Wallaga university

College of business and economics

Department of commerce

CHAPTER ONE
Research Methods: Introduction
Research is most frequently used terminology in different academic and business institutions.
Research as conscious and creative human activity involves discovering and learning new things.
Where there is a problem there is always a research. It is an essential tool for understanding the
events and structures of the social world. Research can mean different things to different people.
People have defined research differently according to their perception. Here under we will see
different definitions and perceptions of individuals about research
1.1. Meaning of Research
Different authors in many ways have defined the word research. Research commonly refers to a
search for knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement from known to unknown.
It is indeed a voyage of knowledge. For some people on the other hand research implies an art of
scientific investigation to the state of nature or phenomenon. Authors are increasingly adding
new names and definition for different kinds of research. However, to avoid confusion and
unnecessary cumbersomeness let us confine ourselves to the definitions of research given by
selected authors. Hertz provided the most simplified definition of research. His definition
referred research to the original and creative activities. According to him, Research is the
application of human intelligence in a systematic manner to a problem whose solution is not
immediately available.
Woody on the other hand defined research as an activity comprises of defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating
data; making deduction and reaching at conclusion to determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis.
An author called Klopsteg gives the most comprehensive definition of research. According to
him; '‘Research is original and creative intellectual activity, carried out in the laboratory, the
library or in the field which endeavors to discover new facts and to apprise and interpret them
properly in the light of previous knowledge. With constantly increasing understanding, it revises
previously accepted conclusion, theories and laws, and makes new application of its findings.
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Whether it seeks to extend knowledge for its own sake or to achieve results with specific
economic or social value, its raison de’tre is its contribution to human welfare.
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According to this definition, research is carried out not only in the laboratory but also it can be
carried out in different places like in the library and in the field as well.
Research is not only original and creative activity. It will not always discover new facts. It can
also revise and verify the validity of previously accepted facts theories and principles, which is
the task of academic or basic research.
1.2. Motivation of Doing Research
Research is not a trouble-free duty rather it is time consuming, tiresome and expensive
undertaking. Despite these all difficulties many people especially in academic institute would
like to carry out research at least once in their life. What are the possible motives of individuals
to undertake research work?
The possible motives for doing research can be either one or a combination of the following:
 Desire to get degree with its consequential benefit. The graduate and postgraduate students
are required to carry out research project as a partial fulfillment to obtain their master and
Ph.D. Degree. Research is therefore, a prerequisite to complete their study.
 Desire to get respect and promotion (to own respect in society). In academic and research
institutions publication is crucial for promotion and academic rank. “Publish or perish” is a
phrase commonly used in experienced and well-established academic institutes. This implies
an individual should carry out a research activity and publish his findings in scientific or
international journal in order to get respect and academic rank. If not the individual will
"perish" meaning no proportion or academic rank and hence no respect is possible for that
individual in the academic environment
 Desire to face a challenge in solving the unsolved problem. Concern over a particular
problem initiates a researcher.
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. Doing or participation in some
creative activity will give some professional satisfaction to many individuals. Research will
give this opportunity.
 Directive of government. Government sometimes gives directives to its employees to carry
out a particular study and investigation for better decision-making ground. Ideally any policy
before implementation requires detail study and analysis of its impact on different parts of
the society.
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 Employment condition. Some employers set as criteria at least one publication in
international journal.
1.3. Types of Research
Like its definition research has been classified differently. Generally research can be classified on
the basis of the following traits.
I. On the basis of the outcome of the research: Whether the research tries to solve a particular
problem or makes a general contribution to the knowledge, research can be
a) Fundamental Research:
Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research. Such research is aimed at
investigating or search for new principles and laws. It is mainly concerned with generalization
and formulation of a theory. Fundamental research is organized only for the attainment of
knowledge and truth. With change of time and space, it is necessary to make a change in the
fundamental principles in every branch of science; thus, this type of research also verifies the old
established theories, principles and laws.
In general, fundamental research is concerned with the theoretical aspect of science. In other words
it studies the laws of nature, without or regardless of the immediate application of its findings.
E.g:
 The relationship between crime and economic status is an example of pure (academic)
research.
 Darwin Theory of Evolution
 Newton’s Law of Motion
 Einstein Theory of Relativity
b) Applied research
A research aimed at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group or
industry (business organization). The results of such research would be used by either individuals
or groups of decision-makers or even by policy makers. While pure research discovers principles
and laws, applied research discovers their application in solving some social, economic or any
other problems.
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E.g.:

 The improvement of safety in the working place

 The reduction of wastage in the working places is example of applied research.
Types of Applied researches
Social impact Analysis: - The major purpose of social impact assessment is to estimate the likely
consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment can be used for planning and making
choices among alternative policies. Researcher conducting social impact assessment examines
many outcomes and often works in an interdisciplinary research team.
Potential areas assessed in social impact analysis.
 Community service (School enrolment, speed of policy respond)
 Social conditions (crime rate etc)
 Economic impact (change in income level)
 Demographic consequences (change in the mix of old and young people, population
movement in or out of the area)
 Environment impact
 Health outcomes
Evaluation research: - Evaluation research is widely used type of applied research that addresses
the question, “did it work?’ Evaluation is a process of establishing value judgment based on
evidence. Evaluation research measures the effectiveness of a program, policy, or way of doing
something. Some example of evaluation research questions is, does the new incentive scheme
improve workers job performance? Does the environmental policy improve the environmental
problem of the city? Individuals involved in a policy or program may conduct evaluation
research for their own information or at the request of outside decision makers.
There are two types of evaluation research; Formative and Summative. Formative evaluation is
built in monitoring or continuous feedback on a program used for program management.
Collective evaluation looks at final program outcome.
Applied research being impact analysis or evaluation research uses two tools namely; Need
assessment and Cost Benefit Analysis.
Need assessment: A researcher collects data, to determine major needs and their severity. It is often
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a preliminary step before deciding on a strategy to help people. A researcher may confirm
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dilemmas or difficult issues. A good need assessment identifies both the expressed and less
valuable needs of a target group, as well as the more serious or widespread needs. A researcher
must trace links among related needs to identify those of highest priority.
Cost benefits analysis. This is commonly used in social impact analysis. Economists developed
cost benefit analysis, in which the researcher estimates the future costs and the expected benefits
of one or several proposed actions and gives them monetary values
II. On the basis of the purpose (The reason why a research is conducted) it can be-
a) Exploratory research (Pilot Survey)
It is also called preliminary research. As its name implied, such research is aimed at discovering,
identifying and formulating a research problem and hypothesis. When there are few or no studies
that can be referred such research is needed.
b) Descriptive Research
The main purpose of such research is description of the state of nature or affairs, as it exists at
present. In social science and business research we often use the term ex-post facto research for
descriptive research. The main characteristic of such research is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
E.g.
 What is the absentee rate in a particular office?
 What is the qualification of different groups of employment?
 Frequency of shopping
 Preferences of people
Ex-post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes though they cannot
control the variables.
Goals of Descriptive research
 To provide an accurate profile of a group
 To describe a processes, mechanism or relationship
 To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
 To find information to stimulate new explanations
 To present basic background information on a context
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 To create a set of categories or classify types

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 To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject
c). Analytic research
Analytical research on the other hand, goes beyond simple description of the state of nature. When a
researcher encounters an issue that is already known and have a description of it, you may begin
to ask “why” things are the way they are.
Analytical research uses facts or information already available, and analyzes them to make a critical
evaluation of the material. Not only describe the characteristics, but also it analyzes and explains
why and how it happened or is happening. The information or facts used here can be either
Qualitative or Quantitative.
Goals of analytical research
 To determine the accuracy of a principle or a theory
 To find out which competing explanation is better
 To advance knowledge about an underling process
 To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
 To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more completes
 To extend a theory or principle into new areas or issues
 To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or
prediction E.g.,
 How can we reduce the numbers of complaints made by customers?
 How can we expand the range of our services?
 How can we improve the delivery times of our products?
Case studies
Case study is a type of analytical research in which a researcher examine many features of a very
few elements in-depth over duration of time. Case can be individual, group, organization,
movement, events, or geographic units. The data in case study are usually more detailed, varied
and extensive. Mostly data involved are qualitative data about a few cases. In a case study a
researcher may intensively investigate one or two cases or compare a limited set of cases
focusing on a several factors.
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Tracer Study
Tracer study is also known as follow up study. It is a type of explanatory research that aims at
investigating the subsequent development of individuals after a specified treatment or condition.
Tracer study is used to make an investigation on the direction of movements and predicts what is
likely to take place to the future. Tracer study is designed to establish patterns of change in the
past in order to predict future patterns or conditions by analyzing data collected about subjects
and environment. Common example of such study is that a researcher may conduct a tracer study
of the former graduates of the Faculty of Business and Economics to know
 Whether all of the graduates are employed or absorbed by the labor market
 Whether there is a mismatch between the training graduates received and the type of
jobs they are handling
 Whether there is a new environmental trends that justify the need of change
d) Predictive research
Such research goes beyond explaining why and how things happened. It predicts (forecast) the
possible (probability of happening similar situation in other places. It tries to explain about the
probability of happening similar thing in the future.
E.g.,
 How would an increase in interest rate affect our profit margin?
 What type of packaging will improve the sales of our products?
III. On the basis of the process of research: That is, on the basis of data used in the research
process research can be:
a) Qualitative research:
Such research is applicable for phenomenon that cannot be expressed in terms of quantity.
Things related to quality and kind. Research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is an example of such research.
b) Quantitative research
Qualitative research is on the other hand is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. It is based
on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable for phenomenon that can be expressed
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in term of quantity.
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IV. On the basis of the environment in which the research is carried out research can be
a) Field research
It is a research carried out in the field. Such research is common in social science, agricultural
science, history and archeology.
b) Laboratory research
It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are commonly experimental research.
Such researches are common in medical science, agriculture and in general in natural
sciences
c) Simulation research
Such research uses models to represent the real world. Simulation is common in physical science,
economics and mathematics.
V. On the basis of the time required to complete the research, research can be
a) One -time research; It is a research limited to a single time period
b) Longitudinal research
Such research is also called on-going research. It is a research carried out over several time periods.
Common objectives of research
Any research activity is designed to discover and answer to questions through the application of
scientific procedure. It is an activity amid at finding out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered yet or to verify or reject that the existing phenomenon (theory, principle or
law) accepted as true.
Though each research study has its own specific objectives, any research has got the following
common (general) objectives.
 To generate new knowledge, principle and scientific law
 To review and synthesize existing knowledge. That is, to verify the validity of the
previous work.
 To investigate some existing situation or problem
 To explain new phenomenon
 To examine the cause of the problem
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 To examine the nature of the problem

 To provide solution to a problem
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 To construct or create a new procedure and new system
 A combination of any one of the above
1.4. Research and Scientific method
For clear understanding of the term research, we better know the meaning of scientific method. The
two terms, research and scientific methods are closely related. The researcher is not interested in
particular results; rather he is interested in the repeatability and validity of results and their
application to more complicated and general solutions.
Research methodology and technique are mostly different from one science to another or can be
different from research to research. The philosophy common to all research methodology and
technique is called Scientific methods.
As Pearson (1968) put it, “the scientific method is one and the same in the branches (science) and
that method is the methods of all logically trained minds”
Steps in scientific method
As we have said scientific method is the philosophy common to all research methodology and
technique in any research in any branch of science. The steps in scientific methods are
summarized as follows.
1. Observation: the first or initial step in the scientific method is a minute and careful
observation of the subject matter of research.
2. Recording: The next step to observation in scientific method is a careful recording of
all information (data) obtained in the first step, i.e., observation.
3. Classification: the collected data (information) have to be classified and organized.
This is a serious step; according to “the classification of facts, the recognition of their
sequence and relative significance, is the function of science”. The classification
implies systematically arranging and organizing the recorded data on the logical basis
so that they will become viable for the analysis and to make generalization.
4. Generalization: It is an extension of general laws and principles on the basis of the
pattern exhibited by the classified material. This general law is known as scientific
law.
5. Verification: the scientific method does not stop only at the formulation of general
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law. The general principle must be also verified. The validity of scientific principles
can be confirmed by examination.
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Forms of scientific methods
There are six primary forms of scientific methods.
1. Induction: the movement of knowledge from particular facts to general rule or principle. To
make generalization based on our knowledge from a particular event or assessment.
E.g. Socrates is mortal and Socrates is a man; therefore, man is mortal.
2. Deduction: a movement in knowledge from a general rule to a particular case.
E.g. Man is mortal and Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal
3. Historical: historical method is a back ward movement in knowledge to trace the cause of a
phenomenon.
Darwin theory of evolution and Marx’s law of economic determinism are example of
historic forms of scientific method.
4. Comparative: This method is used for the analysis and comparison of two contemporary
(coexisting and present) phenomenon. It is always undertaken in order to discover new facts
or relations.
Studies of two government or political system
5. Structural: a study of what a things, what are its outline and significant feature is a
structural study (the composition of a thing)
Anatomy is a structural study
6. Functional: in contrast to the structural method, functional method studies the processes
and their cause, that is, how and why of a thing.
Physiology is a good example
Methods versus Methodology
In this material most frequently we come across to the term research methods and research
methodology and research. Some literature use this terms interchangeably. To avoid confusion
the definition and differences of these terms are given as follow. Their usage throughout the text
is based on these definitions.
Research Techniques: Refers to the behavior and instruments we use in performing research
operation such as making observation, recording data, techniques processing data and the like.
Research Methodology: can be understood as all those approaches and techniques that are used in
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conducting a particular research. Research methodology; thus, refer to the techniques researchers
use in performing research operations.
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Research methodology can be put into three groups:
 The first group include approaches or techniques of data collection
 The second group consists of those statistical techniques used to established
relationship between variables
 The third group consists of those techniques involved in evaluating the accuracy of the
result obtained
Methods: is a way to systematically solve the research problem. Method can be understood as a
science of studying how research is done scientifically.
It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methodology and techniques how
to conduct research but also the methods. that is, researcher not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or test, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square or in general how to apply particular research techniques, but they also
need to know which of these methodology or techniques, are relevant and what would they mean
and indicate the way. Researcher also needs to understand the assumption underlining various
techniques.
Generally speaking, one can say that research methods have many dimension and research
methodology constitute only a part of the research methods.
1.5. Research Processes
Before starting the details of research methods, it is appropriate to have a brief overview of the
research processes. Research processes consist of a series of actions or steps, which are
necessary to successfully carry out research activities.
The research processes consist of a number of closely related activities. These activities (steps)
can overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence. The first step can
determine the nature of the last step to be undertaken. These steps are not separate and distinct.
They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order Kothari (1990).
However, the following order of steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the
research processes.
 Identification and Formulating the research problem
 Extensive literature survey
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 Developing working hypothesis

 Preparing the research design
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 Determine sample design
 Collecting data
 Execution of the project
 Analysis of the data
 Hypothesis testing
 Generalization and interpretation
 Reporting the result

CHAPTER TWO
Defining and Formulation of the Research Problem and Hypothesis
In research processes, the first step happens to be identifying and properly defining a research
problem. The researcher first must find any social, economic, business problem and formulate it
into research problem. The problem identified initially may be stated in broad general way and
then gradually the ambiguity will be resolved. The feasibility of a possible particular solution has
to be considered before formulating the problem. The best way of understanding a problem is to
discuss it with colleagues or those having some experience in the matter.
Problem formulation from the researcher point of view represents translating the managers, social
and other problems in to a research problem. In order to happen, the researcher must understand
the origin and nature of the management (economic, environmental, and etc.) problems and then
be able to rephrase it into meaningful terms from analytical point of view.
What is a Research problem?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty, which a researcher faces (experiences) in
the context of both a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
We say a research problem exist, if the following conditions are met (Kothari 1990)
1. There will be an individual (or group or organization), I, to whom the problem can be
attributed. The individuals or organization occupied an environment, say N, which is defined
by values of the uncontrolled variable Yj.
2. There must be at least two courses of action; say, C1 and C2 that can be taken to solve the
problem. A course of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variable.
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3. There must be at least two out comes, O1 and O2 of the courses of action of which one should
be preferred to the other. In other words, there must be one out come that the researcher
wants to achieve, i.e., an objective.
4. The courses of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the objective, but
they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter.
Thus,
If P (Oj / I, Cj, N) the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I selects Cj (course of action) in N
then, P (Oj / I, C1, N)  P (Oj / I, C2, N)
In simple word, the choice must have unequal efficiency for the desired out comes. This condition
implies individual or group or organization said to have problem, if "I" do not know what course
of action is best. That is, "I" must be in doubt about the solution.
Components of the research problem
The problem is consists of the following components
1. The decision-maker (which can be individual, organization, etc.,) who has some difficulties
or problem.
2. There must be some objectives (goals) to be attained at. If one wants nothing then, cannot
have a problem. The objective of the decision-maker provides motivation to solve the
problem.
Objective can be defined from different perspective
From economics point of view: objective can profit maximization
From Marketing view point - increasing market share, creating product image and prestige,
increasing sale and so on can be considered as an objective.
From Management perspective - objective can be motivating workers thereby increase labor
productivity
Finance- increase return on investment
3. Alternative courses of action: There must be alternative means to achieve the desired objective.
E.G, to maximize profit we have the following courses of actions,
Profit = TR – TC where, TR represents total revenue and TC refers to total cost of
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production.
Increasing profit can be achieved
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i. By keeping TC constant and increasing TR, where, TR = P.Q . This again can be
done either by increasing price (P) and keep constant total output (Q), or by Keeping
price constant and increase Q (total output)
ii. Keep TR constant and decrease TC
Increase market share implies increasing sales relative to other firms. These can be achieved by
i. Increasing total sale by:
 Decreasing price,
 Increasing quality,
 Changing package,
 Developing new product line and the like.
4. The environment (or context of the problem) to which the difficulty pertain. These
environmental factors can be;
 Government regulation (exogenous)
 Price factor (Exogenous in competitive market)
 Rate of price change, inflation (exogenous)
 Market place (exogenous)
 Resource available (natural resource)
 Technology (endogenous)
 Level of education and the like etc (endogenous)
These factors may individually or collectively affect the outcome of the course of action (and
most of the time they are exogenous or uncontrolled variables).
5. A state of doubts as to which course of action is the best. This means that researcher must
answer the question concerning the relative efficiency.
2.1. Defining the Problem
Defining the research problem is crucial and very hard part of a research process. It is crucial
because, the problem identified will provide us with the topic of the designed research and the
objective of the research. It is the most difficult and hard part of the research study because; there
is a cause and effect issue. It is commonly difficult to distinguish effect of a problem from the
cause of the problem. The researcher should be certain that the problem identified is a cause but
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not an effect. There is a common say in research that “The problem clearly stated is a problem
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half solved”. This signifies the importance of properly defining the problem. A proper definition
of research problem will enable the researcher to find answers to question such as
 What kind of data and information are relevant and needed to be studied?
 What relationship is to be explored among variables?
 What technique has to be used to collect and analyze data? And so forth
Therefore, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and a very
important step. Even it is more essential than its solution..
Techniques involved in defining a problem
The research problem should be defined in a systematic manner. The technique involved in
defining a research problem has a number of steps, which should be under taken one after anther.
i. Statement of problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad
general way keeping with some practical, scientific and intellectual interest. For that
purpose the researcher must immerse him completely in the subject matter, which he wishes
to pose a problem.
In social science it is advisable to do some field observation and / or preliminary survey (pilot
survey). Then the researcher can himself state the problem or can seek guidance of the subject
expert.
ii. Understanding the nature of the problem: the next step is to understand clearly the nature
and the origin of the problem. The best way of understanding the problem is:
 To discuss with those who first raised the problem in order to know how the problem
originally come in view.
 To discuss it with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or
similar other problem.
iii. Survey the available literature. All available literature concerning the problem must be
studied and examined before defining research problem. This means the researcher must
be familiar with:
 The relevant theory in the area. Theory has got the following role in overall research
studies
 Theory provides patterns of the interpretation of data
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 It supplies frameworks within which concepts and variables acquire
special significance.
 It allows us interpret the large meaning of our findings for ourselves and
others
 Reports and records and other literature in the concerned area
 Rearview research works undertaken on related problem. This is important especially
to learn what data and other material have been used and are available for operational
purpose
Knowledge about these all will help the researcher to narrow the problem down himself.
Generally, survey literature will enable researcher to know
 If there are certain gap in the theory
 Whether the existing theory applicable to the problem and consistent with
each other.
 Whether the findings of the research do or do not follow a pattern
consistent with the theoretical expectation.
 Study on a related problem is also useful for indicating the type of
difficulty that may be encountered in the present study.
iv. Developing ideas through discussion: Discussion on a problem produces useful
information. Various new ideas can be discovered and developed through it. The
researcher should discuss his problem with colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area. Such practice is called ‘experience survey”
Peoples with rich experience are in a position to show the researcher different aspects of his
proposed study and their advice and comments are usually of high values.
v. Rephrasing the research problem (reformulation of the problem): Finally the researcher at
this stage should be able to reformulate the problem that has been stated in broad and
general way in to working proposition. The researcher should narrow and break down the
problem into its components variables and relationship. That is, problem should be
expressed as:
a) a relationship between two or more variable
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b) the problem should be stated either in question form or hypothesis form

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Question form is appropriate mostly when the research is descriptive in nature. What important is
that when a researcher state the problem in question form the formulated problem should be free
from ambiguity and the relationship among variables should be clearly expressed
E.g.,
 Does a relationship exist between income of university students and score on their
exams?
 Is there a relationship between employees' age and their productivity?
 Does a relationship exist between the men circumcision and sensitivity to HIV virus?
In above examples, the study’s main elements are identified in reasonably clear fashion. The
following points must be considered while redefining the research problem
 Technical terms and words or phrased, with special meanings used in the statement of the
problem, should be clearly defined.
 Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly defined.
 A straightforward statements of the value of the investigation, i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided
 The suitability of the time period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
 The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly in defining the research problem.
Evaluation of the problem
Before the final decision is made on the investigation of the problem, the feasibility of the problem
has to be tested with regard to personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the
problem. In short, the research problem should be evaluated in terms of the following criteria.
Is the problem researchable?
Some problems cannot be effectively solved through the process of research. Particularly, research
cannot provide answers to philosophical and ethical questions that do not show the relationship
existing between two or more variable vividly. Therefore, the problem must be stated in
workable research question that can be answered empirically.
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Is the problem new?

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As much as possible, the research problem needs to be new. One should not target his
investigation to the problem that had already been thoroughly investigated by other researchers.
To be safe from such duplication, the researcher has to go through the record of previous studies
in a given field. However, there are times where by a problem that has been investigated in the
past could be worthy of study. A researcher may repeat a study when he wants to verify its
conclusion or to extend the validity of its findings in situation entirely different from the previous
one.
Is the problem significant?
The question of significance of the problem usually relates to what a researcher hopes to
accomplish in a particular study. What is his purpose in undertaking to solve the particular
problem he has chosen? What new knowledge does he hopes to add to the sum total of what is
known? And what value is this knowledge likely to have? When these all questions are answered
clearly by the researcher, the problem should be considered for investigation.
The researcher should show that the study is likely to fill the gaps in the existing Knowledge to
help resolve some of the inconsistencies in previous research or to help in the reinterpretation of
the known facts. The findings should become a basis for theory generalization, or principles and
should lead to new problems further research.
Is the problem feasible?
In addition to the above-stipulated points, the feasibility of the research problem should also be
examined from the point of view of the researcher’s personal aspects as stated hereunder.
Researcher Competence: The problem should be in an area in which the researcher qualified
and competent. Before indulging into investigation of the problem, the researcher has to make
sure that he is well acquainted with the existing theories, concepts and laws related to the
problem. He must also possess the necessary Skills and competence that may be needed to
develop, administer, and interpret the necessary data gathering tools. What is more, he needs to
consider whether he has the necessary knowledge of research design and statistical procedure
that may be required to carry out the research through its completion.
Interest and enthusiasm: The researcher has to make sure that the problem really interests him.
He must also be truly enthusiastic about the problem. If the problem is chosen properly by
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observing these points, the research will not be boring; rather it will be love’s labor.
Financial consideration: Research is an expensive endeavor, which requires a great deal of
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money to invest. In this regard, the researcher should ascertain whether he has necessary
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resources to carry on the investigation of the selected problem. An estimate of the expenditure
involved in the data gathering equipment, printing, test material, travel, and clerical assistance to
be specified. Furthermore, the possible sources of fund must be consulted ahead of time.
Time requirement: Research should be undertaken within a given scope of time, which was
allocated, with careful analysis of the prevailing situation. Each and every activity of a research
process requires time. Particularly, it is worthwhile to plan for the time that will be needed for
the development and administration of tools, processing and analysis of data, and writing of the
research report. While allocating time for research project, care should be taken for the
researcher’s other engagement or commitments, the respondents’ accessibility, the expiry data of
the required data.
Administrative consideration: The researcher has to pay to all administration matters that are
necessary to bring his study to its full administrative matters that are necessary to bring his study
to its full completion. In this regard the researcher should consider the kinds of data equipment,
specialized personnel. And administrative facilities that are needed to complete the study
successfully. The researcher must assure whether the pertinent data are available and accessible
to him.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis form is employed when the state of the existing knowledge and theory permits
formulation of reasonable prediction about the relationship among variables.
The word hypothesis is a compound of two words, “hypo” and “thesis”. Hypo means, under or
below and thesis means a reasoned theory or rational viewpoint. Thus, hypothesis would mean a
theory, which is not fully reasoned.
Hypotheses are a set of suggested tentative solution of a research problem, which can be or may
not be a real solution.
Research hypothesis differs from research question in that, hypothesis both indicate the question
in testable form and predict the nature of the answer. Hypothesis proposes a relationship between
two or more variables. In other words, hypothesis is a theory entertained in order to study the
facts and examine the validity of the theory. The task of the researcher in this case will be to
establish and test such hypothesis.
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Establishing a hypothesis should follow rules like:

 The variables must be clearly specified and measurable by some techniques we know
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 The relationship between them must be stated precisely.
Importance of Hypothesis
A well-grounded hypothesis provides the following advantages
 Represents specific objective, which determine the nature of the data needed to test the
proposition
 Offer basis for selecting the sample, the research procedure, and the statistical analysis
needed.
 Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing it from becoming too broad
 Sets a framework for reporting the conclusion of the study.
Criteria of usable hypotheses
Hypotheses can be useful if and only if they are carefully formulated. There are several criteria used
to evaluate hypothesis. These include the following.
 Hypotheses should be clearly and precisely formulated
 Hypotheses should be formulated in such way that, they can be tested or verified (should
be testable)
 Hypothesis should state explicitly the expected relationship between variables
 Hypotheses should be limited in scope. Hypotheses of global significance are not usable
as they are not specific and simple for testing and drawing conclusions.
 Hypotheses should be consistent with the known facts. In other words hypotheses should
be grounded in a well-established facts, theories or laws.
 Hypotheses should be stated as much as possible in simple terms. The simple statement
helps to gain the following advantages
i. It becomes easily understandable to others (readers)
ii. It become easily testable
iii. It provides a basis for a clear and easily comprehended report at the
completion of the study.
 The hypotheses selected should be amendable to testing with in a reasonable time.
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Some examples of Hypothesis,

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Hypothesis: 1

Political participation Increases With education

Variable one (dependent variable.) relationship Variable two (independent variable)

Hypothesis: 2.

Alienation increase with poverty

Variable one Relation Variable two

The result of the hypothesis test is the substance of our conclusion and expressed as generalization.
Sources of Research problem
There are some important sources of problems, which are helpful to a researcher for selecting a
problem. These include the following
Professional experience: One of the sources of problem for beginner researcher is his own
experience as a professional in a given field. The day-to-day observation of the incidences is the
working place and out of the working environment, which includes the experience of his
colleagues, their attitude, home environment, social-economic status and motivation level
provide rich sources of the problem.
Inference from theory. A research problem can be derived from a critical look into different
theories. In other words application of some general principles involved in different theories to
specific situation makes an important starting point of research.
Technological and social changes: Technological and social change directly or indirectly exerts
an influence in the function of an organization. All such change brings about new problems for
research. For instance, change may affect policy issues in which case they may arouse interest in
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investigating new policies among the policy analysts or other concerned personalities.
The following points may be considered in selecting a research problem.
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 A subject that is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light to such a case.
 Governmental subjects should not become a choice of an average researcher.
 Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
 The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or source of research is within one’s reach.
 The importance of the subject, the qualification and the training of researcher, the cost,
the time factor are the few points that must be considered in selecting a problem.

CHAPTER 3
RESEACH PROPOSAL
3.1. What is a Research Proposal?
A Proposal is also known as a work plan, prospectus, outline, statement of intent, or draft
plan. The proposal tells us what, why, how, where, and to whom the research will be done. It
must also show the benefit of doing the research.Research proposal is a tool that assures an
agreement between a person who should authorize the study and the researcher as to the problem
to be investigated, the methodology to be used, the duration of the study, and its cost.
3.2. Functions of the Research Proposal
Research proposal may function as:
A mean of communication: serves to communicate the investigator’s research plan to those
who give consultations and /or disburse fund. The quality of assistance and the probability of
financial support will all depend directly on the clarity and justification of the proposal.
A plan: helps the researcher to organize his idea in a systematic manner and to look for
strengths and mistake. A successful proposal sets out the plan in step-by-step detail. That is, it
provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have to be collected as a
preliminary step. Generally, the acceptability of results is judged exclusively items of the
adequacy of the methods employed in recording, analyzing, and interpreting he data in the
planned study.
A contract: a completed proposal approved for execution and signed by all members of the
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sponsoring committee, constitute a bond of agreement between the researcher and that
committee.
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Importance of research proposal
It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the research project
It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow.
It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding the researcher while conducting the study. It
reduces the probability of costly mistake.
Preparation of a full-fledged proposal is not a one-time endeavor. But, is the result of continuous
modification and amendment through discussion with experts in the field.
3.3. General Format of Research Proposal
Components of the Research Proposal
1. The Title
2. Introduction
 Background of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Objectives of the study
 Significance of the study
 Scope of the Study
 Limitations of the study
3. Review of Related Literature
 Theoretical literature review
 Empirical literature review
 Conceptual framework
4. Methodology
a) Research Design
b) Research approach
c) Source of data
d) Type of data (primary or secondary or both)
e) Population
f) Method of sampling
g) Procedures for determination of sample size
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h) Methodology of data collection

i) Variables and data sources
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j) Methods of Data Analysis
5. Bibliography/References
6. Time Schedule
7. Budget Schedule
1. The Title
It should give sufficient information about the nature of study. The title should not be too lengthy. It
should be specific to the area of study. The title should not be burdened by pompous words and
the language in the title should be professional.
2. Introduction
2.1. Background information
 Consist background information to the problem.
 Possible to be preceded by literature
 This covers the research gap or justification of the problem
2.2 Problem statement
 clear problem statement in one paragraph or in one sentence should be shown at the
end of the background information or under its own subtitle
2.3. Objectives and Research Questions
 consists clear research goal (what to attain if the problem is solved)
Develops key research questions that show the major building blocks of the problem statement that
need answer in your research
2.4. Delimitations of the Study/Scope of the study
 Delimiting research is giving full disclosure of what the researcher intends to do or does
not intend to do.
 When a researcher is able to set the scope of the study, one can make the research manageable. At
the same time, this can lead to the choice of research method to employ.
2.5. Significance of the study
 The justification for the need of the research.
 The benefit you get as a researcher
 How the results of the study will be useful to the beneficiaries.
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3. Review of Related Literature

 Discusses the theoretical and empirical framework
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 Provides information about what was done, how it was done, and what results were gathered.
 Defines the technical terms and phrases that operationalise the concepts and that have
special meanings.
 Summary of the literature that contains the major issues that you will adapt to your
research or that you will use in your research.
Researchers ask the following questions before they attempt any research
 What types of research has been done in the area?
 What has been found in previous studies?
 What suggestions do other researchers make for further study?
 What has not been investigated?
 How can the proposed study add to our knowledge of the area?
 What research methods were used in previous studies?
Answers to these questions will usually help develop major hypothesis that may serve as
answers to research questions.
4. Methodology: can have the following major subsections
4.1. Introduction: Describing the important variables (most of the time a continuation of
the conclusion part of your literature),
4.2. Types and sources of data for analyzing these variables: Type of data are whether
primary data or secondary data or both to be collected. Sources of data indicate from
where to obtain the data, Explain also the data collection methods with their justifications
4.3. Population, population size, sampling frames, the sample size and the steps you
followed to determine the sample size
4.4. Procedures for collecting Data: details about sampling and data collection procedures
by identifying and analyzing the candidate sample designs and the reasons why you
select a particular sample design for your research.
4.5. Methods of Data Analysis: Analysis of data can be either using descriptive Statistics,
testing hypotheses using (inferential Statistics. This part should contain descriptive,
pictorial or mathematical models that are related to the hypothesis and that demonstrate
how the variables are related to each other.
5. Bibliography/References: You should include a short list of references used in the
proposal.
6. Time Schedule
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7. Budget Schedule/financial breakdown/

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