Chapter 2

Searching:
 Searching is the process of finding a given value position in a list of values.
 It decides whether a search key is present in the data or not.
 It is the algorithmic process of finding a particular item in a collection of items.
 It can be done on internal data structure or on external data structure.

There are two popular algorithms available:

1. Linear Search
2. Binary Search

1. Linear Search/ Sequential Search:

 Sequential search is also called as Linear Search.
 Sequential search starts at the beginning of the list and checks every element of the list.
 It is a basic and simple search algorithm.
 Sequential search compares the element with all the other elements given in the list. If the element is
matched, it returns the value index, else it returns -1.

The above figure shows how sequential search works. It searches an element or value from an array
till the desired element or value is not found. If we search the element 25, it will go step by step in a
sequence order. It searches in a sequence order. Sequential search is applied on the unsorted or
unordered list when there are fewer elements in a list.

Algorithm
LinearSearch ( Array A, Value x)
Step 1: Set i to 1
Step 2: if i > n then go to step 7
Step 3: if A[i] = x then go to step 6
Step 4: Set i to i + 1
Step 5: Go to Step 2
Step 6: Print Element x Found at index i and go to step 8
Step 7: Print element not found
Step 8: Exit

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Linear Search Example
Let us take an example of an array A[7]={5,2,1,6,3,7,8}. Array A has 7 items. Let us assume we are
looking for 7 in the array. Targeted item=7.

Here, we have

A[7]={5,2,1,6,3,7,8}

X=7

At first, When i=0 (A[0]=5; X=7) not matched

i++ now, i=1 (A[1]=2; X=7) not matched

i++ now, i=2(A[2])=1; X=7)not matched

….

i++ when, i=5(A[5]=7; X=7) Match Found

Hence, Element X=7 found at index 5.

Linear search is rarely used practically. The time complexity of above algorithm is O(n).

int linearSearch(int values[], int target, int n)

{
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
if (values[i] == target)
{
return i;
}
}
return -1;
}

Program for Sequential Search

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int arr[50], search, cnt, num;

printf("Enter the number of elements in array\n");

scanf("%d",&num);

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 printf("Enter %d integer(s)\n", num);

for (cnt = 0; cnt < num; cnt++)

scanf("%d", &arr[cnt]);

printf("Enter the number to search\n");

scanf("%d", &search);

for (cnt = 0; cnt < num; cnt++)

{
if (arr[cnt] == search) /* if required element found */
{
printf("%d is present at location %d.\n", search, cnt+1);
break;
}
}
if (cnt == num)
printf("%d is not present in array.\n", search);

return 0;
}

2. Binary Search Algorithm

 Binary Search is used for searching an element in a sorted array.
 It is a fast search algorithm with run-time complexity of O(log n).
 Binary search works on the principle of divide and conquer.
 This searching technique looks for a particular element by comparing the middle most element of
the collection.
 It is useful when there are large number of elements in an array.

In binary search, we follow the following steps:

1. We start by comparing the element to be searched with the element in the middle of the list/array.
2. If we get a match, we return the index of the middle element.
3. If we do not get a match, we check whether the element to be searched is less or greater than in
value than the middle element.
4. If the element/number to be searched is greater in value than the middle number, then we pick
the elements on the right side of the middle element(as the list/array is sorted, hence on the right,
we will have all the numbers greater than the middle number), and start again from the step 1.
5. If the element/number to be searched is lesser in value than the middle number, then we pick the
elements on the left side of the middle element, and start again from the step 1.
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 Binary Search is useful when there are large number of elements in an array and they are sorted.
So a necessary condition for Binary search to work is that the list/array should be sorted.

 The above array is sorted in ascending order. As we know binary search is applied on sorted lists
only for fast searching.
For example, if searching an element 25 in the 7-element array, following figure shows how binary
search works:

Binary searching starts with middle element. If the element is equal to the element that we are
searching then return true. If the element is less than then move to the right of the list or if the
element is greater than then move to the left of the list. Repeat this, till you find an element.

Features of Binary Search

1. It is great to search through large sorted arrays.
2. It has a time complexity of O(log n) which is a very good time complexity. We will discuss this
in details in the Binary Search tutorial.
3. It has a simple implementation.

Algorithm

Step 1: Data list must be ordered list in ascending order.

Step 2: Probe middle of list
Step 3: If target equals list[mid], FOUND.
Step 4: If target < list[mid], discard 1/2 of list between list[mid] and list[last].
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Step 5: If target > list[mid], discard 1/2 of list between list[first] and list[mid].
Step 6: Continue searching the shortened list until either the target is found, or there are no elements t
o probe.
Binary Search Example

Let us take an example of an array A[16]={1,2,3,4,6,7,8,10,12,13,15,16,18,19,20,22}. The array is

sorted and contains 16 items. We are looking for item 19 in this list.

Here, we have

A[16]={1,2,3,4,6,7,8,10,12,13,15,16,18,19,20,22}

X=19

Let us first divide it into two smaller arrays of 8 items each. The first 8 items in a sub array and
another 8 in another sub array. A1={1,2,3,4,6,7,8,10} and A2={12,13,15,16,18,19,20,22}

As 10 and 12 are the middle items of this ordered array, we know 19 is greater than the middle
numbers that means we don’t require to look for the targeted item in first sub array. Let us search in
the second subarray A2={12,13,15,16,18,19,20,22}

In the second array we have 8 items. Let’s divide them into two equal arrays and check the middle
items. Here the middle items are 16 and 18. As 19 is greater than both of them, we don’t need to look
in the first four items of this subarray. A21={12,13,15,15} and A22={18,19,20,22}

Let us look in the last four items sub array A22={18,19,20,22}. Let us again divide it to subarrays
A221={18,19) and A222={20,22}. Here the middle items are 19 and 20. Hence, we found the target
item 19 in first subarray.

Program for Binary Search

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

void main()
{
int f, l, m, size, i, sElement, list[50]; //int f, l ,m : First, Last, Middle
clrscr();

printf("Enter the size of the list: ");

scanf("%d",&size);

printf("Enter %d integer values : \n", size);

for (i = 0; i < size; i++)

scanf("%d",&list[i]);

printf("Enter value to be search: ");

scanf("%d", &sElement);
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 f = 0;
l = size - 1;
m = (f+l)/2;

while (f <= l) {
if (list[m] < sElement)
f = m + 1;
else if (list[m] == sElement) {
printf("Element found at index %d.\n",m);
break;
}
else
l = m - 1;
m = (f + l)/2;
}
if (f > l)
printf("Element Not found in the list.");
getch();
}

Sorting:
Sorting refers to arranging data in a particular format. Sorting algorithm specifies the way to
arrange data in a particular order.

Bubble Sort
Bubble sort is the simplest sorting algorithm. It is based on comparison where each adjacent pair of
element is compared and swapped if they are not in order. It works by repeatedly stepping through
the list to be sorted, comparing two items at a time and swapping them if they are in the wrong order.
The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which means the list is sorted. This
algorithm is not suitable for huge data sets. Average and worst case time complexity of this
algorithm are of Ο(n2) where n is the number of items.
Algorithm

for i=N-1 to 2 {
set swap flag to false
for j=1 to i {
if list[j-1] > list[j]
swap list[j-1] and list[j]
set swap flag to true
}
if swap flag is false, break. The list is sorted.
}

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[NOTE: In each pass, the largest item “bubbles” down the list until it settles in its final position. This
is where bubble sort gets its name.]

Example,

Suppose we have a list of array of 5 elements A[5]={40,50,30,20,10}. We have to sort this array
using bubble sort algorithm.

We observe in algorithm that Bubble Sort compares each pair of array element unless the whole
array is completely sorted in an ascending order. After every iteration the highest values settles down
at the end of the array. Hence, the next iteration need not include already sorted elements.

void bubbleSort(int arr[], int n)

{
int i, j, temp;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
for(j = 0; j < n-i-1; j++)
{
if( arr[j] > arr[j+1])
{
// swap the elements
temp = arr[j];
arr[j] = arr[j+1];
arr[j+1] = temp;
}
}
}

Advantages Disadvantages
The primary advantage of the bubble sort is that it is The main disadvantage of the bubble sort is the fact
popular and easy to implement. that it does not deal well with a list containing a huge
number of items.

In the bubble sort, elements are swapped in place The bubble sort requires n-squared processing steps
without using additional temporary storage. for every n number of elements to be sorted.

The space requirement is at a minimum The bubble sort is mostly suitable for academic
teaching but not for real-life applications.

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Selection Sort
Selection sort is an in-place comparison sort algorithm. In this algorithm, we repeatedly select the
smallest remaining element and move it to the end of a growing sorted list. It is one of the simplest
sorting algorithm. Selection sort is known for its simplicity. It has performance advantages over
more complicated algorithms in certain situations.
This algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its average and worst case complexities are
of Ο(n2), where n is the number of items.
Algorithm

Step 1: Set MIN to location 0

Step 2: Search the minimum element in the list
Step 3: Swap with value at location MIN
Step 4: Increment MIN to point to next element
Step 5: Repeat until list is sorted

Example,
Let us assume an array A[10]={45,20,40,05,15,25,50,35,30,10}. We have to sort this array using
selection sort.

In this algorithm we have to find the minimum value in the list first. Then, Swap it with the value in
the first position. After that, Start from the second position and repeat the steps above for remainder
of the list.

// function to look for smallest element in the given subarray

int indexOfMinimum(int arr[], int startIndex, int n)
{
int minValue = arr[startIndex];
int minIndex = startIndex;
for(int i = minIndex + 1; i < n; i++)
{
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 if(arr[i] < minValue)
{
minIndex = i;
minValue = arr[i];
}
}
return minIndex;
}

void selectionSort(int arr[], int n)

{
for(int i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
int index = indexOfMinimum(arr, i, n);
swap(arr, i, index);
}
}
Advantages Disadvantages

The main advantage of the selection sort is that it The primary disadvantage of the selection sort is
performs well on a small list. its poor efficiency when dealing with a huge list
of items.

Because it is an in-place sorting algorithm, no The selection sort requires n-squared number of
additional temporary storage is required beyond steps for sorting n elements.
what is needed to hold the original list.

Its performance is easily influenced by the initial Quick Sort is much more efficient than
ordering of the items before the sorting process. selection sort

Insertion Sort
Insertion sort is an in-place sorting algorithm based on comparison. It is a simple algorithm where a
sorted sub list is maintained by entering on element at a time. An element which is to be inserted in
this sorted sub-list has to find its appropriate location and then it has to be inserted there. That is the
reason why it is named so. This algorithm is not suitable for large data set.
Average and worst case time complexity of the algorithm is Ο(n2), where n is the number of items.
Algorithm

Step 1: If it is the first element, it is already sorted. return 1;

Step 2: Pick next element
Step 3: Compare with all elements in the sorted sub-list
Step 4: Shift all the elements in the sorted sub-list that is greater than the value to be sorted
Step 5: Insert the value
Step 6: Repeat until list is sorted

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Example,
Let us take an example of an array A[6]={20,10,30,15,25,05}. We have to sort this array using
insertion sort.

void insertionSort(int arr[], int length)

{
int i, j, key;
for (i = 1; i < length; i++)
{
j = i;
while (j > 0 && arr[j - 1] > arr[j])
{
key = arr[j];
arr[j] = arr[j - 1];
arr[j - 1] = key;
j--;
}
}
}

Advantages Disadvantages

The main advantage of the insertion sort is its The disadvantage of the insertion sort is that it does
simplicity. not perform as well as other, better sorting
algorithms

It also exhibits a good performance when dealing With n-squared steps required for every n element to
with a small list. be sorted, the insertion sort does not deal well with a
huge list.

The insertion sort is an in-place sorting algorithm so The insertion sort is particularly useful only when
the space requirement is minimal. sorting a list of few items.

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Quick Sort
Quick sort is a well-known sorting algorithm. It is highly efficient and also known as partition
exchange sort. In this sorting algorithm the array is divided into 2 sub array. One contain smaller
values than pivot value and other array contain elements having greater values than pivot value.
Pivot is an element that is used to compare and divide the elements of the main array into two. Quick
sort partitions an array and then calls itself recursively twice to sort the two resulting sub arrays. This
algorithm is quite efficient for large data sets.
The Average and worst case complexity are of this algorithm is Ο(n2), where n is the number of
items.
Algorithm

Step 1: Choose the highest index value has pivot

Step 2: Take two variables to point left and right of the list excluding pivot
Step 3: left points to the low index
Step 4: right points to the high
Step 5: while value at left is less than pivot move right
Step 6: while value at right is greater than pivot move left
Step 7: if both step 5 and step 6 does not match swap left and right
Step 8: if left ≥ right, the point where they met is new pivot
In practice, quick sort is faster than other sorting algorithms because its inner loop can be efficiently
implemented on most architectures, and in most real-world data it is possible to make design choices
which minimize the possibility of require time.
Example,
Let us assume an array A[10]={42,37,11,98,36,72,65,10,88,78}. We have to sort this array using
quick sort.

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// to swap two numbers
void swap(int* a, int* b)
{
int t = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = t;
}
/* a[] is the array, p is starting index, that is 0, and r is the last index of array. */
void quicksort(int a[], int p, int r)
{
if(p < r)
{
int q;
q = partition(a, p, r);
quicksort(a, p, q);
quicksort(a, q+1, r);
}
}
int partition (int a[], int low, int high)
{
int pivot = arr[high]; // selecting highest element as pivot
int i = (low - 1); // index of smaller element
for (int j = low; j <= high- 1; j++)
{
// If current element is smaller than or equal to pivot
if (arr[j] <= pivot)

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 {
i++; // increment index of smaller element
swap(&arr[i], &arr[j]);
}
}
swap(&arr[i + 1], &arr[high]);
return (i + 1);
}

Advantages Disadvantages
The quick sort is regarded as the best sorting The slight disadvantage of quick sort is that its
algorithm. worst-case performance is similar to average
performances of the bubble, insertion or selections
sorts.
It is able to deal well with a huge list of items. If the list is already sorted than bubble sort is much
more efficient than quick sort
Because it sorts in place, no additional storage is If the sorting element is integers than radix sort is
required as well more efficient than quick sort.

Radix sort:
Algorithm:
For each digit i where i varies from the least significant digit to the most significant digit of a number
Sort input array using count sort algorithm according to ith digit.

We used count sort because it is a stable sort.

Example: Assume the input array is:

10,21,17,34,44,11,654,123
Based on the algorithm, we will sort the input array according to the one's digit
(least significant digit).
0: 10
1: 21 11
2:
3: 123
4: 34 44 654
5:
6:
7: 17
8:
9:

So, the array becomes 10,21,11,123,24,44,654,17

Now, we'll sort according to the ten's digit:
0:
1: 10 11 17

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2: 21 123
3: 34
4: 44
5: 654
6:
7:
8:
9:

Now, the array becomes : 10,11,17,21,123,34,44,654

Finally , we sort according to the hundred's digit (most significant digit):
0: 010 011 017 021 034 044
1: 123
2:
3:
4:
5:
6: 654
7:
8:
9:

The array becomes : 10,11,17,21,34,44,123,654 which is sorted. This is how our algorithm works.
Advantages
1. It is implemented in Java, it would be faster than quicksort or heap.
2. It is stable because it preserves existing order of equals keys.
3. It is good on small keys.

Disadvantages
1. It is not efficient on very long keys because the total sorting time is proportional to key length
and to the number of items to sort.
2. We have to write an unconventional compare routine.
3. It requires fixed size keys and some standard way of breaking the keys to pieces.

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