Module 2

Pressure and Temperature Measurement

• Pressure is represented as a force per unit area exerted by a fluid on a
container.

• The standard SI unit for pressure is newton / square meter (n/m2) or

pascal (pa).

• The pressure p of a force f distributed over an area a is defined as: p = f/a

➢ The measurement of pressure is one of the most important measurements, as it is used in
almost all industries.
Some important applications of pressure measurement are listed:

➢ The pressure of steam in a boiler is measured for ensuring safe operating

condition of the boiler.
➢ Pressure measurement is done in continuous processing industries such as
manufacturing and chemical industries.
➢ Pressure measurement helps in determining the liquid level in tanks and
containers.
➢ In many flow meter (such as Venturimeter, orifice meter, flow nozzle, etc.,)
pressure measurement serves as an indication of flow rate.
➢ Measurement of pressure change becomes an indication of temperature (as
used in pressure thermometers-fluid expansion type).
➢ Apart from this, pressure measurement is also required in day-to-day situations
such as maintaining optimal pressure in tubes of vehicle tyres.
Absolute Pressure.
It refers to the absolute value of the force per unit are exerted on the containing wall by a
fluid.
Atmospheric Pressure
It is the pressure exerted by the earth’s atmosphere and is usually measured by a barometer.
At sea level, its value is close to 1.013 x 105 N/m2 absolute and decreases with altitude.

Gauge Pressure
It represents the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmosphere
pressure.
Vacuum
It is an absolute pressure less the atmospheric pressure i.e. a
negative gage pressure.

Device measurement of High Pressure

Bridgman pressure gauge

Device Measurement of Low pressure

McLeod vacuum gauge.
Thermal conductivity gauges.
Pirani gauge.
Ionization gauge
Types of Pressure Measuring Devices

(i) Mechanical Instruments:

These devices may be of two types. The first type includes those devices in which the
pressure measurement is made by balancing an unknown pressure with a known force. The
second types include those employing quantitative deformation of an elastic member for
pressure measurements.
(ii) Electro-mechanical Instruments:
This instrument employs a mechanical means for detecting the pressure and electrical
means for indicating or recording the detected pressure.
(iii) Electronic Instruments:
These instruments depend on some physical change which can be detected and indicated or
recorded electronically.
Pressure- Measuring Transducer Pressure is measured by transducing its effect to a
deflection with the help of following types of transducers.
a) Gravitational types
(i) Liquid columns (ii) Pistons or loose diaphragms, and weights.
b) Direct-acting elastic types Unsymmetrically loaded tubes Symmetrically loaded tubes
Elastic diaphragms Bellows, Bulk compression
c) Indirect-acting elastic type Piston with elastic restraining member
USE OF ELASTIC MEMBERS IN PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Following are the three important elastic members used in the

measurement of pressure.

(i) Bourdon tube, (ii) Diaphragms and (iii) Bellows

The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped Bourdon tube (A); a
helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm (C); a convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule
(E); or a set of bellows (F).
HIGH PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES
➢ The resistance of fine wires changes with pressure according to the following linear
relationship.
➢ R = R1 (1 + αp) Where R1 Resistance at 1 atmosphere (100 KN/m2) in ohms α
Pressure coefficient of resistance in ohms/100 KN M-2, p gage pressure in KN/m2.
➢ The above said resistance change may be used for measurement of pressures as high
as 100,000 atm., 10.00KN/m2.
➢ A typical gage uses a fine wire of Manganin (84% Cu, 12% Mn, 4% Ni) wound in a
coil and enclosed in a suitable pressure container.
Working Principle of a High-Pressure Bourdon Gauge
Bourdon gauge is a mechanical pressure gauge that measures high-pressure fluids or
gases. It works on the elastic deformation principle, where a curved,
hollow metal tube straightens when pressure is applied.
1.Pressure Applied: When high pressure is introduced into the gauge, it enters the
Bourdon tube.
2.Tube Deformation: The tube (which is oval in cross-section) tries to straighten due
to internal pressure.
3.Mechanical Linkage: The movement of the tube tip is transferred via gears and
levers to a pointer.
4.Reading Display: The pointer moves over a calibrated dial to show the pressure
reading.
Measurement Range
High-pressure Bourdon gauges can measure up to 1000 bar (or more),
depending on their design.
Common industrial applications range from 100 bar to 700 bar.

Types of Bourdon Tubes

Helical & Spiral types (used for very high pressures, reducing mechanical
strain)

Applications
➢ Steam boilers
➢ Hydraulic systems
➢ Gas cylinders
➢ Industrial machinery
Low-Pressure measurement
The Mcleod Gage
The operation of McLeod gage is based on Boyle’s law.
p1= p2v2/v1
Operation:
➢ The plunger is withdrawn lowering the mercury level below the opening thereby
admitting the gas at the unknown pressure p into the system.
➢ Let V be the volume of the gas admitted into the measuring capillary, bulb and into the
tube down to the opening.
➢ The bulb and the measuring capillary are then at the same pressure (vacuum source).
➢ The plunger is then pushed in and the mercury level goes up, sealing off a gas sample
of known volume V in the bulb and measuring capillary.

The unknown pressure(p) is calculated using boyle’s law as follows:

pV= pcAch
Where, Pc= pressure of gas in measuring capillary tube
Ac = Area of cross section of measuring, capillary tube
Pc = p +h ρm
h = Height of mercury column in reference capillary
ρm= density of mercury
𝑝𝑉 = (𝑝 + ℎ 𝜌𝑚)𝐴𝑐ℎ
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑝. 𝐴𝑐ℎ + ℎ2𝜌𝑚Ac
(𝑉 − Ac. h)=h2𝜌𝑚Ac
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑚𝐴𝐶ℎ 2 /𝑉 − 𝐴𝐶ℎ
If Ac h << V, as is usually the case, then
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑚𝐴𝐶ℎ 2 𝑉 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GAUGES

PIRANI THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GAUGES

A Pirani gauge is a type of vacuum gauge used to measure low pressures (vacuum
levels) by detecting changes in thermal conductivity of a gas. It operates based on the
fact that the ability of a gas to conduct heat changes with pressure.
Working Principle
1. Heating Element: A fine metal wire (usually tungsten or platinum) is electrically heated
within a vacuum chamber.
2. Heat Loss & Pressure Relation: The heat loss from the wire depends on the surrounding
gas pressure. At high pressure, more gas molecules are present, leading to greater heat loss.
At lower pressures, fewer gas molecules result in less heat loss.
3. Electrical Resistance Change: Since the wire’s resistance changes with temperature, the
resistance variation can be measured and correlated with pressure.
4. Bridge Circuit (Wheatstone Bridge): The resistance change is detected using a
Wheatstone bridge, and the corresponding vacuum pressure is displayed.
Measurement Range
• Pirani gauges measure vacuum pressures from about 10⁻¹ to 10⁻³ mbar (0.1 to
0.001 torr).
• For ultra-high vacuum, other gauges like the Ionization gauge are used.

Advantages
Simple and compact design
Suitable for medium vacuum ranges
Fast response time
Disadvantages
Less accurate at very high or very low pressures
Calibration is gas-dependent (different gases have different thermal
conductivities)
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE OF A SUBSTANCE CAUSES A VARIETY OF

EFFECTS SUCH AS:
• CHANGE IN PHYSICAL STATE,
• CHANGE IN CHEMICAL STATE,
• CHANGE IN PHYSICAL DIMENSIONS,
• CHANGE IN ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES AND
• CHANGE IN RADIATING ABILITY.
 THERMOCOUPLE

➢ The principle of a thermocouple is that if two dissimilar metals A and B are joined to form
a circuit as shown in the Fig.
➢ It is found that when the two junctions J1 and J2 are at two different temperatures T1 and
T2, small emf's e1 and e2 are generated at the junctions.
➢ The resultant of the two emf's causes a current to flow in the circuit.
➢ If the temperatures T1 and T2 are equal, the two emf's will be equal but opposed, and no
current will flow.
➢ The net emf is a function of the two materials used to form the circuit and the
temperatures of the two junctions.
LAWS OF THERMOCOUPLES
1st law of homogeneous metals
• The thermocouple current cannot be sustained in circuit of a single homogenies
metal.
• The consequence of this law is that two dissimilar metals are required for any
thermocouple
II) LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS
It states that the insertion of an intermediate metal into a thermocouple circuit will
not affect the net emf, provided the two junctions introduced by the third metal are at
identical temperatures.
• Application of this law is as shown in fig. If the third metal C is introduced and
the new junctions R and S are held at temperature T3, the net emf of the circuit
will remain unchanged. This permits the insertion of a measuring device or circuit
without affecting the temperature measurement of the thermocouple circuit.
III) LAW OF INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURES:
• It states that “if a simple thermocouple circuit develops an emf, e1
when its junctions are at temperatures T1 and T2, and an emf e2,
when its junctions are at temperature T2 and T3. And the same
circuit will develop an emf e3 = e1+ e2, when its junctions are at
temperatures T1 and T3.
Applications of thermocouples in engineering industries
Thermocouples are widely used in engineering industries due to their durability, wide
temperature range, and ability to provide accurate temperature measurements in harsh
environments. Here are some key applications of thermocouples in engineering industries

1. Power Generation
- Boilers & Turbines: Monitor steam and exhaust gas temperatures.
- Nuclear Reactors: Measure coolant and reactor core temperatures.
- Heat Exchangers: Ensure efficient heat transfer and prevent overheating.

2. Oil & Gas Industry

- Refineries: Monitor temperatures in distillation columns, furnaces, and cracking units.
- Pipeline Systems: Detect temperature changes to prevent blockages or leaks.
- Drilling Operations: Measure downhole temperatures in oil wells.
3. Automotive & Aerospace
- Engine Monitoring: Measure exhaust gas temperatures (EGT) for performance
optimization.
- Aircraft Engines: Monitor turbine inlet temperatures (TIT) for safety and efficiency.
- Battery Systems: Track temperature in electric vehicle (EV) batteries to prevent
overheating.
4. Manufacturing & Metal Processing
- Steel & Aluminum Production: Monitor molten metal temperatures in furnaces and
rolling mills.
- Glass Manufacturing: Control kiln and annealing oven temperatures.
- Plastic Injection Molding: Ensure proper melting and cooling of polymers.
5. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Industry
- Reactor Vessels: Monitor exothermic/endothermic reactions.
- Sterilization Processes: Ensure autoclaves and ovens maintain correct temperatures.
- Distillation & Crystallization: Control temperature-sensitive processes.
6. Food & Beverage Industry
- Pasteurization: Ensure proper heating to kill pathogens.
- Baking & Frying: Monitor ovens and fryers for consistent product quality.
- Cold Storage: Verify freezer and refrigeration temperatures.
7. HVAC & Building Automation
- Heating Systems: Monitor furnace and boiler temperatures.
- Air Conditioning: Measure duct and refrigerant temperatures.
- Energy Management: Optimize building climate control systems.
8. Electronics & Semiconductor Industry
- Wafer Fabrication: Monitor temperatures in deposition and etching processes.
- PCB Reflow Soldering: Ensure precise heating for solder joints.
- Laser & Optical Systems: Prevent overheating in high-power devices.
Advantages of Thermocouples in Engineering:
- Wide Temperature Range (–200°C to +2300°C, depending on type).
- Fast Response Time (suitable for dynamic processes).
- Robust & Durable (can withstand harsh conditions).
- No External Power Required (self-powered via Seebeck effect).

Common Thermocouple Types Used in Industry:

- Type K (Chromel-Alumel): General-purpose, widely used.
- Type J (Iron-Constantan): Moderate temperature range.
- Type T (Copper-Constantan): Low-temperature applications.
- Type R/S (Platinum-Rhodium): High-temperature (furnaces, aerospace).
- Type E (Chromel-Constantan): High sensitivity for cryogenics.
Thermocouple ranges and characteristics
Advantages and disadvantages of thermocouples
Advantages :
• Thermocouples are cheaper than the resistance thermometers.
• Thermocouples follow the temperature changes with small time lag thus
suitable for recording rapidly changing temperatures.
• They are convenient for measuring the temperature at a particular point.

Disadvantages :
• Possibility of inaccuracy due to changes in the reference junction temperature
hence they cannot be used in precision work.
• For long life, they should be protected to prevent contamination and have to be
chemically inert and vacuum tight.
• When thermocouples are placed far from the measuring systems, connections
are made by extension wires. Maximum accuracy is obtained only when
compensating wires are of the same material as that of thermocouple wires,
thus the circuit becomes complex.
Principles used for radiation temperature measuring devices

Total radiation pyrometry:

• In this case the total radiant energy from a heated body is measured. This
energy is represented by the area under the curves of above fig. And is given
by stefen - boltzmann law. The radiation pyrometer is intended to receive
maximum amount of radiant energy at wide range of wavelengths possible.

Selective radiation pyrometry:

• This involves the measurement of spectral radiant intensity of the radiated

energy from a heated body at a given wavelength. For example, if a vertical
line is drawn in fig. The variation of intensity with temperature for given
wavelength can be found. The optical pyrometer uses this principle.
Total radiation pyrometers

Schematic of Lens Type Radiation Receiving Device

Mirror focusing type radiation receiving device
Optical pyrometers
ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENT

The two main characteristics are:

The frequency response: that is, the deviation between the measured
value and the true value as a function of the frequency. As the ear is
capable of hearing sounds between 20 hz and 20 khz, the frequency
response of the sound level meter should be good, with variations
smaller than 1 db, over that range.
• The dynamic range: that is, the range in db over which the
measured value is proportional to the true value, at a given
frequency (usually 1000 hz). This range is limited at low levels by
the electrical background noise of the instrument and at high levels
by the signal distortion caused by overloading the microphone or
amplifiers.
Sound-measuring apparatus and techniques
Microphones

Schematic diagram of electrodynamics microphone

MICROPHONE SELECTION FACTORS:
An ideal microphone used for measurement would have the following characteristics:

• Flat frequency response over the audible range

• Non directivity
• Predictable, repeatable sensitivity over the complete dynamic range
• At the lowest sound level to be measured, output signal that is several
times the system's internal noise level
• Minimum dimensions and weight
• Output that is unaffected by all environmental conditions except
sound pressure
The sound level meter

• The basic sound level meter is a measuring system that senses the input sound
pressure and provides a meter readout yielding a measure of the sound
magnitude.
• The sound may be wideband, it may have random frequency distribution, or it
may contain discrete tones. Each of these factors will, of course, affect the
readout.