following conclusions to be

made.

1. The velocities of the bodies decrease with time if the dimen­

sions of the bodies are sufficiently small:

r < r i ‘/ S r f s - (i2)

If r > r^ (all the bodies are assumed identical) then the velocities of
the bodies increase regardless of v, i.e., they do not tend to approach
a limit of the type (2). For the zone of the Earth, a » 10 gm/cm^; hence,
r^ is on the order of several centimeters.

2. The increase of velocities in the case being investigated

occurs not because of the great gravitational interaction, i.e., "rocking"
each other, but rather because of the system's differential rotation.

3. If, in the protoplanetary any dust layer, by some means a signi­

ficant number of bodies with a radius greater than r^ (comprising a large
part of the layer's masses) succeeded in being formed, then the gravi­
tational instability in the layer will not be able to occur. Actually,
the increase of velocities when r > r^ denotes a decrease in density, and
if the density were less than the critical by r « r^ then bv its future
decrease, it would be even less capable of achieving the critical value.
 203
From this, it still does not follow that there was no gravita­
tional instability in the dust layer. From (11), it is obvious when r
is several times less than r^ the first term in parentheses can be dis­
regarded. Substituting t from (9') we obtain the change in v in time

dv _ 3^gcf
(13)
dt / 26Pr
The velocity of the particle decreases by e times during the period — P,
rl
i.e., less than during the period of revolution around the Sun. Only
the constantly acting outer excitations can rescue a cloud of small
particles from the rapid descent. We have already mentioned earlier
that such excitations can be expected in the inner part of the cloud
where conditions for the occurrence of gravitational instability are more
rigid.

Let us now evaluate the velocities of the bodies where r > r ^ .

Now in (11) it is possible to neglect the second term in brackets. Then,

e dv ^ n2 (2 - Q Sr v 2
(14)
dt 2 / 2 §P a
The velocities increase by e times during the period — P, /173
i.e., also during a period which is less than the revolution around the
Sun. Let us assume that the bodies unite during collisions. Then one
can find v relative to the dimensions of the bodies since

dm 2
nr pv, (15)
dt - / 2 7 5

then on the basis of (10 )

dr _ fl^yo (16)
dt ~ SP

where 7 is the probability that the bodies will unite during collisions,
i.e., the magnitude on the order of unity. From (14) and (16) we obtain

dv = it2 (2 - C) 82
r dr. (17)
v / e-2 2
4 71, a
204
Let us assume that when r iTg > velocity of the bodies v = , Then

2
it (2 - Q b 2r*
1 (18)
oe2 2 ( 4 - )•
8y| a ro
When Tq = 5 cm, the multiplier before the bracket is on the order of
unity. Therefore, from (18) it follows that it is sufficient that r
would increase only several times, such that v would reach very high values
and would lead to the destruction of the bodies as such. However,
such deduction would be invalid. With an increase in v, the thickness of
the layer increases, and hence the length of the period of free flight of
the bodies increases. But in the presence of large values of \ which
comprise the basis of this deduction the correlation (4) ceases to be
applicable. During the intervals between collisions, the bodies under
influence by solar gravity travel along elliptical orbits. Therefore,
with any suitably large values of \ the maximum displacement of the body
by R does not exceed 2ae, i.e., about 2eR if the eccentricities e of the
orbits are not great. When \> eR, i.e., when x > ^ P , correlations
(4) and (7) reveal an increased value for e. This leads to an excessively
rapid growth of v in (18). From (91) and (12) we have

_1_ / 3C _r_
T 3it V 2 - £ r L P (19)

From this it is evident that t reaches a magnitude of 1/4 P when

the value r is only slightly greater than r ^ . Hence, correlation (18)
ceases to be correct very early and has to be substituted by another value
suitable for large values of \.

2. The Dispersion of Velocities During Long Periods /174

of Free Flight

In rotating systems during the transition to longer periods of free

flight paths the character of the substance and motion transfer essentially
changes. Thus, in the semi-empirical theory of Prandtl for turbulent
motion which is based on the concept concerning the average course of
intermixing, the tangential directions are determined not by the gradient
of the angular velocity but by the gradient of the momentum of vorticity
[see for example von Karman (Ref. 3)]. Then correspondingly, also the
expression for the thermal energy being emitted should change. Actually,
 205

in the intervals between collisions, the body moves with a constant

momentum of vorticity. Let us utilize the same principle on the basis
of which expression (3) was obtained. The body possessing at a distance
R from the Sun an average motion in the direction of rotation (v = 0)
U
after being shifted into a point at a distance R + AR will have systematic
velocity in the direction of rotation relative to the circular velQcity

v
1 d (coR2)
AR. (20)
e R dR

The maximum possible value AR equals eR and the average square A R =

1 2 2
— e R . Therefore

1 2 = e^ d (coR2)
(21)
2 V0 6 dR

Let t be the time between the two consecutive collisions of bodies and
s
T the time of the bodies' energy exchange caused by their conjuncture,
S
i.e., the period of relaxation. Then the period of free flight is deter­
mined from the condition

By applying the same arguments from which expression (3) was

derived one can consider that within the time t the energy of the random
2
motion per unit of mass increases by a magnitude of 1/2 v which is
0
determined according to (21). However, Prandtl's theory which leads to
the gradient of the momentum of vorticity is not entirely rigorous.
According to Vasyuginskiy (Ref. 4) the tangential stresses are determined
by a more complex expression in one extreme case which, when the exchange
is isotropic, the stresses are determined by the gradient of angular
velocity and in another extreme case when the exchange is entirely radial.
The exchange is determined by the gradient of the momentum of /175
vorticity (according to Prandtl). Actually, the purely radial exchanges
do not materialize and a certain intermediate case should take place.
-3/2 2 1/2
In Keplerian rotation to R , coR R . The tangential stresses
2
calculated by the gradient toR are three times less than according to the
gradient to. With respect to this, the correlation (21) indicates that
the energy is nine times less than the energy which we might have obtained if,
similar to (3) we determined it from the square of the gradient of angular
206

velocity. From the previous discussion it follows that in (21) it is

probably necessary to introduce a certain constant correction factor.
The determination of this factor goes beyond the scope of the present
article. We will confine ourselves to the supposition that within time
T the average energy of the random motion of a mass unit is increased by
2
the value of 1/2 0v where p is on the order of unity. The energy
U
acquired during the time Tg will be equal to*

6i ‘ f ve ( 1 + f
g
)' <23)

As before, we will consider that, during a collision, energy determined

by expression (6 ) is lost.

e2 = 2 + '

The complete change of energy of the random motion in 1 sec will

be equal to

(24)*
2

Edgeworth (Ref. 5) with the help of a correlation approximating

(3) attempted to evaluate the increase of dispersion of stellar velocities
Having correctly noted that in the case of large periods of free flight
the magnitude X. in the formula should be substituted by the amplitude of
oscillations of the star along the radius vector AR, he still admitted an
error by asserting that it is sufficient to produce a substitution in the
coefficient of viscosity T| ^ v\. Actually, it is seen from the conclusion
(3) and also from (4) and (7) that the exchange should be made not in the
2
expression vX. but rather in the expression X. /t . Hence, instead of vAR,
2
it should be A R /t = vAR ■ (AR/X.) . X. is five times larger than AR for the
approach of separate stars. Although the period of increase in the
velocity dispersion due to stellar conjunctives (~ 1 0 ^-® years) which was
found so many times by Edgeworth has proved to be less than what is
actually necessary. Only conjunctures of stars with significantly more
massive objects (M ~ 10^M^) can lead to the cosmogonically acceptable
rate of growth in the dispersion of stellar velocities.
 207

We will assume t equals period of relaxation according to Chandrasekar

(Ref. 6 ) g
- r 3/2
_1_ ivf)____
T (25)
,2

G mp r V I
g 16
2
ln L1 + " l i r j

Here, D_ is the average distance between the bodies and v'^ 2v wher^!76
j^ 2
v' is tne relative velocity of the bodies, v is the velocity of the body
relative to the centroid. The time between collisions not counting the
mutual attraction of the bodies is determined according to (9). The
gravitation of the bodies decreases t by (1 + ■G™) times where V£ is the
V2r
velocity of the body relative to the centroid before the collision. From
(5) and (6 ) we have

2 2 2
v v
2 2 - e *

Consequently,

4r5_____________
T (26)
S x + Gm (1 - U
2)~] *

2
16 jtG Smr ln
Gm 1
(27)
]'
T Gm
3?(v 2)2 fi + • (1 - C/2
g 2
v r

Now we shall find the value v in the presence of which e is reduced to 0.

Since

d (u)R2) ^ e 2„2
—1 v and V « 4 2
t v , (28)
dR 2 c c 3

then the right term (24) is reduced to 0 if

208

_Vs = 18C
1. (29)
Tg (2 - O P

The comparison (27) and (29) leads us to the conclusion that the depen­
dence of on the masses and the radii of the bodies has the form

2 Gm
v (30)
0r

where

gC
d2 = ___ 18 - gP (2 - C)____ 1 +
0 -I) (31)

4 (2 - 0 P In ( 1 + — )

Thus, the dispersion of the velociti es in protoplanetary bodies is

determined by their masses and radii and al so by the degree of the in­
elasticity of their collisions.*

In addition, the average distance be tween the bodies D q enters/177

into the expression for 0 ; however, the dependence on is extremely
slight (the root of the logarithm). Therefore, 0 can be considered
practically constant in the growth process of increase if a perceptible
change in £ doe not occur.

Let us evaluate the magnitude £ for the case where the colliding
bodies are united i.e., for the positively inelastic collisions. Let us
assume that two bodies of identical mass m have identical velocities v
under the angle ijr of their relative directions. After the collision and
junction of bodies, amount of motion should remain

*
If, instead of T the time between close approaches which is

0 2
16 In 1 + times greater, it is taken then 0
increases in the same
Gm _
way and 0 is increased approximately ten times. This value of 0 should
be considered as obviously overstated since in the calculation distant
conjunctures are not taken into consideration.
 209

2 m v 1 = 2mv cos i

this means that, after the collision, the velocity is equal to

(32)
2

According to the definition of £

r 2
£v = v 2 - v '2
*

Hence,

Q„ = . 2 +
sm - (33)

If vectors v are randomly distributed and the probability of

collisions of bodies is proportional to their relative velocity Av

if
Av = 2v sin — , (34)

then the average value of £ is determined from the expression

Jt

J
r
sm
3
jir • 2 jt sin i|r di|r
£Av dQ
0 3
e = ■
» jr 5
(35)
Av dQ p if
sin - • 2 rt sin ^ d\j/
0

Actually, the distribution of velocities of bodies is not isotropic.

In a radial direction the velocities on the average are twice

as large as the tangential.

However, £ does not essentially change with this. Since the

conclusion is attributed to absolute inelastic impacts the found /178
value of £ should be considered as the upper limit of £.
210

Let us now evaluate D q . According to Chandrasekarv (Ref. 7)

-1/3
D 0.55 n > (36)
0

where n is a number of bodies per unit volume:

P = 4 a
m Pvm

Substituting this value of n in (36) and substituting v according to (29)

and after performing some simple calculations we obtain

For the zone of the Earth a = 10, P = 3 • 10^. With 5 = 2 and r = 10^
3 "1/6
we obtain D^/r « 10 fl . If we assume that for the zone of Jupiter
a = 40, P = 3.7 • 10^, 5 = 2
and r = 10^, then we obtain D_/r « 10 ^8
3 4 U
Thus, D^/r proves to be on the order of 10 to 10 . The magnitude under
the logarithm in (31) is equal to D^/Sr. Substituting in (31) 0 = 1 ,
§ = 1 and instead of Q
the value which we got above Q =
3/5, we find that
3 4
0 = 0.56 when D^/r = 10 and Q
= 0.47 when Dg/r = 10 . Thus it is to be
expected that 6
is on the order of 1/2. For a more accurate estimation
of 6
it is necessary to amke the coefficients 0 and average value more Q
accurate.

The obtained result is attributed to the ideal case of the system

of identical bodies which combine during collision. If the bodies during
collisions do not combine their velocities will be greater. On the other
hand the presence of dispersed substance (gas and small particles) in a
cluster decreases the velocities of the bodies. In a system of unidentical
bodies the picture will be still more complex. The larger bodies should
have significantly less velocities since they deviate less under gravi­
tational conjunctures with other bodies and they curve their own orbits
to a great degree during the fall of smaller bodies on them. However,
in order to examine the dependence of the velocities of the bodies on
their masses it is necessary to examine the result of concrete conjunctures
in detail.
 211

The hydrodynamic method applied earlier is insufficient for this.

In addition, it is necessary to know the function of the bodies' distri­
bution in dimension. Essentially, these problems are closely related and
should be considered simultaneously during the rigorous statement of the
problem.

REFERENCES

1. L. E. Gurevich and A. I. Lebedinskiy. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk, SSSR

Seriya Fizicheskaya 14, 7 6 5 , 1950*

2. V. S. Safronov, Voprosy Kosmogonii (Problems of Cosmogony) Astron.

Zh. 3 1 , 499, 1958.

3. T. Karman. Symposium "Problemy Kosmicheskoy Aerodinamiki" (Problems

of Cosmic Aerodynamics) Izdatel'stvo Inostrannoy Literatury, 1953» P* 157-

4. J. Wasiutynski. Studies in Hydrodynamics and Structure of Stars and

Planets, Oslo, 1946.

5. K. Edgeworth. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,

108, 417, 1948.

6. S. Chandrasekarv. Printsipy Zvezdnoy Dinamiki (Principles of Stellar

Dynamics), Izd-vo Inostrannoy Literatury, 1948, p. 72.

7. S. Chandrasekarv. Stokhasticheskie Problemy v Fizike i Astronomii

(Stochastic Problems in Physics and Astronomy, Izd-vo Inostrannoy Literatury f
19^7 •
212

A BRIEF REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS /180

OF DIFFUSE NEBULAE

By

R. Ye. Gershberg

A brief review is given on the investigations of morphological

characteristics of diffuse nebulae. The fundamental physical ideas
connected with the interpretation of three very important types of
structural details of diffuse nebulae are examined: bright rings on the
border of luminous and dark nebulae; peripheral structures of the emission
nebulae; and stretched and fibrousness formations of luminous and dark
diffuse nebulae.

The relaxation period of all known elementary processes which

determine the physical state of the inter-stellar matter, the recom­
bination and ionization time, the period for establishing Maxwell
distribution of the velocities of the particles with identical masses
etc, are usually several times less than the period for the existence
of cosmic objects in a fixed condition or the time of existence of a
certain macroscopic motion. This essentially simplifies the investi­
gation of the physical state in inter-stellar bodies since the stationary
objects are investigated. Furthermore, since the radiation of the inter­
stellar medium reflects its state only at a given moment, then the study
of the evolution of the diffuse matter by its luminosity proves to be
impossible. For the investigation of the evolution of inter-stellar
medium it is necessary to turn to the properties which have a longer
characteristic change period than the period of relaxation of the
elementary processes. The consideration of the kinematic characteristics
which are being determined directly from observations with known /181
physical properties of the diffuse matter renders it possible to construct
dynamic theories, and then evolutional hypotheses on the development of
various inter-stellar objects. The study of the structural characteristics
of diffuse nebulae yields the criteria supporting the dynamic theories
and is an important link in the construction of the over-all picture of
the development of diffused matter in the galaxy and its relation to the
stars. At first the problem of investigating the structure of diffuse
nebulae for the clarification of their dynamics and evolution was
accurately formulated by G. A. Shayn and V. F. Gaze (Ref. 1) in their
first work dedicated to the study of the inter-stellar medium.

A systematic study of morphological characteristics of diffuse

nebulae began comparatively recently. This is quite natural if you take
 213
into consideration that the theory of physical processes in the inter­
stellar medium in the first approximation was completed only in the
beginning of the 1940's. At that time Stremgren (Ref. 2) showed that
in the conditions of the inter-stellar medium the regions of ionized and
neutral hydrogen should be rather abruptly defined in space. Up to this
time the investigation of the structure of diffuse nebulae was reduced to
a simple description of the odd forms or the classification of the nebulae
on the basis of their external form. Such a classification did not
always prove to be physically justified. Not stopping at the numerous
descriptive works of this type [(a detailed bibliography can be found in
the monographs of B. A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov (Ref. 3) and Cederblad
(Ref. 4)] we shall examine only the fundamental physical ideas connected
with the interpretation of three important types of structural details
of diffuse nebulae: 1 ) the bright rings on the border of luminous and
dark nebulae, 2 ) the peripheral structures of the emission nebulae, and
3) the stretched and fibrous formations in bright and dark diffuse
nebulae.

1. The bright rings on the borders of luminous and dark nebulae

are visible on certain photographs which were taken at the end of the
19th century (Refs. 5-7). Duncan (Ref. 8) while describing the photo­
graphs which were taken with the 1 0 0 -in. reflector first turned his
attention to these bright rings as being a characteristic detail of the
diffuse nebulae. In regard to IC 434 he assumed that the bright rim
around the "Horse Head" nebula (in Orion) was a result of the skimming
of the bright substance by dark material.

In 1937 Struve (Ref. 9) composed the first list of the nebulae

with bright rims and found that the brightest parts of the rings "point
out" the stars which excite the nebulae. He also found that from the side
of the dark nebula the brightness of the rings drops more steeply than
from the side of the bright nebula and that all the luminous nebulae
which are bordered by bright rings (in Struve's list there were ten such
objects) have emission spectra. However, Struve considered that /182
the rings themselves belonged to the dark matter "the silvery edge of
the clouds" which is projected on the other bright substance. In his
opinion the radiation of the stars penetrates the dense clouds compara­
tively little because of the high coefficient of absorption of this
radiation. From the front these illuminated layers are hardly visible
because of their small surface brightness, but from the side they have
the appearance of narrow sickles or bright rings, since the dispersed
radiation is only slightly absorbed and the entire thickness of the
bright substance is visible.

In 1946 Oort (Ref. 10) showed that during the collision of clouds
of inter-stellar gas shock waves are formed which can cause a luminescence
of matter whereby the illuminated zone should be quite narrow. He
214

proposed to clarify the bright rings by means of the collision of dense

and rarefied clouds; the rarefied cloud is heated to a high temperature
and begins to shine while a more dense cloud remains dark. Thackeray
(Ref. 11) soon afterward completed special spectral photometric obser­
vations on the bright rings in three known diffused nebulae in the
southern sky -- NGC 6523, NGC 6514, and NGC 6611. These observations
revealed the emission spectrum for the bright rings; and in this way
they showed that the model of "silvery edge of the dark cloud" was invalid.
However, these observations were insufficient for the solution of the
problem whether the bright rings are excited by a radiative or shock
mechanism.

To the problem on the nature of bright rings is closely related

the problem of the formation of dark "elephant trunks", i.e., the long
and narrow introduction of dark matter into the bright nebulae, since
these "trunks" are normally bordered by bright rings. By investigating
the large direct photos Thackeray (Ref. 11) came to the conclusion that
the elephant trunks are formed because of the motion of the dark substance
in the direction of a star which excites luminescence of the emission
nebulae. Rozhkovskiy (Ref. 12) came to the same conclusions. The hydro-
dynamic model of such a flux was given by Spitser (Ref. 13). Spitser
proposed the examination of the dark "elephant trunks" as a result of
the so-called Rayleigh-Taylor instability on the border of two media with
a diverse density of matter and with an acceleration directed away from
the denser medium to the less dense. Frieman (Ref. 14) and Layzer (Ref.
15) made calculations on such a motion (applicable to conditions of the
inter-stellar medium). Not long before this van de Hulst (Ref. 16)
proposed a different model of the formation of "elephant trunks" and
bright rings: if an O-star can be born in a medium with certain
fluctuation density, then the original region of the hydrogen ionized
by the star has an irregular outline. The more dense regions are ionized
at a lesser depth and in these places the border of ionized substance
forms protuberances toward the star. The high pressure of the ionized
gas compresses this protuberance and makes it more dense, whereby the/183
edge of the compressed area can be ionized and will be seen as a bright
ring embracing the dark "trunk".

Soon after this Osterbrock (Ref. 17) investigated the "elephant

trunks" in all the emission nebulae with distances which were reliably
determined (such proved to be ten) and came to the following conclusions:
the structures which are being observed in general conform to the Rayleigh-
Taylor instability model although they have certain effects which were not
seen in theory; the density of the bright rings essentially exceeds the
mean density of substance in the emission nebulae which are bordered by
rings. The evolution of the "trunks" can be concluded by a formation by
an isolated "droplet", the dark globule. At first these small dark
objects on the background of the emission nebulae were discovered by Bok
 215

and Reilly (Ref. 18) and V. G. Fesenkov and D. A. Rozhkovskiy (Ref. 19)
came to a conclusion concerning the physical relation of the globules
with the dark matter which surrounds the emission nebulae.

At almost the same time as Osterbrock, Pottasch (Ref. 20) conducted

a detailed statistical investigation of bright rings in 34 diffuse nebulae
and discovered some new important laws. It was explained that the emission
nebulae which contained bright rings were excited by stars of a more
recent spectral class than 09. The position of the bright ring in the
nebula is dependent on the spectral class of the exciting star i.e.,
rings are located closer to the hotter stars. The form of the bright
rings changes with its distance from the exciting star from almost planar
remote rings to firmly drawn rings and circular globules which do not
have an apparent connection with the dark matter and are comparatively
close to the center of the nebula. The planar rings are the largest and
least dense, whereas the bright rings which border the narrow "elephant
trunks" and the globules are the smallest and most dense. The decline
in density of matter from the ring to the central parts of the nebula is
maximum in the drawn-out nebulae with low density and at a minimum in
the compact and dense nebulae. Analysis of these laws led Pottasch
(Ref. 21) to the conclusion that the bright rings cannot be a result of
the Rayleigh-Taylor instability, but rather they correspond to a picture
of the extent of the ionization front in the inter-stellar medium with
fluctuations in density. By using the theory of this process developed
by Kan (Ref. 22) Pottasch showed that a configuration of bright matter
occurs when a region of increased density encounters the ionization
front. This configuration yields the exact course in brightness with
distance from the exciting star as Osterbrock discovered in a typical
bright ring. After this Kan (Ref. 23) theoretically examined the /184
problem concerning the stability of the ionization front and came to the
conclusion that the "elephant trunks" are not a result of Rayleigh-
Taylor instability since a similar instability should have led to the
existence of lesser "excitations" than those brought about by the observed
rings, and in addition the absorption in the ring itself yields a strong
effect of the attenuation of instability.

Evidently, the model assumed by van de Hulst corresponds to the

phenomenon of the bright rings. Recently Hershberg (Ref. 24) showed that
the border of the ionized region will have significant protuberances and
depressions with the fluctuations of density in the inter-stellar matter
amounting to only 20 to 30$ of the average density. These deformations
are not caused by the drop in matter density immediately near the border
of the zone H II, but by the fluctuations of density in the internal
parts of the ionized region. In other words, the ionized front does not
"encounter" any ready in the form of local matter condensations and does
not bend by "flowing around" it, but was bent from the beginning. This
216

deformation of the ionization front and subsequently the hydrodynamic

rupture leads to the formation of a local condensation. The design of
future development of the bright rings assumed by Pottasch is valid in
the given case.

The investigation of the electron temperature in the bright rings

of diffuse nebulae NGC 7000 and NGC 6523 has shown (Ref. 25) that the
temperature in these formations, in effect, do not differ from the
electron temperature of more inner parts of the corresponding nebulae.
Hence, the physical condition of the substance in these details cannot
be perceptibly distinguished from the condition of substance in the
usual H II regions and the bright rings can only be the result of in­
creased density in the luminescent matter. These data obtained from
observations contradict the concepts concerning bright rings as well as
the information on the luminescent fronts (Oort), and also the concepts
concerning the fact that these regions of the diffuse nebulae are excited
by the more rigid ultraviolet radiation than the remaining parts of the
ionized regions (Pottasch).

2. For a long time the large nebula in Unicorn NGC 2237 with the
characteristic concentration of matter on the periphery proved to be the
only object among the diffused nebulae. The unique nature of this nebula
became noticeable when Minkovskiy (Ref. 26) determined its mass of
~ 10,000 solar masses. However, in 1951 after having investigated the
numerous photographs of the emission nebula obtained with illumination
cameras in Cimeiz, Shayne and Gaze (Ref. 27) have shown that the
peripheral structures, i.e., the solid external shells, the rings and
individual arcs are sufficiently characteristic peculiarities of
diffuse nebulae. Afterward, they found that another well-known /I85
nebula NGC 6523 also has interesting peripheral details and is comparable
by mass to NGC 2237 (Ref. 28). Somewhat later, they supplemented the
initial list of peripheral diffuse nebulae; among them were objects from
the extragalactic systems (Ref. 29). In 1953, Shayn and Gaze (Ref. 30)
came to the conclusion that the peripheral structures cannot be equi-
librial static formation but rather are dynamic configurations as a
result of the influence of some kind of force on the diffuse matter which
initially was found in the more central regions. Shayne and Gaze examined
three possibilities for the formation of peripheral structures: "the
formation of a shell as a result of the effect of radiation pressure as a
single factor which determined the transformation of the nebula initially
amorphis in structure into a peripheral nebula, the formation of a shell
or ring as a result of the ejection of gas from one or several stars,
i.e., super nova, and the formation of a shell or ring as a result of
the motion of gas outward in a non-stationary formation of the motion
stipulated by some reason during the period of the formation of the
nebulae". Shayn and Gaze considered the last possibility the most
probable. Subsequently the concepts concerning the transformation of
 217

*90'

Fig. 1. Meridional Cross Section of a Sphere with a Radius

of 15 Mparsecs. The black circles are spiral galaxies
brighter than -17m of absolute magnitude; the bright circles
are elliptical galaxies; the crosses are spiral and irregular
galaxies of a magnitude less than -17™. The system of dis­
tances being used here can be characterized by the fact that
the distance to the cluster in Virgo, after the consideration
of light absorption is equal to 7.6 Mparsecs. The northern
galactic hemisphere is located to the right. Scale of the
illustration: 1 cm = 2 Mparsecs. On the cross section are
projected all galaxies which deviate from L = 105° not more
than by 15°.
218

L'O*

Fig. 2. Equatorial Cross Section of a Sphere

with a Radius of 15 Mparsecs. On the cross
section are projected all galaxies, which are
located in the near equatorial layer with a
thickness of 2 Mparsecs. The northern galactic
hemisphere is shown to the right. The scale
and designations are the same as on Fig. 1.
 219

the amorphis into peripheral nebulae became an essential point in the

over-all field of ideas concerning the evolution of diffuse nebulae,
their expansion and deterioration (Refs. 31, 32). The numerous proofs
presented by Shayn and Gaze favor the expansion and deterioration of
the diffuse nebulae, i.e., the motion of gas in NGC 1976 relative to
the Trapezium Orion, the existence of groups of the emission nebulae,
the validity of distributions of exciting stars relative to the diffuse
nebulae, etc., are so persuasive that evidently there is no need to
doubt the existence of this process.

The expansions of the regions H II at first were considered

theoretically by Oort and Spitzer (Refs. 33, 34). They considered the
expansion of the emission nebulae as a mechanism which transmits parts
of the radiation energy of hot stars to the clouds in the inter-stellar
medium. Savedoff and Green (Ref. 35) calculated a hydrodynamic model
with this type of motion. But those and others were only interested in
the effects of expansion in neutral hydrogen and they did not consider
the evolution of the emission nebula itself. Based on the Oort-Spitzer
hypothesis Pronik (Ref. 36) proposed the following system for the for­
mation of the peripheral structures. The expanding zone H II results in
a shock wave in the surrounding gas (H I ) . The shock wave sets into
motion a certain layer of cold compressed gas which circles the zone H
II. During the expansion of zone H II this optical density declines and
the compressed neutral hydrogen is ionized. If the density of the /I 86
inter-stellar gas as it gradually departs from the exciting star falls,
then the ionization of the substance from the inner part of the layer of
the compressed H I - gas can proceed faster than the "skimming" of new
masses from the external area, so that in time the entire dense "barrier"
will be ionized and will create a bright mantle around the remaining mass
of the diffusing nebulae. This model explains well the observed structure
of a diffusing nebulae NGC 6523 but being purely qualitative, it cannot
substitute the theory of the formation of peripheral structures.

Recently calculations on the expansion of zone H II were conducted

by this author (Ref. 37). From these calculations a new model for the
formation of peripheral structures in diffusing nebulae follows. Expan­
sion of the zone H II brings a shock character into the surrounding gas.
This hydrodynamic motion is complicated by secondary effects: the
expansion of the initial Stremgren zone leads to the decrease of its
optical thickness in the Lyman continuum. Therefore, due to the shock
wave along the compressed neutral gas an ionization skip is emitted.
Since the shock wave which has passed through the neutral substance
increases the pressure in the region H I to a magnitude which equals
the pressure in the region H II, then on both sides of the secondary
ionization skip the pressure is identical. From a hydrodynamic point of
view the secondary ionization front evokes the phenomenon which corresponds
to a surface explosion. The surface explosion emits distortion in both
220

directions. An approximate calculation of such a motion shows that the

distortions which are emitted by the ionization front in the direction
of the hot star can lead to a certain increase in density of matter in
the outer parts of the zone H II. This increase in density is sufficient­
ly great to explain the formation of peripheral structures.

The calculations (Ref. 37) revealed the inaccuracy of some assump­

tions in the Oort-Spitzer hypothesis. First of all the Stremgren zone
is formed around the newly excited hot star and only thereafter the
hydrodynamic interaction of hot (ionized) and cold (neutral) gases begins.
Up to the formation of the Stremgren zone the ionization front was freely
emitted. This did not result in hydrodynamic motions. But after the
occurrence of this zone the further advancement of the ionization front
is fully determined by the expansion of the region H II since the
expansion of the initial Stremgren zone determines also the force of the
ionization flux and the state of the substance which is affected by this
ionizing radiation. Thus the hot star indirectly brings into motion the
inter-stellar gas through the expansion of the ionized gas which surrounds
it. This circumstance reduces the effectivity of the "rocket mechanism"
of the acceleration of inter-stellar clouds to zero. This mechanism/187
was proposed by Oort and Spitzer. Furthermore, if the shock wave, which
expands through a neutral substance, reaches regions with an abrupt drop
in the density of the medium, then a rarefaction wave will affect the
compressed gas (H I) and the frontal area of the compressed neutral gas
will travel with the speed of gas dispersion in a vacuum. After the
rarefaction wave encounters the ionization front the velocity of the
ionization front increases relative to the compressed neutral gas, but
the speed of dispersion of the gas H I in a vacuum will remain less.
It is, therefore, highly improbable that the fluctuations of density of
the neutral substances, which surround the initial Stremgren zone, might
lead to the overtaking of the shock wave by the ionization front. This
was assumed in (Ref. 36) for the explanation of observed peripheral
s tructures.

3. We will now consider such an important structural peculiarity

of the diffused nebulae, as for instance elongation and fibrousness.
This peculiarity is encountered in objects which are extremely diverse in
their nature as well as in their dimensions: the bright fibers in the
Cancer nebula in NGC 6960--6992--5 and in other remnants of clouds of a
super nova; objects of the "cosmic gas flux type", such as the nebula
NGC 1499; the elongated striated gas fields in Cygnus, the system of
fibres in the nebula NGC 2264; the elongated dark nebulae in Taurus and
Serpents, the fine fibrous formations in the reflecting nebulae, for
example in Pleiades. By no means is it evident that the formation of
all of these structures is related to the effect of one and the same
mechanism.
 221

The firmly elongated nebulae are easily seen on the photos of

stellar fields in the Barnard (Ref. 5), Ross and Calvert (Ref. 38)
Atlases. These objects attracted attention before many elongated and
fibrous emission nebulae were known. It was once considered, that the
elongated dark nebulae were formed from more or less compact objects
under the influence of tidal forces, as a result of the differential
galactic rotation (Ref. 39). Shayn came up with a different hypothesis:
The expansion of gaseous clouds (ionized as well as neutral hydrogen)
due to the inner thermal and turbulent motions in a magnetic field can
lead to the formation of such large elongated structures as the dark
nebulae Taurus and in Serpents and the emission nebulae of the type NGC
1499 and S48-S108. Later he convincingly proved (Refs. 40-44) the
actual expansion of diffuse nebulae as well as the essential role of the
inter-stellar magnetic field in this process. The existence of the
correlation between the direction of the elongations of nebulae and the
inter-stellar magnetic field disclosed by means of inter-stellar polar­
ization of stellar light proves the validity of Shayn's hypothesis. /I 88
At present this interpretation of elongation nebulae of the indicated
types cannot be doubted.

The case is somewhat different in the explanation of the fine

fibrous structure of clouds of super novas: the magnetic field and the
usual expansion of the hot substance cannot explain the existence of
fibers with lengths a hundred times greater than their thickness. In
1946 Oort (Ref. 10) proposed the investigation of the thin fibrous
system NGC 6960-6992-5 as a luminescent impact front which occurred
during the motion of the expanding cloud in the inter-stellar substance.
Pickelner (Ref. 45) calculated in detail the luminescence of this front
and showed that the observations agreed quite well with the theoretical
calculations if it is assumed that the thin fibers are formed during the
intersection of two shock fronts. Moreover, the orientation of the fibers
in the system NGC 6960-6992-5 relative to the inter-stellar magnetic
field and the relation of the fibers in the Cancer nebula with the local
magnetic field (see for example Ref. 46) attest to the major role played
by the magnetic field in such objects. In the framework of magnetic
hydrodynamics several models of the formation of such fine fibrous
structures were proposed. Kaplan (Ref. 47) asserted that the magnetic
field significantly arises in a shock wave and this results in induction
fluxes. Under the influence of these fluxes the shock front dissipates
into individual fibers. Pikel'ner and the author (Ref. 48) calculated a
rough model of the "mechanical pinch"--the mechanism for the formation of
fibrous structures as a result of turbulent motions which accompany the
medium into the magnetic field. This mechanism has effective influence
in the medium with a Reynolds magnetic number of greater than 100 to 200.
In the ionized regions of intergalactic matter this condition is satisfied
but the danger exists that diverse aspects of the hydromagnetic instability
will hinder the development of the fibers. R. V. Polovin (Ref. 49) has
222

Fig. 3. Fine Fibrous Emission Nebula

NGC 6960-6992-5.
 223

Fig. 4. Fine Fibrous Reflecting Nebula

in the Pleiades.
224

shown that in some cases the shock wave in the magneto-hydrodynamic

medium splits up into two shock waves and even proposed the application
of this effect for the explanation of the fine fibrous emission nebulae.
Recently Pickelner (Ref.. 50) found that during the expansion of the super
nova clouds which contained a magnetic field, the pressure of the cosmic
rays leads to the disintegration of these clouds into fibrous details.
In the framework of this model the existence of nebular objects of two
sharply distinct types in the source of radio Cas A can be simply
explained.

As for the fine fibrous structures in the reflective nebulae (of

the Pleiades type, they have not obtained at this time any physical
interpretation. It can only be asserted (Ref. 51) that, in the first
place, the filaments in such nebulae were always oriented along a local
magnetic field and, in second place, the known physical processes, i.e.,
gravitational disintegration of a continuous medium, the multiplication
of the density fluctuations in the magnetic field, the weak and strong/189
magneto-hydrodynamic distortions, "the mechanical" pinch-effect cannot
explain the formation of these fine fibrous structures. Evidently, in a
given case the limitation of our knowledge on the physical condition of
matter in the regions H I to this time does not permit the construction
of a satisfactory dynamic theory.

In conclusion of this survey it is necessary to emphasize that the

investigation of the morphological peculiarities of the diffuse nebulae
already has led to the occurrence of such important cosmogonical ideas as
the concepts concerning the expansion and disintegration of the emission
nebulae, the fundamental role of inter-stellar magnetic fields in the
development of diffuse substance, the origin of emission nebulae and
stars in a single process from other forms of matter, and also the
explanation of many problems of cosmic gas-dynamics and cosmic magneto­
hydrodynamics. All of this stimulates further research on the structure
of diffuse nebulae for a deeper understanding of the physics and evolution
of the inter-stellar medium.
 225

REFERENCES

1. G. A. Schein and V. F. Gaze. Izvestiya Kryraskoy Astrofizicheskoy

Observatorii, 6, 3i 1950.

2. B. Stremgren. Astrofizicheskiy Sbornik (Astrophysical Symposium)

Izd-vo Inostrannoy Literatury, 19^9» p. 222.

3. B. A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov. Gazovye Tumannosti i Novye Zvezdy

(The Gas Nebulae and Novae), Izd-vo A. N. SSSR, 19^8.

S. Cederblad. Meddelanden Lunds Astron. Observ., Series II, No. 1I9>

19^ 6 .

5* E. E. Barnard. A Photographic Atlas of Selected Regions of the Milky

Way, Washington, 1927.

6. J. E. Keeler. Publications of the Lick Observatory, 8, 1908.

7. I. Roberts. Photographs of Stars, Star Clusters and Nebulae, London,

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8. J. C. Duncan. Astrophysical Journal, 53 > 392, 1921; 57, 137» 1923;

6 3 , 122 , 1926 .

9. 0. Struve. Astrophys. J., 8 5 , 19^> 1937-

M
10. J. H. Oort. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 106,
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11. A. D. Thackeray. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 110, 3^3> 1950.

12. D. A. Rozhkovskiy. Astron. Zh., 31> 318, 195^ •

13. L. Spitzer. Astrophys. J., 120, 1, 195^»

1*4-. E. A. Frieman. Astrophys. J., 120, 18, 195^*

15* D. Layver. Astrophys. J., 122, 1, 1955-

16. H. C. van de Hulst. Gas Dynamics of Cosmic Clouds, IAU Symposium

No. 2, Amsterdam, 1955 j P* 111*

17. D. Osterbrock. Astrophys. J., 125» 622, 1957*

18. B. J. Bok and E. F. Reilly. Astrophys. J. 105, 255» 19^7*

19- V. G. Fesenkov and D. A. Rozhkovskiy. Astron. Zh., 29, 381, 1952.

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20. S. Pottasch. Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands,

13, No. 471, 1956.

21. S. Pottasch. Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth., 14, No. 482, 1958.

22. F. D. Kahn. Bull Astron. Inst. Neth., No. 456, 1954.

23* F. D. Kahn. Kosmicheskaya Gazodinamika, Symposium (Cosmic Gas

Dynamics) Izd-vo Inostrannoy Literatury, i960 , p. 245.

24. R. Ye. Gershberg. Astron. Zh. 38, 819, 1961.

25 * R. Ye. Gershberg. Izv. Krymsk. Astrofiz. Observ., 2 6 , 324, 1961 .

26. R. Minkovski. Publications of the Astronomical Society of Pacific, /190

61, 151, 1949.

27. G. A. Schein and V. F. Gaze. lav. Krymsk. Astrofiz. Observ., 7,

87, 1951.

28. G. A. Schein and V. F. Gaze. Izv. Krymsk. Astrofiz. Observ., 8 ,

80, 1952 .

29* G. A. Schein and V. F. Gaze. lav. Krymsk. Astrofiz. Observ., 10,

2 10, 1953.

30. G. A. Schein and V. F. Gaze. Astron. Zh., 3 0 , 135, 1953-

31. G. A. Schein and V. F. Gaze. Astron. Zh., Jl, 305, 1954.

32. G. A. Schein and V. F. Gaze. Izv. Krymsk. Astrofiz. Observ., 15,

3, 1955.

33* J. H.'Oort. Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth., 12, No. 455, 1954.
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34* J. H. Oort and L. Spitzer. Astrophys. J., 21, No. 6 , 1955.

35- M. T. Savedoff and J. Greene. Astrophys. J., 122, 477, 1955-

36. V. I. Pronik. Izv. Krymsk. Astrofiz Observ., 23, 3, i960 .

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38* F. E. Ross and N. R. Calvert. Atlas of the Milky Way, Chicago, 1934.

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40. G. A. Schein. Astron. Zh. , 3 2 , n o , 1955 .

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CO
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47. S. A. Kaplan. Astron. Zh. , —I

48. S. B. Pi.kelner and R. Ye. Gershberg. Astron. Zhur., 36, 785, 1959.

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39, 1005, I960.

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228

ELECTRON TEMPERATURE OF GASEOUS NEBULAE AND METHODS /191

OF ITS DETERMINATION

By

V. I. Pronik

In the first part of this review, the works on the investigation

of energy balance and the determination of the electron temperature in
the gaseous nebulae are considered. In the second part, a review is given
on the methods of the determination of the electron temperature from the
observations.

The problem of investigating the electron temperature of gaseous

nebulae is divided into three separate tasks:

1. The purely theoretical derivation of the electron temperature

on the basis of a detailed analysis of the processes which occur in the
gaseous nebulae, the processes which may in one way or another influence
the energy of the free electrons of the nebula. To these belongs, for
example, the works concerning the investigation of the energetic balance
of free electrons.

2. The development of the methods of determination of the electron

temperature by means of observations.

3. Derivation of observation data and determination of electron

temperature by the developed method.

In the present article the state of the problem is examined

according to the first two problems.

I. The Energetic Balance of Free Electrons and Electronic

Temperature of Gaseous Nebulae

Although the first observations of the spectra of nebulae were

concluded basically before 1918 (Ref. 1) the information concerning
their electron temperature Tg appeared only in 1939 when Ambartsumyan
(Ref. 2) developed for the first time a method for the determination of
Tg according to the lines N^ + N and \ 4363 of a twice ionized oxygen.
 229

Disregarding the impacts of the second type Ambartsumyan obtained

the formula for the relation of the intensity of the lines N + N and
\ 4363 1 2

2-3
A 3_l + A 3^ 2 al-*2 kT
N l+ N 2
J\4364
1— 2

r2-3
c
1 + ---- :------------ e
3-2 1-3 ]• (1 )

3 1 1
where the conditions P, D and S correspond to 1, 2, and 3. Here A
denotes the probability of the spontaneous transition and the effective a,
cross section of excitation. Roughly considering that = ^ al-*3
(the values of the effective cross sections were at that time still not
known) and accepting according to (Ref. 2) the mean value of the relation
+ N ^ 4 3 6 3 as e9ual to 30, Ambartsumyan obtained from formula

(1) the average value of the electron temperature of a nebulae T «

7000°C. e

At approximately the same time Baker, Menzel and Aller (Ref. 3)

on the basis of the equation for the radiant equilibrium* and the
condition of the stationarity of ionization in the nebula obtained a
relation between the electron temperature of the gas and the temperature
of the radiation of the star T.v beyond the range of the Layman series for
a case of a purely hydrogen nebula. For an optically fine nebula
(tt < 1) this relation has the following form:
Xj
c

00
s
_dy_ 2 2 , 1 „ i n
at.
, AT + aAT )
e e 2 T
e
2 L n
s
yl 6 i
(2)
dy____
y (ey - 1 )

This equation is a description of the physical condition under

which the quantity of energy absorbed by the atoms should be equal to
the quantity of radiated energy for the units of volume and time.
230

where

00

Symbolically, equation (2) can be written in the form

f! (T*) = f2 (Te) , (3)

where the left term is dependent only on and the right term is /193
the function dependent on only T . The relation which they obtained
between the temperature of the star and the temperature of the gas for
the optically fine nebula of pure hydrogen is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. The Relation of T , and T

* e

T* T * T
e e
5 000 5 000 80 000 57 000
10 000 9 500 160 000 92 000
20 000 18 000 320 000 132 000
40 000 34 000

Later Menzel, Aller, and Hebb (Refs. 4, 5) calculated the effec­

tive cross sections of the excitations by electron impact of a D and S
level of the ion 0 III and by utilizing the intensity of the lines
N, + N„ and \ 4363 which they observed, they calculated the values of T
1 2 e
for twenty or thirty planetary nebulae by the Ambartsumyan method.
 231

Thereby, they took into consideration also the influence of the impacts
of the second type. As a result the formula (1) took the form

E
- ^ - 4 . 0 7 e 3 3 0 0 0 /Te. (4)
a.4363

For an overwhelming majority of nebulae the electron temperature

proved to be in the limits of 7,000 to 10,000°C. The temperature did
not show any dependence on the degree of excitation of the nebula and on
the temperature of the central star which was found by the Zanster
me thod.

The divergence between the observed electron temperature and the

theoretical value of it obtained for a purely hydrogen nebula (Ref. 3)
was soon explained by Menzel and Aller (Ref. 6 ) as the effect of the
cooling off of the nebula on the ions 0 III. They showed that if we
consider the radiation of the nebula in the prohibited lines (0 III) in
the equation of the radiant equilibrium, then in the right term of
equation (2 ) an additional member will appear, equal to

PD
kT N
c (V 1.63
ir (1 - P) (5)
1

Here N is the number of atoms of 0 III in the basic state; is the/I94

P
number of protons. The factor (1 - |3) takes into consideration the
impacts of the second type

-6 NPNe n DP
8.54 10
“D T 1/2
e
P = , NN n DP
(6)
-6 D e 5 V P T^ 2
8.54 • 10
CO
D
j n + ndad-p
T
1 + 5.85 10
a P-*D N

The atomic parameter Q is connected with the effective diameter cross

section a
by the correlation
232

1
Q (2 J + 1) / 2 2
(7)
4jtm v

where 2J + 1 is the statistical weight of the lower state and v is the

velocity of the electron.

In the symbolic designations of equation (3) this new equation of

the radiant equilibrium is written thus:

f1 (T*) = f2 (Te) + C (Te) . (8)

The corrective term C (T ) proves to be extremely essential. For example

there is enough relative abundance of ions 0 III on the order of
N0 10 ^ to lower the electron temperature of the nebula from

57,000 to 8,000°C and the temperature of the exciting star of 80,000°C.

Recently Aller (Ref. 7) essentially improved this method for determining
electron temperature by presenting the energy of the nebula being radi­
ated in the prohibited lines as follows

E. = E
l < V (9)

where E is the energy emitted in the line H and is the

n p I v y
p
observed relation of the total intensity of all the prohibited lines to
the intensity of the line H . Thereby the corrective term in equation
P
(8 ) takes on the form

b (T ) kT „ I,
C (T ) * 1.61 10 — ----- e (10)
e
K '
i P
where b, (T ) characterize the degree of deviation of the fourth level
4 e
population hydrogen atom from its population during thermal dynamic
equilibrium (Refs. 8 , 9). By using the values of T^ found spectro-
photometrically or by the Zanster method and the observed magnitude /195
Aller (Ref. 7) found in this way the temperature of a series
 233

of nebulae. These values of as a rule are essentially greater than

the temperatures found according to the relation E„ /E.
Nj-r^ A.

In 1941 V. V. Sobolev (Ref. 10) proposed a method of determining

T , based on the investigation of the energetic balance of electron gas.
Thereby, the energy losses of free electrons on excitation and ionization
of hydrogen atoms by an electron impact were taken into consideration
for the first time. The essence of this method is contained in the fact
that the quantity of energy which electrons obtain during the photo­
ionization of hydrogen should be equal to the full amount of energy that
they lose during interaction with other atoms and ions plus the energy
of recombining electrons. Since the latter depend on the electron
temperature of the nebula, the condition of equality of gain and loss of
energy per units of volume and time, determines in itself the sought
value of the equilibrial electron temperature of the nebula. Considering
that electrons lose energy in three ways: by radiation in a continuous
spectrum (free transitions) on excitation of the lines + N^, and in
the course of inelastic collisions with hydrogen atoms, Sobolev obtained
on the basis of the energy conservation law, an equation in the following
form

I
■*■4959
NH
AT* = BT + C - + D — - , (11)
H„ N„

where is the relation of intensity of the line 4959 (0 III)

P
to the intensity of H , N / N , i.e., the relation of the number of
P H1 H+
neutral hydrogen atoms to the number of protons. When tt <1 the
Xj
coefficient A has the following value:

00

A = (12)
234

and consequently depends only on the temperature of the star. The

coefficients B, C and D are the function of the nebula's electron
temperature only. It is easily noticed, that, in principle, the
equations (8) and (11) are identical. Only equation (11) has an addi­
tional term which takes into consideration the excitation of hydrogen by
an electron impact. The electron temperature of a series of planetary
nebulae found by means of equation (11) is within the limits of 13 to
19,000°C, i.e., it is an identical temperature to the one obtained by
Aller (Ref. 7) considerably later with a similar method. The loss of/196
energy by electrons during inelastic collisions with neutral hydrogen
atoms, constitutes from 15 to 6 0f>
of the total electron energy according
to (Ref. 10).

Along with the works by Menzel, Aller and Sobolev it is also

necessary to mention the works by Spitzer (Refs. 11-14) on the determi­
nation of the electron temperature of the H I and H II regions of inter­
stellar gas. As in the works of preceding authors, the works by Spitzer
are of a theoretical character. During 1947 to 1949 Spitzer investigated
(Refs. 11-12) all possible processes of heating and cooling of gas, which
occurs in the regions H II near morning stars and in the regions of
neutral hydrogen with the purpose of obtaining a theoretical determination
of electron temperature of inter-stellar gas. In the regions H II, in
which we are interested in the given case, these processes are reduced
to the one which has already been examined earlier by Sobolev and Aller,
with the exception of processes related to the presence of dust.
Generally speaking, the existence of dust in the hot region of ionized
hydrogen is not at all understandable, but the classical example of the
Major Nebula in Orion shows that this is evidently the case. According
to (Ref. 12) the presence of dust particles if they are dielectric, leads
to the adsorption of free electrons. Such adsorption is related to the
condensation of electrons on the surface of the dust particles and their
subsequent breaking off as a result of the impacts by free electrons.
The electrons which cling to the surface of the dust particle can also be
neutralized by means of recombination with positive ions. However, the
probability that a dust particle will encounter an ion (5 ^ ~ 1 ^ 1 0 "^) is
on the average less than the probability of a collision with an electron
(5e ~ 0.5 ^ 0.1). If we disregard completely the neutralization,
considering roughly that the number of adherences of the electrons is
accurately equilibrial to the number of impacts during which the free
electron dislodges adhering electrons from the surface of the dust particle,
then the over-all energy being lost by electrons as a result of this
process in volume and time units is equal to
eV
kT
3/2 2 e
N N 3 (kTe) a e (13)
e g e
 235

where N^ is the number of dust particles per unit volume, a is their

average radius, V is the electrostatic potential of the dust particle.
The latter according to van de Hulst (Ref. 15) depends on T and is
X e
equal to 2 *2 I o T o o F c v *
The adsorption of electrons on the dust particles becomes essential
when N /N„ > 1 0 ^ (the average relative abundance of dust for the inter-
8 n
■12,
stellar medium considered equal to N /N = 10 . The values of /197
8 ^
the equilibrial temperature in the regions H II near O-B-stars obtained
by Spitzer and Savedov (Ref. 13) on the basis of the law of preservation
of energy are given in Table 2. The values of T were calculated for
-2 2 -3 6
different densities (N = 1 0 , 1 and 10 cm ) and for a diverse abun-
H _3 -4
dance of cooling ions (N./N = 2 • 10 and 2 • 10 ). The abundance of
i H
dust particles was taken to be standard.

Table 2. The Value of Equilibrial Temperature

As should have been anticipated within these limits of densities the

electron temperature is almost independent of the density of the nebula
but is extremely essentially dependent on the relative abundance of
cooling ions and the spectral class of the exciting star.

Somewhat later Spitzer (Ref. 14) found the average equilibrium

temperature of the regions H II by the same method equal to approximately
8000°C. Thereby, a certain mean chemical composition (N./N ) and a
l H
standard content of the dust were adapted.
236

The works of Menzel, Aller, Sobolev and Spitzer which were dis­
cussed above are of a theoretical nature and the values of which they
yielded are also most probably theoretical. The method which they are
using is the same energy balance method. The equation of energy balance
is of interest when the electron temperature of the nebula is known,
since, in this case, we can either define more accurately the data
concerning the radiation of the star beyond the Layman limit or confirm
the accuracy of our concepts concerning the processes which are respons­
ible for the cooling and heating of free electrons in the nebulae. In
view of the great importance of this method it is extremely desirable to
define more accurately and in greater detail examinations of the energy
balance of the electron gas.

The present state of astrophysics permits a more precise definition

of the energy balance of the nebula. We have in mind the following /198
three moments: 1 ) the consideration of more accurate data concerning the
radiation of stars beyond the Layman limit (until now this was considered
to be a Planck radiation with a temperature equal to the effective
temperature of the star), 2 ) the utilization of the latter more accurate
data concerning the chemical composition of the nebulae and also
consideration of the change in ionization of the nebula with distance from
the exciting star, and finally, 3) the utilization of more accurate values
for the probability of the excitation of hydrogen by an electron impact.

The energy distribution in the spectra of hot stars in the region

of the wavelengths k < 9.2 Rhas been obtained by many authors [Underhill
(Refs. 16-18), Pecker (Ref. 19), Traving (Refs. 20-21), Saito and Uesugi
(Ref. 22)] in their calculations of a model of the atmosphere of these
stars. As was to be anticipated such a distribution differs from Planck's
law, primarily because of the presence of skips beyond the limits of the
main series. When T^ ^ 50,000°C the skips near the Layman limit smooth
out and the radiation of such stars in the region of 300 R< \<912 X
is already close to the black body radiation. By using these data
concerning the distribution of energy in the spectra of hot stars beyond
the Layman limit we have calculated the averate energy value of the
photo-ionized electron for an optically fine* purely hydrogen nebula
(Table 3) .

The condition of transparency for L q u a n t a has been taken

directly from the definition of the Stremgren zone (Ref. 23) according
to which the inequality < 1 is valid for practically the whole volume
c
of the nebula (of the zones H III) , with the exception of a very fine
bordering layer where > 1.
c
 237

Table 3. Average Value of Energy of the

Photo-Ionized Electron

Spectral Glass of l n 12
eQ • 10 erg Author of Model
Exciting Star

WR (Ta = 80,000°) 7.4 Underhill [18]

WR (T* = 62,000°) 7.4 II II

WR (T* = 50,000°) 7.4 II II

05 V 4.8 Underhill [16]

07.5 V 4.7 Saito and Uesugi [22]

09 V (t S c o ) 4.2 Traving [20]

09.5 V 4.2 Underhill [17]

BO V(10 Lac) 4.2 Traving [21]

BO.5 V 3.4 Saito and Uesugi [22]

B1 V 3.6 Pecker [19]

B1.5 B 3.6 II II

In actual nebulae due to the presence of an admixture of helium/199

atoms and other elements, the average energy obtained by electrons in the
ionization of hydrogen and helium will differ from the value of €q for a
purely hydrogen nebula primarily for two reasons:

1) During the ionization of the atoms He I and He II new electrons

appear (free electrons of non-hydrogen origin) initial energy of which
(hv - X q ) can differ from the average energy of photo-electrons of a
hydrogen origin and dependent on the type of distinction (greater or
smaller) the over-all energy which is ascribed to one electron is
correspondingly augmented or diminished;

2) The second reason is related to a change in spectral composition

of radiation which ionizes the hydrogen as a result of the absorption by
atoms of He I and a radiation with \ < 504 A.
238

Taking all of this into consideration, we have calculated the

average energy which is obtained by free electrons during the ionization
of hydrogen and helium in various zones of the nebula. These zones are
characterized by the diverse degree of helium ionization (Table 4).

Table 4. Mean Energy of Free Electrons Obtained During

Ionization of Hydrogen and Helium

in 12 erg
e0 • 10
Spectral Class of
In Zone In Zone In Zone
Exciting Star
He I He II He III

WR 5.3 7.9 9.7

WR 5.2 7.9 7.7
WR 5.1 7.9 6.7
0 5V 4.8 5.3 -
07.5 V 4.7 5.0 -
0 9V 4.2 - -
09.5 V 4.2 - -
BO V 4.2 - -
BO.5 V 3.4 - -
B1 V 3.6 - -
B1.5 V 3.6 - -

The condition of energy balance signifies that the energy of

the recombining electron plus all energy losses by the electron during
its stay in the free state should be equal to the initial energy of the
photo-electron

e + e (14)
£0 rec loss

The energy losses occur as a result of the excitation by an electron/200

of the prohibited lines of various ions, the excitation of hydrogen by
the electron impact and also as a result of the "free" transitions
(e. = ) e . + e„ + e,_ ).
v loss L, i H f-fy
 239

The energy which is lost by the electron on the excitation of the

given prohibited line during the entire period of its stay in a free
state is equal to

AB
kT
, n . ns (t )
e. 8.54 • 10 "6 ^ „ 6 CD
kv (15)
r AB
H nl/ 2
y c (t >
Z_i n e

where N./N is the qualitative abundance of ions of the given type and
1 H
the function 6 (Tfi) is the corrective factor which expresses the depen­
dence of the parameter fi on the temperature (Ref. 24). Symbolically,
the expression (15) can be written

(16)
ei - I I * < V -
ri

where | (T^) f°r a gi-vetl line is a function of the temperature alone.

Then it is apparent that the over-all energy which is lost by the
electron and the excitation of the lines of various ions

I h <Te>- <17)
i i

In order to calculate ^ it is necessary to know not only the chemical

i
composition of the nebula, but also the change of ionization of the
different elements with the change in distance from the exciting star.

Table 5. The Mean Chemical Contents

of the Nebulae

Element Abundance
H 0.15
e
-4
N 1.6 ■ 10 *
-4
0 6 • 10 *
-4
s 1 • 10 H
240

In Table 5 is shown the mean chemical composition of the nebulae which

is obtained according to the observation data of various authors (Refs.
25-30) (the abundance of hydrogen atoms is accepted to be on the order
of- unity) and Table 6 gives a presentation concerning the ionization of
sulfur, nitrogen,and oxygen in various zones of the ionization of helium.
As a basis for the construction of Table 6 the observed distribution of
atoms 0, N, and S was accepted according to their stages of ionization
in the nebula Orion (Ref. 26) and NGC 7027 (Ref. 25). The numerical
values give the approximate content of ions in percentages from the
complete number of atoms of the given element.

Table 6 . Ionization of Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Sulfur /201

in Various Zones of a Nebula

Zone
Ion
He I He H (1) He III
He " ( 2 )

[0 II]* 100 70 30 0

[0 III] 0 30 60 30
0 IV 0 0 10 70

[S II] 70 30 10 0

[S III] 30 50 60 10

S IV 0 20 30 60

[N II] 90 50 25 0

[N III] 10 50 67 10

N IV 0 0 8 70

Within the square brackets are enclosed ions, which participate

in the disorbtion of nebula.

The energy which is lost by the electron during the inelastic

collisions with atoms of hydrogen is equal to

e (18)
H D <Te> *
 241

where

Z b ln*ln + Vo
° < v - •
yLi c (t )
n ' e
1

The probabilities of excitation and ionization of hydrogen by the

electron impacts are adopted in accordance with the work by Chamberlain
(Ref. 31). The function D (T^) grows very rapidly with the increase in
temperature; therefore, the existence of such a mechanism of electron
adsorption as, for example, inelastic collision with neutral hydrogen
atoms does not make it possible to raise the electron temperature of the
nebula essentially greater than 20,000°C.

The energy which is lost by the electron during the "free~free"/202

transitions during the entire period of its presence in the free state
is equal

-27 ____ e
1.42 * 10 00 (19)
ef-f
y
/ »Cn
1
n 6

As a result of the fact that the probability of the recombination

of the electron is dependent on its velocity (the greater the velocity
of recombination the less the velocity of the electron) the average
energy of the recombining electron is about half as great as the mean
energy of the free electron (3/2 kT ). An exact calculation indicates
that the relationship

rec
0.52 (20)

is practically constant in the limits of temperature from 3,000 to

30,000°C.

By knowing the initial energy of the photo-electron and the

energy loss by the electron at various temperatures, we can find from
242

equation (14) the value of equilibrial electron temperature in each

zone of the nebula. The results of the calculations are shown in
Table 7.

This table indicates the dependence of the electron temperature

of the nebula on the spectral class of the exciting star and its change
in limits of one and the same nebula. This change is stipulated by
the change in ionization in the nebula and also by the change in mean
energy of the ionizing quantum.

Table 7. Equilibrial Electron Temperature in Various

Zones of the Nebula

Spectral He I He IIj^ He II2 He III

Class

WR 8 000 ° 9 700° 10 300° 14 000°-16 000°

05-07.5 7 600 8 400 8 800 -
09-BO 7 000 - - -

II. THE METHODS OF THE DETERMINATION OF THE ELECTRON TEMPERATURE /203

OF GASEOUS NEBULAE FROM OBSERVATIONS

1. The Determination of the Electron Temperature

by the Relation of Intensity of Auroral
and Nebular Lines

The fundamental and most accurate method for the determination

of T£ of gaseous nebulae is the method based on a comparison of inten­
sities of two prohibited lines of one and the same ion which are excited
by electron impacts of the principal level. However, the potentials
of excitation of the lines relative to this basic level are distinct
(Fig. 1). The greater that the difference is in the potentials of
excitation of the upper levels of these lines the less is the inaccuracy
T in the determinations of the observed values of the line intensities,
e
The energy which is radiated by a unit of volume in the nebula in the
prohibited line is equal to
 243

, N N
EAB " 8 *54 • 10 Zu .- JT j i X
A e

AB
kT
x QAB9 ®
hu
B-A (21)

Fig. 1. Diagram of the Lower Levels of an

Atom. The arrows indicate the transitions
during which the nebular (N), auroral (A)
and transauroral (TA) lines are radiated.

Thereby, it is assumed that each excited atom is lowered spontaneously

emitting a quantum with an energy hi?^_^. Generally taking into consid­
eration impacts of the second type, this formula has the following
form (Ref. 32):

XAB
kTe r V A ' a BA
hV (22)
AB’
^ V > A + °BA

where A^_^ is the probability of the spontaneous transition and

A critical value of density N usually introduced is determined by the
correlation

AB->A
(24)
e
°BA

From expressions (22) and (24) it is obvious that if Ng 4 then the/204

number of radiation acts is not dependent on A^_^ and we have the case
described by formula (21). On the other hand, if then the
amount of radiation is not dependent on but is proportional to the
quantity of radiating atoms and the probability of spontaneous tran­
sition:

BA
kT
N. • e hw. (25)
"AB A u. B-*A BA’
A

that is, we have a case of Boltzmann distribution.

In the formula which expresses the relation of the intensity of

the auroral and nebular lines the temperature relation apparently will
be represented primarily by the following exponential factor

*13. ^12 ^23

I. kT + kT " kT
A e e e

If for such a pair of lines, apart from the potentials of excitation, the
probabilities of spontaneous transitions are essentially distinct then
with densities close to critical or greater, the relationship I^/I^
(or I^/I^) , in addition to the temperature, will still depend on
electron density of the nebula. In this case it is necessary to have
two such correlations (let us say for two types of ions). The concurrent
solution of two equations yields the value of Ng and T . It is easy to
 245
consider that in a case where potentials of excitation of the upper levels
of two lines are equal or very close and the probability of spontaneous
transitions are excellent, then when N N the relation I./T is depen-
e e A N
dent only on the electron density of the nebula (the method of deter­
mination of the electron density according to relation I fi/I was
proposed by Osterbrock and Seaton (Ref. 32)).

The method for the determination of with respect to the lines

/I„ of the ion [0 III] is the most extensive and is based on
I4363
N l+ N 2
the principle described earlier. If the equation for the statistical
equilibrium for the upper two levels and of the ion 0 III (we
shall designate them by 2 and 3) is written down and the population of
the main level is excluded from the ion, then we shall obtain the re­
lation of the populations of the levels and ^ 2 ’

r
-y
N, Q 236 A 21LW2 _ |
1 +
0)_ I • Nc J
n 210 Q 12e
(27)
N, -y
A 32 + A 31 3_ + Q 31e A 32t°3e
1 + +
Q
31
0N C
e n 21 S Q 12Ne
ce

where /205

-6
x 13 - x12 8.54 10 32
y= kT
C =
4/2
0 = 1 +
31

By knowing the probabilities of spontaneous transitions for the lines

\ 4363 and + N 2 it is possible to find also the relation of the
intensities of these lines. By using the most accurate values of the
parameters Q (Ref. 33) and the probabilities of spontaneous transitions
(Ref. 34), we will obtain for the relationship +n the
expression (Ref. 26) ^ ^
246

,1/2
14300
1.01 + 2640
N
4363
13.1 • 10 (28)
V H2 1.01 + 2.52 • 10
5 t_e__
U2
N
V.

It is obvious from this formula that in the case when the densities
5
N <^10
e
_ 14300

- -3— « 0.137 • 10 6 (29)

N l+ N 2

In the case of great densities (Ng > 10 star-like planetary nebulae,

clouds of symbiotic stars of retarded spectral classes, etc.)

14300

= ^ * , 1 3 . 1 . 1 0 ^ (30)
B l+ K 2

Thus, in both boundary cases the relation ^4 3 5 3 / ^ + ^ i-s not dependent

4 8 1 2
on the density and only when 10 < < 10 is it a function of the
temperature and density. For the relation of intensities of analogous
lines of the ion [0 II] Seaton and Osterbrock (Ref. 32) obtained the
following expression

73 20+30 „ -v
— ------ = 0.18 " e x
3727
r 17000
•\

1 + 0.138 t (1 + 0.38 e"y) + 38.4-10"4 t2 (l + 0.78e~y + 0.15 e

s)
< 17000
T
1 + 0.36e"y + 5.3 *10~2 t (l + 0.82e“y + 0.5e e)
 247

where

8500
t and y
T
e

This correlation is valid only when Ng < 10 . From formula (31) it /206
is obvious that the relation I7320+3c/I3727 is dependent on the electron
density when > 10^. And only at very low densities is it dependent
on the density and is equal to

8500
T
e
73204-30 0.18 •
(32)
8500 '
*3727
T
e
1 + 0.35 • e

Quite often, especially when the density of the nebula is given

3 4
greater than 10 to 10 , for the determination of Ng and a system
of equations is used, one of which is equation (28) and another is an
analogous equation which is written for the line of the once-ionized
nitrogen:

nl/2
10 820
1.01 + 320
T N
5755
= 61.5 10 (33)
‘‘65484-84
4 _e__
4 ^
1 + 19.4 • 10
N

The concurrent solutions of equations (28) and (33) are often produced
by a graphic method: the relations between Ng and Tg with the data of
the observed relations ^ 3 5 3 / ^ + N and 15y55/165^Qi.Q^. are given in the

form of curves, the point of intersection of which determines the unknown

values of N and T . This method of the determination of temperature and
e e
density at first was applied by Seaton (Ref. 35). At small densities the
relation 15755 / 1 5 5 4 ^ 3 4 is equal to
248
10820
T
5755 e
= 0.1 • 10 (34)
I
6548184

Therefore, it can serve as an independent method for the determination

of Tg on the level with equation (28).

Seaton (Ref. 35) proposed other equations which relate electron

temperature and density of the nebula. One of them is based on the
supposition that

Nx (0 I) Nj_ (0 II)
(35)
Nx (N I) = N1 (N II) 5

where is the number of atoms in a given ion in the primary state.

The validity of the equality (35) is argued by the fact that the ioni­
zation potentials and the cross section of photo-ionization for the ions
0 I and N I are very close. By expressing in terms of intensity of
nebular lines of the respective ions, instead of (35) we obtain /207
2.16

(1 + 3.4 t^/ 2x) (1 + 1.6 x) e e

I f0 III ‘ I fN III
0.146 (36)
1 [N I] ' I [0 II] (1 + 0.1 x)

where

-4 -4
x 10 t 10 T .
e e

Analogous equations can be obtained also on the basis of other

suppositions of the type (35). Bohm (Ref. 36), for example, considers
that

Nx (0 II) Nx (S II) N x (0 III) Nx (Ne III)

(37)
N (0) “ N (S) °r N (0) = N (Ne)

where N (0), N (S), and N (Ne) are the total quantities of the atoms of
the given elements. The relationships N (0)/N (S) and N (0)/N (Ne) are
considered known and constant in all nebulae. However, the equalities of
 249

the type (37) are a very rough approximation; they cannot be substan­
tiated since neither the coefficients of absorption for the ions nor
the field of radiation inside the nebula are known with any accuracy.
As far as concerns equations of the type (28), (31), (33) which express
the relationships of the intensities of nebular and auroral lines they
can be written for many other ions, for example [S II], [S III], [0 I],
[N I]. However, in practice, as the method for determining they
cannot be utilized because of the weak intensity of the lines, which
enters into these relations.

2. The Determination of Through a. Continuous Spectrum

of the Nebula

The possibility of the determination of electron temperature,

through a continuous spectrum of the nebula beyond the limits of the
Balmer series, is connected with the fact that the intensity of contin­
uous radiation in this region of the spectrum is dependent on T ^ , as
h (V - V )
_____ n_
kT
e 6 , (38)

where u is the frequency which corresponds to the limit of the Balmer

n
series. For the determination of T
with this method, it is sufficient
e *
to measure the intensity of the Balmer continuum in two different
frequencies. The method is very sensitive to mistakes in observations.
It is very difficult to avoid such mistakes since the observations are
conducted in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. It is sufficient
to mention that the first attempts to determine T by this method were
unsuccessful (Refs. 37, 38).

Sealley's theory yielded one more method of determination of /208

temperature which is based on the magnitude of the Balmer skip

. ■Sy.oese A
D 1
!g -------- (39)
a>3686 A

By utilizing the theoretical formulas, Barbier (Ref. 39) calculated the

magnitude of the Balmer skip during different electron temperatures
considering that the continuous radiation of the nebula is postulated
only by the freely-bound and free-free transitions. However, the
250

theory and observations indicated a significant divergence. Later with

the development of the theory of the two-quantum continuous radiation
(Refs. 40, 41) the conformity was improved between the theoretical
Balmer skip and the observed skip. As Andrillat showed (Ref. 42) the
observed magnitude of the Balmer skip is in good conformity with its
theoretical value calculated by Seaton (Ref. 43) at a temperature close
to Te which was found along the lines [0 III]. Thereby, 2 s -> 2p
transitions, which were brought about by electron collisions, were
also taken into consideration.

The determination of the electron temperature is possible also

through the observations of the continuous radiation of the nebula in
the visible region of the spectrum (Ref. 44). However, because of the
great difficulties connected with the observations of continuous radi­
ation of the nebulae and the comparatively low degree of accuracy of
the obtained result, this method for determining Tg was not applied in
practice.

3. The Determination of Tg with Respect to the Total Intensity

of the Prohibited Lines to the Intensity of the Line
(The Method of Energetic Balance)

Initially, the method of energetic balance was proposed by

Sobolev (Ref. 10) for the purpose of determining the electron tempera­
ture of planetary nebulae. Spitzer (Refs. 11-14) developed a similar
method for determining T^ of inter-stellar gas. Baker, Menzel and
Aller (Ref. 3) and later Aller (Ref. 7) have developed in a somewhat
different form an identical method independent of Sobolev's effort.
The principle of the method is the same in all cases; considered are
all possible processes during which electrons of the nebula acquire
kinetic energy (photo-ionization of hydrogen and helium) and the
processes during which this energy is lost (free-free transitions,
recombinations, inelastic collisions of ions, etc.).

We have already disucssed this method in detail in the first part

of this article. The complete equation for energy balance has the
following form /209

= e
rec
+ e
ff I + e
H
(40)
 251

where is the mean energy of the electrons which are torn out during
the ionization of hydrogen and helium (see Table 4) and the
° rec
,
ff
H
and e„ are given respectively by formulae (20) , (19) and (18). By
H
following Aller (Ref. 7) it is possible to present the energy, which is
lost by the electron on the excitation of the prohibited lines, in the
following form

I ei - G <V I (41)

where
9814

-20 b4 (Te) e__1_

G (Te) = 22.4 10
r3/2
Y
L, c n (T )
e

^ 1-
and X r 1
is the observed total intensity of all the prohibited lines.

i p
This intensi ty is expressed in units of intensity of the H lines.

The left term of equation (40) is dependent only on the spectral

class of the exciting star and the degree of helium ionization in the
nebula. The right term depends on the electron temperature of the
nebula, the total intensity of the prohibited lines and the degree of
hydrogen ionization in the nebula. The latter is normally on the
3 ^
order of 10J to K> and the last term in equation (40) does not have any
significant value when all Tg < 15,000°C. Equation (40) (without the
last term) is presented in the form of a nomogram in Fig. 2. The values
Tg and V I^/I^ are along two extreme scales. The scale in the
Z-r p
i
center contains the value of the parameter £q . The points of inter­
section of these scales with any straight line yield the values of T^,
) I./I and e which simultaneously satisfy the equation of balance.
/i i H U

Until now the equation for energy balance has been used exclusively as a
252

method for the determining of the electron temperature. Meanwhile it

is obvious from the nomogram that the temperature thus found is extremely
sensitive to errors in ) I./I„ and e„. The equation for the enerev/210
X 1 Hu 0
balance is of extremely great interest from the viewpoint of the possi­
bility of determining from observations the values 6 q or the mean energy
of the ionizing quantum (hv = + xH) which are dependent on the
distribution of energy in the spectrum of a star beyond the Lyman
boundary. Actually what do we know about the distribution of radiation
beyond the Lyman boundary for such objects, as the nuclei of planetary
nebulae? Apparently this type of information might be obtained only
either purely theoretically (models), or by some indirect method. The
presence of an enormous quantity of neutral hydrogen in the inter-stellar
space deprives us forever of the possibility of direct observations of
this part of the spectrum of distant objects. Therefore, the possibility
of determining the parameter g '
q from the equation for the energy balance

is of interest not only as a means for checking the values of obtained

by theoretical models of stars (Ref. 45), but also from the viewpoint of
checking the validity of our concepts concerning the mechanisms of heating
and cooling off of the nebula.

Fig. 2. Nomogram of Energy Balance Equation.

 253

4. The Determination of Electron Temperature of Nebulae

by Means of Radio Observations

The visible density of a radio emission flux of the H II region

(with a homogeneous electron temperature T ) located between the observer
and the background (with a homogeneous brightness temperature T^) is
expressed as follows:

F e"T) dO , (42)
observ

where integration is conducted along the solid angle 0 which occupies the
nebula. Here f is the frequency in cycles and t is the optical thick­
ness in the given frequency. It is obvious from (42) that the /211
electron temperature in the nebula can be easily obtained by way of
finding the frequency for which = 0 and by measuring T^ within
this frequency. Then it is apparent that Tg = T^. As Mills, Little and
Sheridan (Ref. 46) have proven the generally accepted value of T£ sa
10,000°C in this case is almost obvious. However, the method is too
sensitive for flux measurements and since the latter, which are cali­
brated in absolute units, can have an error of ± 20 $, and the frequency
at which F . = 0 , due to the specific noises, is poorly determined,
observ
then the method yields in effect not much more than an order of unity
for T .
e
Thanks to the work by Wade (Ref. 47) a somewhat modified radio
method for determining the electron temperature of the H II--regions
by the observed densities of the fluxes on two remote radio frequencies
has been developed.

After integration by Q the equation (42) for a spherical nebula

acquires the following form:

4*ke 2 f2 (T„ - Tb)

(43)
Fobserv 2 Y *
c

where

T0
Y (t q) [e (tq + 1) - 1 ] . (44)
254

Here 0q is the angular dimension of the nebula in radians and is the

optical depth at the center of the nebula. The value of for each
frequency can be expressed as a function of the electron temperature.
Then the relation of optical depths on the two frequencies f^ and f^
can be written as follows

T0.1 = £1 £2 (45)
T0 .2 ff ’

where

- 3kT
Cl.2 = 9 -70 1 0 "3 In
2hf
1.2

The further process of finding Tg consists of the following. We substitute

the values F and T^, which are observed on two frequencies; in equation
(43), we consider several values of Tg and calculate for these temper­
atures the functions Y (Tq ^) and Y (Tq ^)• By means of formula (44)
which can be presented graphically as a curve Y = Y (Tq ) , we find the
values t_ , and t„ „ and determine for each given T the relation
U .I U .2 e
Tq 2_^to 2 ' enter on t^ie Sraph the relations found for Tq ]/tq 2 ’
as a function of the electron temperature. In the same graph is intro­
duced the dependence of Tn . and t . on T , which was calculated /212
U •I U•
^ G
according to formula (45) . The intersection of the two curves gives us
the sought value of Tg .

This method is applicable only when Tq is not too high. If, on

the other hand, the nebula at a given wavelength is not transparent,
then it radiates as a black body and its temperature can be determined
by measuring the flux of radiation and its angular dimensions. The
information in regard to the angular and linear dimensions and also the
visible forms of a majority of nearby H II - regions, can be obtained
photographically.
 255

5. Determination of the Electron Temperature by Oxygen Lines

X 3727 [0 II] and ^ [0 III]

Equation (28), the principal method for determining electron

temperature of planetary nebulae, cannot be in principle applicable to
many diffuse nebulae because of the weak ionization of oxygen in them
(ions in 0 III are few or are completely absent). The problem concerning
the expediency of using the equation of energy balance as the method of
determination of electron temperature has been considered by us in
Section 3. As far as the radio method is concerned, although it is
applicable to the extensive H II-regions it has very grave short-comings
and is entirely unsuitable for many tasks. The principal short-coming of
this method is seen directly from formula (45): the observed relation
Tn _ is very weakly dependent on T (as In T ) . Therefore, the
L/ •X U •^ Q 6
small errors in t~
firmly influence the unknown value T . Second short-
0 e
coming is included in the small angular resolution of the radio telescopes.

The absence of a simple, reliable method and, at the same time,

one which does not present specific requirements toward observations for
the determination of T^ of diffuse nebulae has compelled us to analyze
in greater detail the possibilities for determining the temperatures of
such nebulae along the bright lines. As a result a method for determining
Tg which utilizes the intensity of lines X 3727 [0 II] and
(Ref. 48).

The comparison of the ionization potentials of the atoms H I and

0 I (13.595 and 13.614 electron volts, respectively) shows that the degree
of ionization of hydrogen and oxygen in regions H II should be identical,
i.e., in those regions where hydrogen is luminescent and atoms of
neutral oxygen are almost absent. This is also indicated by the absence
of a noticeable amplification of the line of the night sky X 6300 [0 II]
in the directions toward diffuse nebulae.

On the other hand, a comparison of the ionization potentials He II

and 0 II (54.403 and 54.93 electron volts, respectively) and the absence
in diffuse nebulae of ions of He III (the line X 4686 He II is not
observed) indicates that the ions of 0 IV and higher stages of oxygen
ionization are also absent. Thus, oxygen in diffuse nebulae (and also in
planetary nebulae with low excitation) is found only in two ionization
levels - 0 II and 0 III. This gives us one more method of determining
the electron temperature. This concept is included in the following.
If it is considered that the relative chemical composition of all nebulae
is identical, then the following should be valid
256

0) fi
43 M
u
r>
M-l C'
O r-
C
Q) M
U
2 (0
u a)
cd 3
u i- i
0) cd
Ou >
a
0) x i
4-1 0)
>
a
o <D
Vi CO
4-1 43
O O
a)
?—i a)
a) 43
4-1
a)
43 X
H a
cd
• /*“
N
/-N 33
r^. V-/
35
N*/

(3 O
O s- /
•H
4J
cd 0
0 a>
c r 43
W U
M4 X
o a)
a
a •H
cd e
Vi Vi
00 (0
o 4-»
a (0
o x>
35 CNI
CO
«H +
CO cd
r—4
• 0
M> .Q
•r4 a)
Pm a
 257

N (0 II) N (0 III) = N (0)

N (H) + N (H) H (H) ’

where N (0)/N (H) is the total number of oxygen atoms per unit of volume
of the nebula relative to the number of hydrogen atoms. Now if the
relations N (0 II)/N (H) and N (0 III)/N (H) are expressed through the
intensities of the lines X. 3727, + N„
N 2 and H„,
H , then we will obtain the
equation

I N +N
3727 _ 1 1 2 1 = N (0)
(47)
IH ® [ 0 II] TH <S>t0 III] N
P P

where for a given line is the function of only the temperature:

9414
14 Qhv
T •
e_____ e
6
(T ) T
e
<B) = 0.38 • 10 (48)
b4 < V 6

Thus, the entire process of determining the temperature is reduced to

a selection of a value of where the functions of together with the
observed intensities of the lines X. 3727 and at a given magnitude
of N (0)/N (H) (identical for all nebulae) would satisfy equation (47).
For a quick calculation of such a temperature a nomogram of this equation
is constructed (Fig. 3). By combining the points of two extreme scales
on which are placed the observed intensities of the lines X. 3727 and
N^ + N 2 by a straight line, it is possible to find the value Te which
satisfies equation (47) for any given N (0)/N (H). As is obvious from
the nomogram, the electron temperature which was found in this way will
be significantly dependent on the values of N (0)/N (H) which we have
obtained. If the relative content of oxygen were accurately known,
equation (47) would yield the exact value of Tg . However, various methods
and different authors give diverse values for N (0)/N (H). It is,
therefore, necessary to take the average for all determinations (see Table
5). This method makes it possible to have a single temperature scale for
all nebulae although its zero-point can be somewhat shifted to one side
or another relative to the true temperature scale.
 258

REFERENCES /215

1. W. H. Wright. Publications of the Lick Observatory, 13, 193» 1918.

2. V. A. Ambartsumyan. Teoreticheskaya Astrofizika (Theoretical

Astrophysics) Gosudarstvyennoye Tekhnicheskoye Izdatel'stvo, 1939-

3- J. Baker, D. Menzel and L. Aller. Astrophysical Journal, 88 , 422, 1938.

4. M. Hebb and D. Menzel. Astrophys. J., 92, 408, 1940.

5- D. Menzel, L. Aller and M. Hebb. Astrophys. J., 93, 230, 1941.

6. D. Menzel and L. Aller.Astrophys. 94, 30, 1941.

7. L. Aller. Astrophys. J., 118, 54?, 1953-

8. J. Baker and D. Menzel. Astrophys. J. 88 , 52, 1938.

9. A. Burgess. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

118, 477, 1958.

10. V. V. Sobolev. Uchenyye Zapiski Leningradskogo Universiteta, No. 82, 1941.

11. L. Spitzer. Astrophys. J. 107, 6 , 1948.

12. L. Spitzer. Astrophys. J. 109, 337, 1949-

13s L. Spitzer and M. Sayedov. Astrophys. J, 111, 593, 1950.

14. L. Spitzer. Astrophys. J. 120, 1, 1954.

15s H. C. van de Hulst. Rech. Utrecht, 11, 1, 1946.

16. A. Underhill. Publications of the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory,

Victoria, B. C. 8 , No. 12, 1951-

17s A. Underhill. Kobenhavns Meddelanden, No. 151, 1950.

18. A. Underhill. Etoiles raies d'emission. University de Liege.

Belgique, 1958, p. 17.

19s J. C. Pecker. Annales d'Astrophysique, 13, 433, 1950.

20. G. Traving. Zeitschrift fur Astrophysik, J6 , 1, 1955*

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21. G. Traving. Z. f. Astrophys., 41, 215, 1957•

22. S. Saito and A. Uesugi. Publ. Astr. Soc. Japan, 11, 90, 1959-

23- B. Stremgren. Astrophys. J. 89, 526, 1939-

24. R. Ye. Gershberg. Izvestiya Krymskoy Astrofizicheskoy Observatorii,

2 6 , 324, 1961 .

25. L. H. Aller and R. Minkowski. Astrophys. J. 124, 110, 1956.

26. L. H. Aller and W. Liller. Astrophys. J. 130, 93, I960.

27. L. H. Aller. Astrophys. J. 125, 84, 1957-

28. L. H. Aller and D. H. Menzel. Astrophys. J. 102, 239, 1945-

29. K. Hunger. Z. f. Astrophys., 49, 129, i960 .

30. S. B. Pikelner. Izv. Krymsk. Astrofiz. Observ. 12, 93* 1954.

31. J.W. Chamberlain. Astrophysical J. 117, 387, 1953-

32. M. J. Seaton and D. E. Osterbrock. Astrophys. J. 125, 66, 1957.

33 M. Seaton. Kosmicheskaya Gazodinamika (Cosmic Gas Dynamics),

Izd-vo Inostrannoy Literatury, i960 , p. 121.

34. R. H. Garstang. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., Ill, 115, 1951*

35* M. J. Seaton. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 114, 154, 1954.

36 . K. H. Bohm. Astrophys. J., 123, 379, 1956.

37* T. Page. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 9 6 , 604, 1936.

38. T. Page. Astrophys. J., 9 6 , 78, 1942.

39. B. Barbier. Annales d'Astrophysique, 7, 80, 1944.

40. A. Ya. Kipper. 0 Razvitii Sovietskoy Nauki v Estonskoy SSR

(On the Development of Soviet Science in the Estonian SSR) 1940-1950.
Estonskoye Gosudarstvennoye Izdatel'stvo 1950, p. 316.

4li L. Spitzer and J. L. Greenstein. Astrophys. J., 114, 407, 1951-

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42. H. Andrillat. Ann. d'Astrophys., Suppl., No. 1, 1955*

43. M. J. Seaton. Ann. d ’Astrophys., 17, 296 , 195^-

44. M. J. Seaton. Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc., 115, 279, 1955*

45. V. I. Pronik. Astron. Zhur. 37, 1001, i960 .

46. B. Y. Mills, Little, J. Sheridan. Australian Journal of Physics,

9, 218, 1956.

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 261

CHRONICLES

CONFERENCE ON EXTRAGALACTIC ASTRONOMY AND COSMOLOGY

A conference of the Commission on Cosmogony from the Astronomic

Council of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR dedicated to extragalactic
astronomy and cosmology took place on June 25-28, 1961 in Moscow at the
P. K. Schternberg State Astronomic Institute. The conference was
organized for the purpose of preparation for the symposium on the subjects
adopted for the 11th Congress of the International Astronomic Union.

The meeting on June 27th, dedicated to the theoretical problems

of cosmology, was conducted in the Physical Faculty Department of Moscow
State University jointly with participants of the All-Union Conference
on Gravitation.

In V. A. Ambartsumyan's lengthy report (Byurakan Astronomical

Observatory) basic problems of extragalactic investigations were considered
(the report is published in its entirety in the present volume of the
collection "Problems of Cosmogony").

B. A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov (Schternberg State Astronomic Institute)

focused his main attention on the inter-acting galaxies and problems of
the physical interpretation of their observed interaction (report is being
published).

Yu. P. Pskovskiy (Schternberg State Astronomic Institute) dedicated

his address to the investigation of distances, motions and distribution
of galaxies in a sphere with a radius of 15 megaparsecs (report is being
published).

E. A. Dibay (Schternberg State Astronomic Institute) proposed the

interpretation of an asymmetric distribution of gas and dust in spiral
galaxies as a result of the joint influence of rotation and radial
motion along the limb.

N. S. Kardashev (Schternberg State Astronomic Institute) reported

on the study of the deviation of the surface maximum density of hydrogen
from the plane of symmetry of the galaxy and the interaction of the gas
of the galaxy with intergalactic gas (report is being published).

T. A. Agekyan and I. V. Petrovskaya (Leningrad State University)

discuss the questions concerning the stationarity of a cluster of galaxies
in Coma Berenices and the distribution of density in the cluster connected
with this.
262

A. T. Kallogyan (Byuratan Astronomical Observatory) discussed

the dynamic instability of certain groups of galaxies and of a cluster
in the Corona Borealis.

In the report by Ya. A. Smorodinskiy and B. M. Pontekorovo /217

Institute of Nuclear Research (01 Ya. I, Dubna) the potential role of
neutreno in astrophysics and cosmogony was considered.

V. L. Ginzburg (Institute of Physics, the Academy of Sciences of

the USSR) gave an account of the investigations of cosmic rays which are
shedding light on the nature of radio galaxies and the Metagalaxy.

L. A. Frank-Kamenetskiy (The Institute of Anthropology and

Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR) discussed the
hypotheses concerning the plural birth of nucleon pairs by thermic
photons in an exposed cosmological model.

E. M. Lifshitz, I. M. Khalatnikov and V. V. Sudakov (The Institute

of Physical Problems of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR) on the basis
of research on the characteristics of the cosmological solutions to the
equations of gravitation have shown that the existence of the physical
property of time is not a characteristic of the cosmological models
in the general theory of relativity.

A. L. Zelmanov (Schterntorg State Astronomic Institute) reported

on the theory which he is developing on an antisotropic inhomogeneous
universe.

M. F. Shirokov (Moscow Aviation Institute) and I. Z. Fisher

dedicated their address to the theory of an inhomogeneous isotropic
universe.

A. Ya. Kipper (Institute of Physics and Astronomy of the Academy

of Science of the Estonian SSR) discussed the gravitational paradox in
Newton's theory (report is being published).

E. L. Zelmanov (Schternberg State Astronomic Institute) considered

the gravitational paradox and the quasi-Newton approximation.

I. D. Novikov (Schternberg State Astronomic Institute) gave an

account concerning some cosmological mosels in a quasi-Newton approx­
imation.

G. M. Idlis (The Astrophysical Institute of the Academy of Sciences

of the Kazakh SSR) reported on research conducted by him in conjunction
with R. Kh. Gainullina and Z. Kh. Kurmakayev on the search for visible
compressions of distant spherical components of multiple galaxies due to
the Einstein effect.
 263

L. M. Ozernoy (Shternberg State Astronomic Institute) considered

some problems of gravitational condensation of galaxies and globular
clus ters.

G. I. Naan (The Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR) dedicated

his address to a critique of certain philosophical works in which the
"cosmological infinity" concept is acceptably simplified or distorted
and showed how it is necessary to consider this concept from the point of
view of contemporary physics.

About 100 specialists, physicists and astronomers participated in

the conference. Nearly all the reports were subjected to lively
discuss ion.

Ye. L. Ruskol

Translated by Joseph L. Zygielbaum

Electro-Optical Systems, Inc.
Pasadena, California

NASA-Langley, 1965 F -1 1 9
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