Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES

• Introduction to Semiconductor devices

• P-N junction
• Forward and Reverse biasing
• VI characteristics of p-n junction
• Different Types of diodes: Zener diode, Schottky
diode
• Applications of diode: rectifiers, clippers and
clampers.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Electronic components like diodes,
transistors, Field Effect Transistors [FETs],
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers [SCRs], Light
Emitting Diodes [LEDs] etc., are made up of
Semiconductor materials.
• Electronic devices consists of ICs [integrated
circuits] which have several diodes,
transistors, resistors, capacitors etc.,
mounted on a single chip.
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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES

• Based on the electrical ✓ Conductors: Gold, Silver,

Copper, Aluminium etc., are
conduction, materials are
having large number of free
classified into three electrons which are
categories: responsible for the current in
• Conductors these materials. These are
known as conductors.
• Insulators
✓ Insulators: Rubber, Ceramic,
• Semiconductors wood, paper, Bakelite, mica,
glass etc., have no free
electrons therefore no current
in these materials. These are
called Insulators.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES

• Semiconductors: Carbon (C),

Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) etc.,
bind (or bond) themselves by
sharing electrons of their
outermost shell. This type of
binding is known as covalent bond.
• At absolute zero degree
temperature these materials
behave like insulators.
• However, with increase of
temperature or application of
voltage, some electrons become
free electrons by breaking away
from their covalent bonds and
participate in electrical conduction.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Intrinsic Semiconductors:
• A large number of such electron hole
• A semiconductor material, Silicon or pairs are produced due to rise in
germanium where the four valance temperature of semiconductor.
electrons are bound to their respective
atoms and are not free to conduct electric • The free electrons can get attracted
current are called intrinsic, or pure by the holes created by another
semiconductors. electrons and combine with those
holes.
• When the temperature of the crystal is
raised the heat energy enables the • This merging of free electrons and
valance electrons to gain sufficient energy holes is called recombination.
to break away from the bond and become • This recombination process is so
free electrons. quick and time taken is of the order
• Hence, when an electron becomes free, it of nanoseconds.
leaves a vacant space called a hole. • Thus pure silicon or germanium is
• That is for every free electron there will not of much use in electronics
be a corresponding hole produced, which except for the manufacturing of
is called electron-hole pair. heat or light sensitive resistance.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Extrinsic Semiconductors:
• The conductivity of semiconductor • Depending upon the type of
materials can be increased by impurity added, that is a
adding some amount of another trivalent or pentavalent,
material having either three or five extrinsic semiconductors are
valence electrons. divided into two categories:
• Adding such materials with the ➢ p-type semiconductor or
pure semiconductor is called ➢ n-type semiconductors
doping.
• The doped intrinsic semiconductor • These two types of
is called extrinsic semiconductors. semiconductors when joined
together form a p-n junction
• The doping material that is added which is the basis of working
to a pure semiconductor is also of all the electronic devices.
called as impurity.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• n-Type Semiconductors:
• n-Type Semiconductor is formed by doping
a pure silicon or germanium crystal with a
small percentage of pentavalent impurity
like Antimony, arsenic and phosphorous.
• As shown in the figure four out of five
valence electrons of Antimony form
covalent bonds with four germanium atoms
with one electron left free. Thus for each
Antimony atom there will be one free
electron.
• n-type semiconductor is electrically neutral,
since the total number of electrons in the
orbits is equal to the total number of
protons in the nucleus of the atoms.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• n-Type Semiconductors:
• The amount of impurity material added is
small, but the total number of atoms being
large produced a large number of free
electrons available in the n-type
semiconductor.
• Hence in n-type semiconductors majority
charge carriers are electrons.
• When the temperature is raised, there will
be creation of electron-hole pairs.
• These thermally created holes will be the
minority charge carriers, because they are
small in numbers.
• The impurities added are called donor
impurities, since they donate electrons.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• p-Type Semiconductors:
• P-Type Semiconductors are formed when
silicon or germanium crystal is doped with
a small percentage of trivalent impurity like
aluminium, boron, gallium or indium.
• As shown in the figure each boron atom is
making covalent bonds with four
neighbouring Si atoms.
• There will be shortage of one electron in
the covalent bonds and is called hole.
Hence each boron atom creates one hole.
• P-type semiconductor is electrically neutral,
since the total number of electrons in the
orbits is equal to the total number of
protons in the nucleus of the atoms.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• p-Type Semiconductors:
• The amount of impurity material added is
small, but the total number of atoms being
large produced a large number of holes in
the crystal.
• Hence in P-type semiconductors majority
charge carriers are holes.
• When the temperature is raised, there will
be creation of electron-hole pairs.
• These thermally created electrons will be
the minority charge carriers, because they
are small in numbers.
• The impurities added are called acceptor
impurities, since they accept electrons.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Formation of P-N Junction:
• An n-type semiconductor can be
represented by positive donor impurities
and electrons as majority charge carriers.
• A p-type semiconductor can be represented
by negative acceptor ions and holes as
majority charge carriers.
• When an electron moves out of an atom,
the atom becomes immobile positively
charged ion.
• Similarly addition of electron in a hole
makes an atom a negatively charged
immobile ion.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Formation of P-N Junction: Continuation
• When a p-type semiconductor is joined with n-type semiconductor then a
junction called p-n junction is formed.
• At the p-n junction there will be a tendency of the free electrons from n-type
material to diffuse [move from high concentration area to low concentration area] into the p-
side and combine with holes nearest to the junction.
• The free electron crossing over from n-side to p-side will leave behind
positive immobile ions on the n-side of the junction.
• The electrons crossing over the junction will occupy the holes in the p-type
material making the atoms negatively charged immobile ions.
• Thus we see that (figure) on one side of the junction there is accumulation
of –ve ions, and on the other side there is accumulation of +ve ions.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Formation of P-N Junction: Continuation
• Negative ions created on the p-side acquire a negative voltage and the
positive ions created on the n-side acquire positive voltage.
• The –ve voltage on the p-side will repel further diffusion of electrons from n-
side. Similarly the +ve voltage on the n-side will repel further diffusion of
holes from p-side.
• The barrier voltage depends up on the amount of doping, charge carriers,
and the junction temperature.
• For germanium the barrier voltage is 0.3V and for silicon the barrier voltage
is 0.7V at room Temperature (250C).
• The shaded portion on either side of the junction is devoid of any electron or
hole. This region is depleted of any charge carrier and hence is called
depletion region.

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 Biasing of Diode
Forward bias: p-n junction Forward Bias – Depletion Layer Reduced

✓ Biasing means applying a potential difference across the p-n junction diode.
✓ In forward biasing, P side is connected with positive terminal and n-side is connected with
negative terminal of the battery.
✓ When p-n junction diode is forward biased, the positive terminal of the battery will repel
the holes of p-side and negative terminal of the battery will repel the electrons of the n-
side. Because of this, the width of the depletion layer gradually decreases with increase in
the biasing voltage.
✓ At a particular biasing voltage, the depletion layer will disappear, which means applied
voltage is equal to the barrier potential difference.

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 Biasing of Diode
V – I Characteristics: FB V – I characteristics: FB
• For a particular biasing voltage, the
depletion layer will disappear, at this point
the applied voltage is equal to the barrier
potential difference.
• This potential is 0.3 V for germanium and 0.7
V for silicon.
• Now, the majority charge carriers starts
drifting across the p-n junction establishing a
forward current to flow as shown.
• From the graph, v/i can be found which
will be the dynamic resistance offered by the
p-n junction diode.

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 Biasing of Diode
Reverse bias: p-n junction Reverse Bias – Depletion Layer Increased

✓ In Reverse biasing, P side is connected with negative terminal and n-side is connected with
positive terminal of the battery.
✓ When p-n junction diode is reverse biased, the positive terminal of the battery will attract
the electrons of n-side and negative terminal of the battery will attract the holes of the p-
side. Because of this, the width of the depletion layer gradually increases with increase in
the biasing voltage. Hence the possibility of majority charge carrier crossing the depletion
layer becomes zero.

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 Biasing of Diode
V – I Characteristics: RB V – I characteristics: RB

• V - I characteristics of diode are shown

in figure.
• There is a very small reverse saturation
current, this negligible current is due to
the small number of minority charge
carriers. Very small voltage is required
to this current.
• Any further increase in voltage does not
increase the negligible small reverse
current produced. That’s why this
current is called reverse saturation
current.

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 Zener Diode
Zener Diode Zener Diode
• A semiconductor diode is simply a p-n junction diode
which offers very low resistance when forward biased
and very high resistance in reverse biased.
• In a p-n junction diode, p-side and n-side are lightly
doped.
• Zener diode is a p-n junction diode in which p-side and n-
side are heavily doped.
• Zener diode allows current flow in the forward direction
as an ordinary diode and also it allows current flow in the
reverse direction at a certain reverse voltage, called
Zener breakdown voltage.
• Zener diode is diode with a sharp breakdown voltage.
This can be achieved with suitable doping.
• In Zener diode depletion region is smaller than simple p-n
junction diode.

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 Zener Diode
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
• Because of the narrow width of the • A sufficient reverse voltage can
increase the kinetic energy of the
depletion layer and the application of minority charge carriers, which are
reverse voltage, the electric field at responsible for the reverse saturation
the depletion layer will be very high. current.
• Due to this very strong electric field • Now these minority charge carriers
due to high kinetic energy can
electrons can tunnel through the knockout the electrons from the
depletion region. Hence there will be atoms of semiconductor in the
sudden raise in the flow of current at depletion region creating an
this voltage. avalanche of free electrons.
• This is called ionization by collision.
• This kind of break down due to the
• The breakdown occuring this way is
creation of strong electric field called avalanche breakdown.
(V/m) is called Zener Breakdown.

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 Zener Diode
V-I characteristics – Zener diode V-I characteristics – Zener diode
• The circuit connections for the zener
diode reverse biasing is shown in the
figure.
• A resistance is connected to limit the
current beyond the normal current
carrying capacity.
• A constant voltage is available across
the zener diode, even if the input
voltage changes.

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 Zener Diode as voltage regulator
Voltage Regulator – Zener diode Voltage Regulator – Zener diode

• A voltage regulator maintains nearly constant

voltage output across the load over a wide range of
variation of load current.
• The circuit diagram for voltage regulator circuit has
been shown in the figure.
• In this the zener diode has been reverse biased.
• When the voltage, V is more than the zener
breakdown, the current through zener will be high
because the resistance offered by zener is very
much low, therefore the current through the
resistor R will also increase. Due to this the
potential drop across R will be equal to “V-Vz”.
• Therefore Vz will always appear across zener diode.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES

• Rectifiers:

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Rectifiers:
• A rectifier is a device that converts AC supply into DC using
diodes.
• All electronic circuits require low dc voltages for their operation.
• Rectification can be done by half wave or full wave rectifier
circuits.
• The supply voltage available from the ac mains is 230 V and 50
Hz.
• A rectifier first step downs the ac voltage to the required value
using a step down transformer.
• Diodes are used in Half wave and full wave rectifier circuits to
convert AC into DC.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Half Wave Rectifier:
• A half wave rectifier circuit consists of a
transformer, a diode, and a load
represented by a resistor, as shown in
the figure.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Half Wave Rectifier:
• A half wave rectifier circuit consists of a
transformer, a diode, and a load
represented by a resistor, as shown in
the figure.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Full Wave Rectifier:
• A Full wave rectifier circuit consists of a
transformer, two diodes, and a center
tapped load represented by a resistor,
as shown in the figure.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:
• A Full wave bridge rectifier circuit
consists of a transformer, four diodes,
and a load represented by a resistor, as
shown in the figure.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
Half Wave Rectifier with capacitor (Smoother) :
Capacitor will be charged to (vp– 0.7v)
A half wave rectifier with Capacitor (smoother) circuit is shown in figure.
The capacitor is connected in parallel to Load Resistance next to the diode When input reduces to < (vp– 0.7v), Diode offs,
Capacitor starts discharging. Cycle repeats.

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES

Half Wave Rectifier with capacitor (Smoother) : Again Capacitor will be charged to (vp– 0.7v)
Diode stays off till source voltage becomes greater than Vc When input reduces to < (vp– 0.7v), Diode offs, Capacitor starts
Diode once again becomes on and then capacitor starts charging. discharging

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 Module 3: SEMICONDUCTORS and DIODES
• Half Wave Rectifier with capacitor
(Smoother) :
• A half wave rectifier with Capacitor
(smoother) circuit is shown in figure.
• The capacitor is connected in parallel to
Load Resistance next to the diode

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 Positive Series Clipper

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 Positive Shunt Clipper

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 Negative series Clipper

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 Negative shunt Clipper

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 Biased Positive Clipper

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 Biased Negative Clipper

Output Waveform??

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 Different Clipping Circuits -1

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 Different Clipping Circuits -2

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 Different Clipping Circuits -3

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 Clipper Circuits

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 Clipper circuit

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 Combination Clipper circuit

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 Clamping circuits
• A clamping circuit, adds a dc component to
the ac signal in either direction. A typical
clamping circuit consists of a capacitor and a
diode, a load resistance.
• As shown in the figure, if we add ‘+Vm’ dc to
the input signal, Vi=Vm Sint; the equation of
the resultant will be V = Vm + Vm Sint.
• That is the clamper circuit has added a dc
voltage of ‘+Vm’ to the signal and pushed the
signal upwards with out changing its wave
shape. This is called positive clamper.
• If negative dc voltage is added then the signal
would be brought downwards and such a
clamper is called negative clamper.

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 Negative Clamping circuit
• Let us assume the input voltage wave shape is a square
wave.
• During the +ve half cycle of the input voltage the diode
(ideal) is forward biased and will work like a short circuit.
• Now the capacitor will be charged to input voltage level.
Hence the voltage across the diode and across the load
resistance will be zero.

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 Negative Clamping circuit
• During the -ve half cycle of the input voltage the diode (ideal) is
reverse biased and will now work like a open circuit, no current will
flow.
• Now, the Out put voltage across the load resistance will be:
• Vo= – Vi – Vc= -2Vi
• This shows that the input signal is negatively clamped by a dc
voltage equal to the magnitude of the input voltage.

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