i

HYDROLOGY & WATER

RESOURCES ENGINEERING

Authors
Dr. M. L. KANSAL
Professor (HAG)
Department of Water Resources Development & Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, ROORKEE 247 667
&
P. K. Agarwal
Former Scientist B
National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee, ROORKEE 247 667

Reviewer
Dr. Manish Kumar Goyal
Professor
Indian Institute of Technology Indore, INDORE 453552

All India Council for Technical Education

Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj,
New Delhi, 110070

ii
BOOK AUTHOR DETAIL

Dr. Mitthan Lal Kansal, Professor (HAG), Department of Water Resources Development & Management, Indian
Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand (India)
Email ID: mlk@wr.iitr.ac.in
Pushpendra Kumar Agarwal, Former Scientist B, National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667,
Uttarakhand (India)
Email ID: agarwalpk62@gmail.com

BOOK REVIEWER DETAIL

Dr. Manish Kumar Goyal, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Indore,
Indore 453552, Madhya Pradesh (India)
Email ID: mkgoyal@iiti.ac.in

BOOK COORDINATOR (S) – English Version

1. Dr. Sunil Luthra, Director, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE),
New Delhi, India.
Email ID: directortlb@aicte-india.org
2. Sanjoy Das, Assistant Director, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE), New Delhi, India.
Email ID: ad2tlb@aicte-india.org
3. Reena Sharma, Hindi Officer, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education
(AICTE), New Delhi, India.
Email ID: hindiofficer@aicte-india.org
4. Avdesh Kumar, JHT, Training and Learning Bureau, All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE),
New Delhi, India.
Email ID: avdeshkumar@aicte-india.org
December, 2024
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
ISBN: 978-93-6027-213-5

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE).
Further information about All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) courses may be obtained from the
Council Office at Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070.
Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.

Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA

4.0)
Disclaimer: The website links provided by the author in this book are placed for informational, educational &
reference purposes only. The Publisher do not endorse these website links or the views of the speaker/content of
the said weblinks. In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be settled under Delhi Jurisdiction only.

iii
iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. T. G. Sitharam, Chairman;
Dr. Abhay Jere, Vice-Chairman; Prof. Rajiv Kumar, Member-Secretary, Dr. Sunil Luthra, Director,
and Reena Sharma, Hindi Officer Training and Learning Bureau for their planning to publish the
books on Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering.

We sincerely acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewer Prof. (Dr.) Manish Kumar
Goyal, Indian Institute of Technology, Indore.

We would also like to acknowledge the reference books that have been instrumental in the
preparation of this book: "Engineering Hydrology” by K Subramanya; “Hydrology & Water
Resources Engineering” by S K Garg; “Hydrology and Water Resources of India” by S K Jain, P K
Agarwal, and V P Singh; "Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering " by G L Asawa; “Irrigation
and Water Power Engineering” by B C Punmia and Pande B Lal.

We are also thankful to our family, as without their support, this work would not have come to
fruition. Additionally, we extend our gratitude to our students and colleagues, over the years, who
have made significant contributions that have enriched our experience and expertise in this subject.
We are immensely grateful for their valuable input for making this book students’ friendly and giving
a better shape in an artistic manner. The authors are thankful to the Ph.D. students Ms. Neenu, Ms.
Alka, Dr. Sacchidanand Singh, and Mr. Lingaraj Dhal at WRDM and to Ms. Pallavi and Saumya
Agarwal for helping in preparing the manuscript of the book. The authors are also thankful to Dr.
Sudhasil Bose, Research Associate for carrying out the proof reading.

This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and authors who shared
their opinion and thought to further develop engineering education in our country.
Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field whose published
books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references, and other valuable information
enriched us at the time of writing the book.

Dr. M L Kansal
P K Agarwal

v
 PREFACE
Water is the necessity for the survival of life. It plays an important role in meeting with the several
sustainable development goals. The basic concepts of hydrology and its input towards the water
resources development and management are key to understand its role towards the societal
sustainable development. In the civil engineering curriculum, hydrology and water resources
engineering occupies an important position.
This book includes the topics recommended by AICTE, in a very systematic and orderly manner and
serves as a comprehensive guide to understand the hydrological principles, concepts, and
applications in the water resources engineering. Whether you are a student embarking on a journey
of learning or a professional seeking to refresh your knowledge, this book is designed to provide you
with a solid foundation in this fascinating field.
In this book, we will embark on a journey that will take us through the complexities of surface and
sub-surface water resources engineering. Throughout the modules, we will emphasize a hands-on
approach to learning. We will provide practical examples, step-by-step explanations, and
opportunities for you to apply your knowledge through exercises and projects. We will not only focus
on the theoretical aspects of hydrology and water resources engineering but also explore its practical
applications. As you progress through this book, we encourage you to actively engage with the
material, ask questions, and seek deeper understanding. Sometimes, it may be challenging, but with
perseverance and practice, you will gain the necessary skills to analyse, design, and troubleshoot
with confidence.
We would like to express our gratitude to the countless researchers, educators, and engineers who
have contributed to the field of Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering over the years. Their
collective efforts have paved the way for the advancements we witness today. We hope that this book
will serve as a tribute to their contributions and inspire you to further explore the world of water
resources engineering.
We sincerely hope that this book will be a valuable resource in your journey of learning and
discovery.
Happy reading! Happy Learning!
Dr. M L Kansal
P K Agarwal

vi
 OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION
For the implementation of an outcome-based education the first requirement is to develop an
outcome-based curriculum and incorporate an outcome-based assessment in the education system. By
going through outcome-based assessments, evaluators will be able to evaluate whether the students
have achieved the outlined standard, as well as specific and measurable outcomes. With the proper
incorporation of outcome-based education, there will be a definite commitment to achieve a minimum
standard for all learners without giving up at any level. At the end of the program running with the aid
of outcome-based education, a student will be able to arrive at the following outcomes:

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to solve complex engineering problems.

PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems, reaching substantiated conclusions using the first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate public health
and safety and cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods, including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.

PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools, including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.

PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues, and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.

PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of professional engineering solutions
in societal and environmental contexts and demonstrate the knowledge of and need for sustainable
development.

PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics, responsibilities, and norms
of engineering practice.

vii
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, as well as in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.

PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work as a member and leader in a team, as
well as to manage projects and multidisciplinary environments.

PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

viii
 COURSE OUTCOMES
After completion of the course, the students will be able to:
CO-1: Understand the fundamentals of the hydrology cycle, water-budget and water balance,
applications in engineering and socially relevant problems.
CO-2: Understand the different forms of precipitation, mean precipitation over an area, Depth-area-
duration relationship, maximum intensity/ depth-duration-frequency relationship, and
Probable Maximum Precipitation to design various hydrological problems.
CO-3: Learn about the abstractions from precipitation through various processes like evaporation,
evapotranspiration, interception, depression storages, and infiltration. Evaporation from
reservoirs, potential and actual evapotranspiration, measurement of infiltration, and
infiltration indices.
CO-4: Learn about the Rainfall-runoff process and modelling, flow duration, flow-mass curves,
hydrograph, base flow separation, unit hydrograph, factors affecting unit hydrograph, flood
hydrograph, and environmental flow.
CO-5: Understand the groundwater and well hydrology, aquifer properties, equilibrium equations
for confined and unconfined aquifers, and various aquifer tests.
CO-6: Learn about various water usage methods, such as water for energy production, agriculture,
flood control, water supply, etc. Water requirements for crops, quality of irrigation water,
soil-water relationship, methods of irrigation, etc.
CO-7: Learn about the canals as a system for water distribution, alignment of canals, canal losses,
design of canals, Theories of regime channels, canal outlets, water logging and remedial
measures like canal lining drainage of irrigation areas.
CO-8: Learn about the dams and spillways, types of dams like gravity, embankment, and arch
dams, control of seepage, components of the spillway, types of reservoirs, reservoir
regulations, sedimentation, selection of suitable sites for dams.

ix
 Course Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes
Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO- 4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12

CO-1 3 3 - - - - - - - - - 1
CO-2 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 - - 2 - -
CO-3 3 3 3 3 - 2 2 - - - - 1
CO-4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 - - 2 - -
CO-5 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 - - - - 1
CO-6 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 - - 2 1 3
CO-7 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 - - 2 1 3
CO-8 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 - - 2 1 3

x
 GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS
To implement outcome-based education (OBE), the knowledge level and skill set of the students
should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper implementation of
OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in the OBE system may be as
follows:
● Within reasonable constraints, they should manoeuvre time to the best advantage of all
students.
● They should assess the students only upon certain defined criteria without considering any
other potential ineligibility to discriminate against them.
● They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before they
leave the institute.
● They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with quality knowledge as well as
competence after they finish their education.
● They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
● They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate newer
approaches.
● They should follow Bloom's taxonomy in every part of the assessment.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Students should be Possible Mode of
Level
Check able to Assessment
Students’ ability to
Create Design or create Mini project
create
Students’ ability to
Evaluate Argue or defend Assignment
justify
Students’ ability to Differentiate or
Analyze Project/ Lab. methodology
distinguish distinguish
Students’ ability to Operate or Technical presentation/
Apply
use information demonstrate Demonstration
Students’ ability to
Understand Explain or classify Presentation/ Seminar
explain the ideas
Students’ ability to
Remember Define or recall Quiz
recall (or remember)

xi
 GUIDELINES FOR STUDENTS
Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not
limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
● Students should be aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and every course.
● Students should be aware of each CO before the start of the course.
● Students should be aware of each PO before the start of the programme.
● Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
● Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real-life
consequences.
● Students should be aware of their competency at every level of OBE.

xii
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
A Average surface area of the lake/reservoir
Abstraction for irrigation, water supply and industrial use, inclusive of
Ab
evaporation losses
AASW Actual available soil-water at time t over the root depth
AD Anno Domini
AET Actual evapotranspiration
AM Before midday
AMC Antecedent moisture condition
B Drainage Factor
BC Before Christ
BWR Basic water requirement
c1 Pressure coefficient
°C Celsius
C Constant
C Hydraulic Resistance
C Unit cohesion
Cp Pan coefficient
Ct A regional constant representing watershed slope and storage
Cv Coefficient of variation of the rainfall values (in %)
CCA Cultivable Command Area
CM Centimeter
CN Curve Number
CSP Concentrating solar power
CVR Critical velocity ratio
d Root zone depth

xiii
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
D Duty of water
D Hydraulic diffusivity
D Initial artesian pressure at the bottom of the aquifer
Da Volume of surface retention storage
ea Actual vapour pressure in the air
ew Saturation vapour pressure at the water temperature
E Net evaporation losses
Ea Parameter comprising wind velocity and saturation deficit
Eact Actual evapotranspiration
Epm Pan evaporation loss
EL Rate of evaporation
Ex Net export of water from the basin
EFs Environmental flows
ELOHA Ecological limits of hydrological abstractions
ENSO El Niño-Southern Oscillation
ET evapotranspiration
ET0 Reference Crop Evapotranspiration
f Actual rate of infiltration
°F Fahrenheit
F A sum of monthly consumption uses factors
FC Field capacity
FDCs Flow-duration curves
f(u) Correction function for wind speed
fp Infiltration capacity
g Acceleration due to gravity
G Groundwater flow
Go Sub-surface outflow

xiv
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
GCA Gross Command Area
GIS Geographic Information System
GW Groundwater
ℎ Hydraulic head causing the flow/ Depth of reservoir.
hw Height of the wave
hw Artesian pressure in the well
H Total height of confined aquifer
Ha Sensible heat transfers from water's surface to the atmosphere
Hb Long-wave back radiation from a water body.
He Heat energy lost during evaporation.
Hg Heat flux into the earth
Hi Advected energy
HL Difference of water levels in the two observation wells

Hn Net thermal energy derived from the surface of the water

Hs heat retained in a water body
ΣH Driving shear forces/ resultant horizontal forces
HEC-HMS Hydrologic Engineering Centre-Hydrologic Modelling System
HSG Hydrologic Soil Group
i Intensity of rainfall
I Inflow

I Mean inflow into the lake/reservoir for the time interval ∆t

Ia Initial losses
Ii Interception loss
in inches
IOD Indian Ocean Dipole
IDF Intensity-duration-frequency curves

xv
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
IMD India Meteorological Department
IS Indian standards
k Coefficient of permeability/ Hydraulic conductivity
K Coefficient for a given region
Kh Horton’s decay coefficient
Ki Ratio of vegetal surface area to its projected area
KM Meyer’s coefficient (0.36 for deep and 0.50 for shallow water)
Kr Recession constant dependent upon the time and less than unity
𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 Coefficients of permeability in the 𝑥𝑥 direction
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 Coefficients of permeability in the 𝑦𝑦 direction
km3 Cubic kilometer
L Abstraction losses
L Latent heat of evaporation
L Leakage Factor of a leaky aquifer
Lca Distance from the study point to the basin centroid
LU/LC Land Use and Land Cover
m meter
m rank order for the probability of exceedance
m2 Square meter
m3/s Cumec
Ma Original slope of the mass curve
Mc Corrected slope of the double-mass curve
MASW Total available soil water content above the root depth
M km 2
Million square kilometers
mm Millimeter
M m2 Million square meters
n Actual duration of bright sunshine hours

xvi
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
n Rugosity coefficient
n Total number of flow events
N Optimal number of Rain gauge stations
N Time in days from the hydrograph peak
NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service
O Outflow

O Mean outflow from the lake/reservoir for the time interval ∆t

pa Average barometric pressure
P Exceedance probability
P Precipitation
P̅ Mean precipitation over the catchment area
Pcx Corrected precipitation at station X for any time period t
Pe Hydrodynamic earthquake pressure normal to the face
Po Maximum value of rainfall in cm at the center of storm
∑Pav Accumulated precipitation of the average of the base station
∑Px Cumulative precipitation
PET Potential evapotranspiration
PWP Permanent wilting point
Q Constant at steady conditions
Qo Discharge at start of time period
Q Design discharge/ Volume of Surface Runoff/Pumping rate of groundwater
𝑄𝑄� Mean outflow rate from the lake/reservoir
Qps Peak discharge of a unit hydrograph
Qs Annual siltation rate
Qt Discharge at end of time t
r Reflection coefficient

xvii
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
r Distance from the pumping well to the observation well
rw Radius of the well
R Runoff
Rn Net Radiance flux
RN Natural runoff volume in time Δt
Ro Observed runoff volume in time Δt at the terminal site
Rs Surface runoff
RS Remote sensing
S Channel's slope
S Coefficient of Storage or Storability
S Distance between two observation wells
S Potential maximum retention
S Sedimentation rate
ΔS Change in storage
sₐ drawdown in the aquifer at the effective radius of the pumping well
Si Interception storage
Sg Water storage as Groundwater
Sr Specific retention
Ss Surface water storage/Specific storage
Sw Storage coefficient for a water table aquifer/well loss
Sy Specific yield of the aquifer
SCS Soil conservation service
SCS-CN Soil conservation service-curve number
SW Surface water
SWAT Soil and Water Assessment Tool
t Base of natural logarithm
T Transpiration
xviii
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
T Transmissivity
t0 Time at the point where the straight line intersects the zero-drawdown line
Ta Air temperature in degrees Celsius
tc Time at which steady-shape conditions develop
te Rainfall excess duration
tp Duration of peak hydrograph from midpoint of hourly rainfall
Tw Water surface temperature in degrees Celsius
TL Transpiration loss
Δt Time interval
𝑋𝑋� Average precipitation
Xi Magnitude of precipitation in the ith station
𝑢𝑢 Velocity component in the 𝑥𝑥 direction
u9 Monthly average velocity at about 9 meter above the earth
U Total Consumptive use
UH Unit Hydrograph method
USGS United States Geological Survey
𝑣𝑣 Velocity component in the 𝑦𝑦 direction
V Mean velocity of flow
V0 total volume of aquifer
Volume diverted flow of the stream for irrigation, domestic water supply and
Vd
industrial use
VD The demanded volume of water
VE Water lost in evaporation
Vo Critical velocity
Vr Volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and industrial use
VS Supplied volume of water
Vig Groundwater inflow

xix
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
Vis Surface inflow into the lake
Vog Seepage outflow
Vos Surface outflow from the lake
Vv Volume of voids
W Weight of the structure
W Mean infiltration rate
Soil moisture difference content at the root zone at the beginning and end of
Wm
plant growth.
Wt Irrigation Water Supply
WG Working Group
ΣW Total vertical forces acting on the plane
Vertical distance from the reservoir surface to the elevation under
y
consideration,
αh Horizontal acceleration factor
δe Vapor pressure deficit
𝜎𝜎 Stefan-Boltzmann coefficient = 2.01 × 109 mm/day
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚−1 Standard deviation
ρ Water density
𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 Bulk density
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 Density of mineral particles
µ Internal friction coefficient
μ Co-efficient of viscosity
∑ Degree of error to determine the estimate of mean rainfall
∈𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 Predicted error (%)) in the estimation of average precipitation
𝛾𝛾 psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm of mercury/°C
γ Soil density
γ Specific weight of the fluid
xx
Abbreviation
Description
/ Symbol
Δ Delta
λ Constant ranging from 0.1 to 0.4

xxi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.1 Catchment area of a river 5
Fig. 1.2: Hydrological Cycle 6
Fig. 1.3: Horton's depiction of the water cycle 7
Fig. 2.1: Dates on which the nationwide monsoon begins 44
Fig. 2.2: Normal dates of withdrawal of monsoon 45
Fig. 2.3: Average annual rainfall over India 47
Fig. 2.4: Non-recording rain gauge (syphon’s rain gauge) 49
Fig. 2.5: Estimation of missing rainfall data 56
Fig. 2.6: Double-mass curve 58
Fig. 2.7: Double mass curve of yearly rainfall at station M 61
Fig. 2.8: Mass Curve of rainfall 62
Fig. 2.9: Hyetograph of a storm 62
Fig. 2.10: Thiessen polygon 64
Fig. 2.11: Thiessen polygons 65
Fig. 2.12: Isohyets of a storm 67
Fig. 2.13: Typical DAD curve 70
Fig. 2.14: Streamflow distribution 71
Fig. 2.15: Depth-Area-Duration frequency curves 72
Fig. 2.16: Maximum Depth-Duration Curve 74
Fig. 2.17: Maximum Depth-Duration-Frequency Curves 75
Fig. 3.1:U.S. Class A Evaporation Pan 96
Fig. 3.2: ISI Evaporation Pan 96
Fig. 3.3: Colorado Sunken Pan Evaporimeter 97
Fig. 3.4: Energy Balance in a Water Body 104
Fig. 3.5: Variation of AET 113
Fig. 3.6 (a): Annual PET (cm) over India, (b): Monthly Variation of PET (mm) 122
Fig. 3.7: Typical Interception Loss Curve 127
Fig. 3.8: Infiltration Capacity Variation 131
xxii
Fig. 3.9: Section view of double-ring infiltrometer. 134
Fig. 3.10: Rainfall simulator (Source: I. S. Mcqueen, 1963) 135
Fig. 3.11: Infiltration Capacity and Cumulative Infiltration Capacity Curves 136
Fig. 3.12: Φ-index. (Source: Subramanya, 2006) 140
Fig. 4.1: Different routes of runoff 155
Fig. 4.2: Perennial Stream 159
Fig. 4.3 (a). Fan-shaped catchment (b) Leaf-shaped catchment 162
Fig. 4.4: Influent stream 166
Fig. 4.5: Hydrograph of an ephemeral stream 166
Fig. 4.6: Effluent stream 167
Fig. 4.7: Effect of catchment shape on the hydrograph 168
Fig. 4.8: Role of drainage density on the hydrograph 169
Fig. 4.9: Base flow separation based upon area 173
Fig. 4.10: Three-component hydrograph separation 175
Fig. 4.11: Determination of effective rainfall from rainfall-runoff 176
Fig. 4.12: SCS-Runoff Curve Number Method 191
Fig. 4.13: A typical Flow Duration Curve 193
Fig. 4.14: A typical Flow-Mass Curve 197
Fig. 5.1: Classification and distribution of subsurface water. 226
Fig. 5.2: Type of Aquifers. 229
Fig. 5.3: Pore space in various geologic formations. 230
Fig. 5.4: Unconfined aquifer case for derivation of Thiem’s formula. 241
Fig. 5.5: Drawdown curve in a confined aquifer. 243
Fig. 5.6: Unconfined aquifer cases for derivation of Dupuit's formula. 244
Fig. 5.7: Confined aquifer case for derivation of Dupuit's formula. 245
Fig. 5.8: Flow lines in a well fully and partially penetrating the aquifer. 247
Fig. 5.9: Spherical flow in a well. 248
Fig. 5.10: Well loss 252
Fig. 5.11: Giving values of C. 252
Fig. 5.12: Yield-drawdown curve. 253
xxiii
Fig. 5.13: Map of the aquifer test site. 257
Fig. 5.14: Change of water level in Well B. 258
Fig. 5.15 Theis type curve. 260
Fig. 5.16: Matching of type curve. 261
Fig. 5.17: Depression cone during pumping from a confined aquifer. 263
Fig. 5.18: Steady and unsteady state of depression cone during pumping from a confined aquifer. 264
Fig. 5.19: Steady state condition during pumping from a confined aquifer. 264
Fig. 5.20: Time drawdown graph. 265
Fig. 5.21: Cluster of pumping and observation wells in a confined aquifer. 266
Fig. 5.22: Distance-drawdown graph. 267
Fig. 5.23: Schematic diagram of pumping test of a confined aquifer. 269
Fig. 5.24: Time Drawdown curve. 270
Fig. 5.25: Pumping rate and drawdown relationship. 271
Fig. 6.1: (a) Tehri Dam; (b) Powerhouse of Tehri Hydropower Project 285
Fig. 6.2: Levees 291
Fig. 6.3: Dam & reservoir 291
Fig. 6.4: Flood wall 292
Fig. 6.5: Typical sketch of floodplain, levees and channel 293
Fig. 6.6: Flood management components and approaches (National Commission on Floods, 1980)295
Fig. 6.7: Triangular texture diagram 305
Fig. 6.8: Surface irrigation 315
Fig. 6.9: Drip/Trickle irrigation 318
Fig. 6.10: Sprinkler irrigation 319
Fig. 7.1: A Schematic layout of a typical canal system 337
Fig. 7.2: Various types of canal alignments. 341
Fig. 8.1: Typical Sections of Homogenous Earth Dam 398
Fig. 8.2: Typical Section of a Rock-fill Dam 398
Fig. 8.3: Flownet shape change on account of regions of different permeability 403
Fig. 8.4:Comparison of Flow net in the (I) Transformed and (II) Original Section. 405
Fig. 8.5: General Conditions for Line of Seepage 406
xxiv
Fig. 8.6: Embankment Dam with Kozeny’s Conditions 407
Fig. 8.7: Usual Loading Combination for a Gravity Dam 409
Fig. 8.8: Modification in Uplift Force due to Drain 411
Fig. 8.9:Variation of cm with Upstream Face Inclination 415
Fig. 8.10: Resultant Force on Gravity Dam 420
Fig. 8.11: Normal Stresses on the Base of a Gravity Dam 421
Fig. 8.12:Principal Stresses in a Gravity Dam 422
Fig. 8.13: Elementary profile of a Gravity Dam 425
Fig. 8.14:Arch Dam 428
Fig. 8.15: Buttress Dams 429
Fig. 8.16: Raising Height of Buttress Dam 430
Fig. 8.17: Flood Hydrograph of Inflow 439
Fig. 8.18: Mass Inflow Curve 439
Fig. 8.19: Demand Curves 440
Fig. 8.20: Determination of Reservoir Capacity 441
Fig. 8.21: Determination of Yield from Reservoir of Specified Capacity 442
Fig. 8.22: Brune's curve for trap efficiency 444
Fig. 8.23: Churchill curve for trap efficiency 445
Fig. 8.24: Generalised Sediment Deposition Zones in a Reservoir. 450
Fig. 8.25: Longitudinal Patterns of Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs. 451
Fig. 8.26: Sketch for Problems 1 and 2. 458
Fig. 8.27: Sketch for Problem 3. 458
Fig. 8.28: Sketch for Problem 5. 459
Fig. 8.29: Sketch for Problem 8. 460

xxv
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: World Water Reserves. 16
Table 1.2: Global water balance 17
Table 1.3: Water balance of the oceans 18
Table 1.4: Annual Water Balance of Continents 18
Table 2.1: Intensity of different types of rain 38
Table 2.2: Evaluation of Double-Mass curve of Example 2.4. 59
Table 2.3: Calculation of weighted rainfall by Thiessen polygon method 66
Table 3.1: Value of pan coefficients Cp in use for different pans 99
Table 3.2: Saturation vapour pressure of water 101
Table 3.3: Surface Areas and Capacities of Some Indian Reservoirs 109
Table 3.4: Mean monthly solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere (Ha), measured in
millimetres of evaporable water 117
Table 3.5: Mean monthly values of possible sunshine hours (N) 117
Table 3.6: Values of reflection coefficient (r ) 118
Table 3.7: Classification of soil based on the infiltration capacity 140
Table 4.1: Description of hydrologic groups 179
Table 4.2: Antecedent Moisture (AMC) for Obtaining the CN 180
Table 4.3: Curve numbers for three antecedent moisture conditions 181
Table 4.4: Runoff curve numbers for Hydrological cover conditions 184
Table 4.5: India’s water resources at a glance 200
Table 4.6: Surface water resources potential of river basins (km3) of India 201
Table 5.1 Selected values of W(u) for the given value of 1/u 258
Table 5.2: Drawdown of the water level in an observation well (r = 60.96 m) 274
Table 6.1: Basic water requirements for human needs 283
Table 7.1: Values of n for excavated open channels 361
Table 7.2: Values of Rugosity coefficient recommended by Buckley for alluvial channels 362
Table 7.3: Values of C.V.R. for different types of soils 365
Table 8.1: Thickness and size of dumped rock riprap 408
xxvi
Table 8.2: Observed trap efficiency of Indian reservoirs 444
Table 8.3: Coefficient of proportionality (K) 447
Table 8.4: Calculation of Trap Efficiency and Sediment Volume 452
Table 8.5: Elevation-Area-Capacity and Sediment Deposition Computation by Empirical Area
Reduction Method 454

xxvii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword iv
Acknowledgement v
Preface vi
Outcome Based Education vii
Course Outcomes ix
Guidelines for Teachers xi
Guidelines for Students xii
Abbreviations and Symbols xiii
List of Figures xxii
List of Tables xxvi

Unit-1: Introduction 1-35

Unit specifics 1
Rationale 1
Pre-requisite 1
Unit outcomes 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Hydrology 3
1.3 Catchment Area 3
1.4 Hydrological Cycle 5
1.5 The Water Balance Equation 9
1.6 World Water Balance 15
1.7 Global Freshwater Resources 18
1.8 History of Hydrology 20
1.9 Applications in Engineering 21
1.10 Sources of Data 23
Summary 25
Exercise 26
Know More 34
Bibliography 34
xxviii
Unit-2: Precipitation 36-91
Unit specifics 36
Rationale 36
Pre-requisite 36
Unit outcomes 36
2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Forms of Precipitation 38
2.3 Characteristics of Precipitation in India 41
2.4 Seasons in India 42
2.5 Monsoons 43
2.6 Annual Precipitation in India 45
2.7 Measurement of Precipitation 47
2.7.1 Measurement of rainfall 47
2.7.2 Measurement of snowfall 51
2.8 Measurement of Rainfall 52
2.8.1 Adequacy of Rain Gauge Stations 52
2.8.2 Preparation of data 54
2.8.3 Test for Consistency of Record 57
2.9 Presentation of Rainfall Data 61
2.9.1 Mass Curve of Rainfall 61
2.9.2 Hyetograph 62
2.9.3 Point Rainfall 63
2.10 Mean Precipitation Over an Area 63
2.10.1 Arithmetical-Mean technique 63
2.10.2 Thiessen Polygon Method 63
2.10.3 Isohyet Method 66
2.11 Storm Analysis 68
2.11.1 Depth Area Relation 68
2.11.2 Depth Area Duration Analysis 70
2.11.3 Depth-Duration Curve 73
2.11.4 Rainfall - Depth - Duration Frequency Curve 74
xxix
 2.11.5 Depth-Area-Duration Curve 75
2.12 Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) 75
2.13 Rainfall Data in India 76
Summary 77
Exercise 78
Know More 90
Bibliography 91

Unit-3: Abstraction from Precipitation 92-153

Unit specifics 92
Rationale 92
Pre-requisite 92
Unit outcomes 92
3.1 Evaporation Process 93
3.2 Evaporimeters 95
3.2.1 Types of Evaporimeters 95
3.2.2 Limitations and drawbacks 98
3.2.3 Pan coefficient Cp 99
3.3 Empirical Evaporation Equations 100
3.3.1 Dalton type equation 100
3.3.2 Meyer’s formula 100
3.3.3 Rohwer’s formula 102
3.4 Analytical Methods for Evaporation Estimation 103
3.4.1 Water-Budget Method 103
3.4.2 Energy-Budget Method 104
3.4.3 Mass-Transfer Method 105
3.5 Reservoir Evaporation and Methods for its Reduction 106
3.5.1 Methods to Reduce Evaporation Losses 107
3.6 Transpiration 109
3.7 Evapotranspiration 110
3.7.1 Measurement of Evapotranspiration 113

xxx
 3.7.2 Evapotranspiration Equations 115
3.8 Potential Evapotranspiration Over India 121
3.9 Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) 123
3.10 Initial Loss 125
3.10.1 Interception 126
3.10.2 Depression storage 128
3.11 Infiltration 128
3.12 Infiltration Capacity 131
3.13 Measurement of Infiltration 133
3.13.1 Simple (Tube type) infiltrometer 133
3.13.2 Double-ring infiltrometer 133
3.13.3 Rainfall Simulators 134
3.13.4 Hydrograph Analysis 136
3.14 Modelling Infiltration Capacity 136
3.14.1 Horton’s Equation (1933) 137
3.14.2 Philip’s Model 138
3.14.3 Kostiakov Model 139
3.14.4 Green–Ampt Model 139
3.15 Classification of Infiltration Capacities 139
3.16 Infiltration Indices 140
3.16.1 Φ-index 140
3.16.2 W- Index 142
Summary 142
Exercise 143
Know More 153
Bibliography 153

Unit-4: Runoff 154-223

Unit specifics 154
Rationale 154
Pre-requisite 154

xxxi
Unit outcomes 154
4.1 Introduction 155
4.1.1 Factors Influencing Runoff 156
4.1.2 Need for the study about Runoff 157
4.1.3 Runoff Classification 158
4.1.4 Natural Flow 159
4.1.5 Runoff Volume (Yield) 161
4.2 Hydrograph 162
4.2.1 Hydrograph generation 163
4.2.2 Components of a natural hydrograph 164
4.2.3 The contribution to base flow to stream discharge 166
4.2.4 Factors Affecting Hydrographs 167
4.3 Base Flow Separation 170
4.3.1 Factors affecting Base flow generation 170
4.3.2 Methods for base flow generation 171
4.4 Effective Rainfall 174
4.5 SCS-CN Method of Estimating Runoff Volume 176
4.5.1 Soils 179
4.5.2 Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC) 180
4.5.3 Land Use 182
4.5.4 SCS-CN Equation for Indian Conditions 188
4.5.5 Procedure for Estimating Runoff Volume from a Catchment 189
4.5.6 Advantages of SCS-CN method 190
4.5.7 Limitations 190
4.6 Flow-Duration Curves 192
4.6.1 Theoretical Foundations 193
4.6.2 Data Collection and Analysis 194
4.6.3 Curve Construction 194
4.6.4 Interpretation of Curve Segments 195
4.6.5 Geological Influences on Streamflow 195
4.6.6 Applications in Water Resources Engineering 196
xxxii
 4.6.7 Advanced Topics in Flow-Duration Curves 196
4.7 Flow-Mass Curve 197
4.7.1 Calculation of Storage Volume 198
4.8 Surface Water Resources of India 199
4.9 Environmental Flows 202
4.9.1 Trade-offs in Development and Conservation 203
4.9.2 Estimation of Environmental Flows 203
4.9.3 Environmental Flow Assessment Methodologies 204
4.9.4 Implementation of EF 207
4.9.5 Future Challenges 209
4.10 Unit Hydrograph Approach 209
4.10.1 Method of Constructing a Unit Hydrograph 210
4.10.2 Uses of Unit Hydrographs 210
4.10.3 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph Parameters 211
Summary 214
Exercise 214
Know More 223
Bibliography 223

Unit-5: Groundwater and Well Hydrology 224-280

Unit specifics 224
Rationale 224
Pre-requisite 224
Unit outcomes 224
5.1 Introduction 225
5.2 Definition of Groundwater 225
5.3 Forms of Subsurface Water 225
5.4 Types of Subsurface Formation 227
5.5 Aquifer Types and their Hydraulic Properties 228
5.6 Darcy’s Law for Groundwater Velocity 235
5.7 Empirical Formulas for Estimating Groundwater Velocity 237

xxxiii
 5.7.1 Field Measurement of the Velocity of Groundwater 238
5.8 Groundwater Hydraulics 240
5.8.1 Analytical methods for estimation of Yield from wells and tube wells 240
5.8.2 Dupuit’s formulae for estimating well yield under steady state condition 244
5.9 Partial Penetration of an Aquifer by a Well: From Equation 246
5.9.1 Interference among wells 248
5.10 Well Loss and Specific Capacity of Wells 251
5.11 Aquifer Test 256
5.11.1 Analysis of Aquifer Test Data 259
5.12 Time Drawdown Analysis 262
5.13 Distance Drawdown Analysis 266
5.14 Single Well Test 268
Summary 271
Exercise 271
Know More 279
Bibliography 280

Unit-6: Water Withdrawals and Uses 281-333

Unit specifics 281
Rationale 281
Pre-requisite 281
Unit outcomes 281
6.1 Water Demand 282
6.1.1 Domestic Water Supply 282
6.1.2 Water for Agriculture 284
6.1.3 Water for Hydropower 284
6.1.4 Water for Electric Production 286
6.2 Flood and its Management 287
6.2.1 Types of Floods 287
6.2.2 Causes of Floods 288
6.2.3 Impacts of Floods: 288

xxxiv
 6.2.4 Flood Management Measures 289
6.2.5 Flood Control Strategies 290
6.3 Analysis on Surface Water Supply 294
6.3.1 Quantity Analysis 294
6.3.2 Quality Analysis 294
6.3.3 Sustainability and Management 295
6.3.4 Infrastructure Analysis 296
6.3.5 Community and Stakeholder Engagement 296
6.3.6 Regulatory Compliance 296
6.4 Water Requirement of Crops 297
6.4.1 Factors Affecting Water Requirements of Crops 297
6.5 Cropping Pattern 298
6.5.1 Crop and Crop Season in India 300
6.5.2 Duty and Delta 300
6.6 Quality of Irrigation Water 302
6.6.1 Physical Characteristics 302
6.6.2 Chemical Characteristics 302
6.6.3 Biological Characteristics 303
6.6.4 Other Considerations 303
6.6.5 Water Quality Management Strategies 303
6.7 Soil-Water Relationship 304
6.7.1 Soil Properties 304
6.7.2 Root Zone Soil Water 306
6.7.3 Infiltration 308
6.8 Consumptive Use 310
6.9 Irrigation Requirement 311
6.9.1 Factors Affecting Irrigation Requirement 311
6.9.2 Frequency of Irrigation 312
6.9.3 Methods of Irrigation 314
Summary 322
Exercise 323
xxxv
Know More 332
Bibliography 332

Unit-7: Distribution Systems 334-394

Unit specifics 334
Rationale 334
Pre-requisite 334
Unit outcomes 334
7.1 Introduction 335
7.2 Canal Distribution Systems 335
7.2.1 Classification of Canals 336
7.2.2 Categorization of Canal Systems 337
7.3 Command Area 339
7.3.1 Gross Command Area (GCA) 339
7.3.2 Cultivable Command Area (CCA) 339
7.4 Alignments of Canals 339
7.5 Canal Losses 342
7.5.1 Causes of Canal Losses 342
7.5.2 Factors Affecting the Canal Losses 343
7.6 Discharge in Canals 343
7.6.1 Factors affecting Canal discharge 344
7.6.2 Head discharge and cultivable commanded area (CCA) 344
7.7 Design Discharge 345
7.7.1 Factors Influencing Design Discharge 345
7.7.2 Applications of Design Discharge 345
7.8 Design Discharge Estimation 346
7.8.1 Methods for Design Discharge Estimation 348
7.8.2 Natural Channels 356
7.8.3 Rigid boundary channels 357
7.8.4 Alluvial channels 358
7.9 Open Channel Flow Hydraulics 360

xxxvi
7.10 Kennedy's Silt Theory for Steady Regime Channels 364
7.10.1 Channel design by Kennedy’s theory 365
7.11 Lacey’s Theory 368
7.11.1 Lacey's silt theory 368
7.11.2 Channel design using Lacey’s theory 369
7.11.3 Factors for channel design consideration 371
7.12 Canal Outlets 373
7.12.1 Factors Affecting Canal Outlets 374
7.12.2 Modular Canal Outlets 375
7.12.3 Non-modular canal outlets 376
7.12.4 Semi-modular canal outlets 377
7.13 Water Logging 378
7.14 Lining of Canals 379
7.14.1 Necessity of Drainage in Irrigated Lands 381
7.14.2 Methods of Drainage in Irrigated Lands: 382
Summary 383
Exercise 384
Know More 393
Bibliography 394

Unit-8: Dams and Spillways 395-467

Unit specifics 395
Rationale 395
Pre-requisite 395
Unit outcomes 395
8.1 Introduction 396
8.2 Embankment Dams 396
8.2.1 Classification 397
8.2.2 Design Considerations 398
8.2.3 Factors Influencing the Design of an Embankment Dam 399
8.2.4 General Design Criteria for Embankment Dams 401

xxxvii
 8.2.5 Estimation and Control of Seepage 402
8.3 Gravity Dams 408
8.3.1 Forces on a Gravity Dam 409
8.3.2 Causes of Failure of a Gravity Dam 416
8.3.3 Stress Analysis of Gravity Dams 418
8.3.4 Elementary Profile of a Gravity Dam 424
8.3.5 Design of a Gravity Dam 427
8.4 Arch Dams 427
8.4.1 Advantages of Arch Dams 427
8.4.2 Disadvantages 428
8.5 Buttress Dams 428
8.5.1 Advantages of Buttress Dams 429
8.5.2 Disadvantages of Buttress Dams 431
8.6 Spillways 431
8.6.1 Components of Spillway 432
8.7 Types of Gates for Spillway Crests 433
8.7.1 Flashboards and Stoplogs 434
8.7.2 Vertical Lift Gates 435
8.7.3 Radial (or Tainter) Gates 435
8.7.4 Drum Gates 435
8.8 Reservoirs 436
8.8.1 Types of Reservoirs 436
8.9 Reservoir Capacity and Yield of Reservoirs 437
8.9.1 Yield 437
8.9.2 Safe yield or firm yield 438
8.9.3 Secondary yield 438
8.9.4 Average yield 438
8.9.5 Mass inflow curve 438
8.9.6 Demand curve 439
8.9.7 Calculation of Reservoir Capacity for a Specified Yield from the Mass
Inflow Curve Procedure (Figure 8.20): 440
xxxviii
 8.9.8 Determination of Safe Yield from a Reservoir of a Given Capacity 441
8.10 Sedimentation 442
8.10.1 Silting Rate 443
8.10.2 Description of Terms in Churchill's Curve 444
8.10.3 Prediction of Rate of Reservoir Sedimentation 446
8.10.4 Prediction of Sediment Distribution 449
8.10.5 Elevation Area Capacity 453
8.10.6 Computation of Revised Area and Capacity after 100 Years 453
8.11 Selection of Suitable Site 454
Summary 456
Exercise 456
Know More 466
Bibliography 467

References for Further Learning 468-469

CO and PO Attainable 470
Index 471-487

xxxix
 1
1|Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering

Introduction

UNIT SPECIFICS
This unit introduces the subject as a scientific study of water and discusses the components
of the hydrological cycle, including, precipitation, abstraction losses, and runoff as surface &
groundwater. The unit also deals with the water balance equation, a fundamental
condensation concept in hydrology that represents the accounting of water inputs, outputs,
and changes in storage within a system over a specified period. The global water availability
on the Earth, oceans, and continents is presented with the water balance components. The
unit also highlights how water interacts with the atmosphere, land, and living organisms,
which is crucial in understanding and managing water resources on Earth. Finally, the
historical background, applications in water resources engineering and the sources of
hydrological data is highlighted.

RATIONALE

To understand the fundamentals of the hydrology cycle, water-budget and water

balance.

PRE-REQUISITE
Nil

UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: Understand the fundamentals of the hydrological cycle
U1-O2: Understand the water budget and water balance
U1-O3: Applications in engineering and socially relevant problems
 Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering |2

Unit Expected Mapping with Course Outcomes

Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)

CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7 CO-8

U1-O1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

U1-O2 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3

U1-O3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Earth is frequently called the blue planet because water occupies more than three-fourths of
the planet's surface. Estimates place the entire volume of water at 1.4 billion cubic kilometers
on Earth, and if this water were to be evenly distributed as a layer throughout the planet, it
would be close to 3 kilometers thick layer. About 97% of the total available water on the
earth is found in oceans and sea, and only 2.7% of the total water is freshwater available on
the Earth. About 22.6% of this is buried as groundwater, while the remainder, about 75.2% of
freshwater, is frozen in polar regions. Static water, a sizable portion of groundwater, is buried
too deeply for convenient extraction. Rivers, lakes, soil, and other bodies of water contain a
tiny amount of the residual water. Therefore, humans can only use a tiny portion of the water
on Earth.
On a global basis, over 3,240 km3 of Freshwater is used each year. Around the world, sector-
wise, considerable variation is found in the use of water. Agriculture is the dominant water
user in Asia, whereas in most parts of Europe and North America, industries and
municipalities are the biggest users in the water sector. Generally, 69% of water use is
accounted for by agriculture, with the remaining 23% going to industry and 8% going to
residential use. Over the past century, there has been a notable increase in the usage of water
for numerous reasons, and this tendency is still present now. As a result, attention is now
concentrated on maintaining environmental quality and using water resources sustainably.
3|Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering

Information on the water balance of river and lake basins across short time intervals
(week, day, and season) is used in operational management. For instance, India receives 117
cm of rain on average every year, which is equivalent to about 3,840 × 109 m3 of water. A
little over half of the yearly rainfall is lost to evaporation and transpiration, while the
remaining 49% is transformed into surface runoff and Groundwater.

1.2 HYDROLOGY
The study of water science is known as hydrology. It is the area of study that deals with how
water is distributed, occurs, and moves through the atmosphere of the earth. Water in lakes,
reservoirs and streams, precipitation and snowfall, snow and ice on the earth, and water
found in the pores of rocks and soil are all covered in this subfield of earth science. In
general, the study of hydrology is an interdisciplinary field that incorporates elements of
meteorology, geology, statistics, chemistry, physics, and fluid mechanics, among other
related sciences. Hydrology is essentially an applied science. Sometimes, the topic is
classified to emphasize how relevant it is. The topic is occasionally classified as (i) Scientific
hydrology and (ii) Applied or engineering hydrology. Scientific hydrology is a field of
research that focuses mostly on academic issues. Meanwhile, applied or engineering
hydrology is known as the study of engineering applications. Broadly speaking, engineering
hydrology is concerned with (i) water resource estimation, (ii) the analysis of elements such
as runoff, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and their interactions, and (iii) disaster issues like
floods and droughts and ways to mitigate them.

1.3 CATCHMENT AREA

A catchment area, which is also referred to as a watershed, drainage basin, or river basin, is a
stretch of land that is divided by ridges, hills, and mountains on its terrain and from which all
surface water flows to a common outlet point, which may be a lake, a river, or an ocean. It is
essentially a natural basin or bowl-like area that collects and channelize rainfall and runoff
towards a central point or outlet.
Catchment areas play a critical role in the hydrological cycle and are fundamental
units for studying and managing water resources at the local, regional, and global scales.
They serve as interconnected systems that link precipitation, surface water, groundwater, and
 Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering |4

the environment, shaping the distribution and availability of water resources within a given
geographic area. Here are some of the key characteristics and concepts related to catchment
areas:
a. Boundary: The boundary of a catchment area is delineated by the highest points of
elevation, known as divides or drainage divides, which separate one catchment area from
another. Water falling within the boundary of a catchment area will ultimately flow to the
same outlet point.
b. Hydrological Processes: Within a catchment area, various hydrological processes occur,
including precipitation, infiltration, runoff, evaporation, and groundwater flow. These
processes interact to determine the movement and distribution of water within the
catchment.
c. Size: Catchment areas can vary in size from small headwater streams that drain a few
hectares to large river basins that span thousands of square kilometers. The size of a
catchment area influences the magnitude and timing of streamflow and the overall
hydrological response to precipitation events.
d. Topography: The topography of a catchment area, including slope, elevation, and land
cover, influences the distribution of precipitation, the rate of runoff, and the types of
landforms and drainage patterns within the catchment.
e. Land Use: Human activities within a catchment area, such as agriculture, urbanization,
deforestation, and land development, can significantly impact hydrological processes and
water quality. Changes in land use can alter the natural flow paths of water, increase
runoff, and lead to erosion, sedimentation, and pollution of water bodies.
f. Management: Understanding the characteristics and behavior of catchment areas is
essential for effective water resources management and planning. Watershed
management strategies aim to protect and enhance water quality, mitigate flood risks,
sustainably manage water resources, and preserve the ecological health of catchment
areas.
A river's catchment area and its tributaries' sub-catchment areas are depicted in Figure 1.1.
The locations of field water measurements used to calculate runoff are shown by the red
points.
5|Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering

1.4 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The continuity of mass can be quantitatively expressed using an equation for the hydrological
cycle. This expression is also referred to as the water budget equation or the water balance
equation, depending on the aim of the computation. An assessment of water resources and
their changes can be done quantitatively to the water balance approach. The study of the
water balance of lakes, river basins, unsaturated zones, and ground-water basins (e.g., inter-
basin transfer, stream flow management, irrigation scheduling, etc.) provides a basis for
project planning and the prudent use of water resources in space and time.
The hydrological cycle plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate and
sustaining life by redistributing water across various ecosystems and maintaining a balance
of freshwater resources. The hydrological cycle is a continuing occurrence that characterizes
the flow of water on Earth's surface as well as below it. It involves the circulation of water in
various forms - liquid, solid (ice), and gas (water vapour) - through different reservoirs,
including oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, atmosphere, and glaciers.

Figure 1.1: Catchment area of a river

Figure 1.2 depicts a typical descriptive illustration of a hydrological cycle. Horton
proposed a qualitative depiction of the hydraulic cycle, which is referred to as Horton's
representation of the hydrological cycle and is shown in Figure 1.3.
 Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering |6

The hydrological cycle is a highly intricate system. The oceans provide a handy place
to start when describing the cycle. The ocean’s water evaporates because of the thermal
energy generated by solar radiation. Clouds are created as the rising water vapour ascends.
While most clouds condense and return to the oceans as rain, some clouds are driven by
winds to the land.

Figure 1.2: Hydrological Cycle

A portion of the water that falls on land seeps into the soil, raising its moisture
content and ultimately reaching the groundwater table. Some part of the water below the
earth's surface is returned to the atmosphere by vegetation through transpiration.
Precipitation meets the conditions for infiltration and evaporation, reaches the surface of the
land, moves across it, down the natural slope, and finally reaches the ocean through a
network of rivers, gullies, and streams. Runoff is the fraction of precipitation that travels both
above and below the earth’s stream channel's surface through a variety of pathways. Runoff
changes to streamflow as soon as it enters a stream channel.
It is significant to remember that the sun provides the energy for the hydrological
cycle and that the earth's total water resources are constant. It is crucial to understand
numerous hydrological cycle processes, such as evaporation, precipitation, and groundwater
flow, in order to understand hydrology as a scientific field with rigorous investigation. It also
becomes evident that almost every component of the hydrologic cycle, for example, artificial
precipitation, suppressing evaporation, altering the land's vegetation and use, extracting
groundwater, etc., can be influenced by people. Interference at one point in the cycle can
have major consequences at a later point.
7|Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering

Figure 1.3: Horton's depiction of the water cycle

Numerous disciplines, including geography, forestry, agriculture, economics,
sociology, and politics, are significantly impacted by the hydrological cycle. A few
engineering applications where knowledge of the hydrological cycle and hydrological issues
are used are water supply, irrigation, drainage, water power, flood control, navigation, coastal
works, salinity control, and recreational application. The hydrological cycle consists of
several key processes described below:
a. Condensation: Water vapour in the atmosphere cools and condenses into tiny droplets or
ice crystals, forming clouds. Condensation is also responsible for the formation of dew
and fog.
b. Precipitation: Precipitation is the primary input of water into the Earth's hydrological
system. It includes rainfall, snowfall, sleet, and hail. Precipitation occurs when Clouds
 Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering |8

comprise condensed water droplets, which combine to form larger droplets or ice
crystals. Such precipitation causes crystals to fall to the Earth's surface due to gravity.
c. Runoff: Runoff refers to the movement of water from excess precipitation that does not
infiltrate into the soil; it flows over the Earth's surface, into streams, rivers, and
eventually into larger bodies of water like oceans and lakes. It includes surface runoff
from impermeable surfaces, such as pavement, as well as subsurface runoff through soil
layers.
d. Infiltration: Infiltration is the process by which water penetrates the soil surface and
moves downward through soil pores and rock fractures. It replenishes groundwater
aquifers and contributes to groundwater recharge. The rate of infiltration depends on soil
properties, vegetation cover, and land use practices.
e. Evaporation: The process by which water transforms from a liquid into a gaseous state
(water vapour) and then back into the atmosphere is known as evaporation. It occurs
primarily from the Earth's surface, including oceans, rivers, and lakes, as well as from
moist soil and vegetation driven by solar energy.
f. Transpiration: Transpiration is referred to as the process by which water is taken up by
plant roots, transported through the plant, and released into the atmosphere through
stomata in the leaves. It is a significant component of the water cycle, especially in
terrestrial ecosystems, where it influences humidity levels and contributes to cloud
formation. Transpiration contributes to the water vapour content in the atmosphere.
Transpiration, the release of water vapour from plant leaves, also contributes to
evaporation.
g. Storage: Water is stored in various reservoirs within the Earth's hydrological system,
including oceans, glaciers, ice caps, lakes, rivers, soil moisture, and groundwater
aquifers. These reservoirs play critical roles in regulating water availability, sustaining
ecosystems, and supporting human activities.
h. Groundwater Flow: The transport of water via aquifers, which are saturated in
subsurface formations, is referred to as groundwater flow. Groundwater provides a vital
source of freshwater for drinking, irrigation, and industrial activities. Through springs or
base flow into rivers and streams, groundwater seepage supplies water to surface water
bodies.
9|Hydrology & Water Resources Engineering

i. Sublimation: This is the direct, solid (ice or snow) to vapour transformation of water
without converting into liquid form. It occurs primarily in Polar Regions and at high
altitudes.
j. Melting: Solid ice and snow can melt into liquid water when exposed to warmer
temperatures, contributing to surface runoff, or infiltrating into the ground.

1.5 THE WATER BALANCE EQUATION

The water balance equation is a fundamental concept in hydrology that represents the
accounting of water inputs, outputs, and changes in storage within a defined system over a
specified period. The basic principle of the water balance equation is the conservation of
mass. The equation is also known as the continuity equation. The water balance equation can
be applied at various spatial and temporal scales, ranging from small watersheds to large
river basins and from daily to annual time periods. It serves as a fundamental tool for
understanding the hydrological processes within a given area, assessing water availability,
and managing water resources sustainably. According to this equation, the change in water
storage within a volume is equal to the difference between the entire input and output for that
specific volume of space and time. The water continuity equation (Equation 1.1) for a given
catchment at a time interval t can be expressed as follows:
Mass Inflow – Mass Outflow = Change in Mass Storage ..…………(1.1)
The general form of the expression for the water budget equation of a catchment within a
time interval t is given as Equation (1.2a); however, it should be emphasized that all the
terms in a hydrological water budget may not be determined with the same degree of
accuracy. This equation states that the change in storage ΔS in each catchment area
represents the difference between the water stored within the system at the beginning and end
of the specified period after accounting for changes in groundwater levels, soil moisture,
snowpack, and other forms of water storage. Based on Equation (1.2a), change in storage ΔS
is equal to the subtraction of evapotranspiration E, runoff R, transpiration T and Groundwater
flow G from total precipitation P. The components of a water balancing equation can be
expressed as the mean depth of water for the control volume (mm) or as the volume of water
(m3). Based on the above, Equation 1.1 can be rearranged as follows.
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Change in Mass Storage = Mass Inflow – Mass Outflow

ΔS= P – (E+R+ G + T) ..…………(1.2 a)
where:
● P represents precipitation (input)
● E represents evaporation (output)
● R represents runoff (output)
● G represents groundwater flow out of the catchment (output)
● T represents transpiration (output)
● ΔS represents the change in storage (change in water stored within the system)
In a time interval Δt, the water budget equation (1.1) for the lake/reservoir can also be
written as Equation 1.2b:
Input volume - Output volume = Change in storage of the lake

ΔS = ( I × Δt + P × A) - (𝑄𝑄 × Δt + E × A) ..………(1.2 b)

where,

● I = Mean inflow rate of water into the lake/reservoir,

● 𝑄𝑄= Mean outflow rate from the lake/reservoir,

● P = precipitation,
● E = evaporation,
● A = average surface area of the lake/reservoir and
● ⊗S = change in storage volume of the lake/reservoir.
In the water budget equation described above, storage S consists of three components as:
Ss = Surface water storage
Ssm = Water storage as soil moisture
Sg = Water storage as Groundwater
11 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Thus, in equation (1.2a), ΔS can be represented as:

ΔS = ΔSs + ΔSsm + ΔSg ………(1.2c)
The hydrologic budget of a drainage basin contains the mathematical expression for
its hydrologic cycle, commonly referred to as its water balance. It is expressed as the rate of
change of storage within the drainage basin, S, over a specific time interval, t, equal to the
difference between inflow, I, and outflow, O. The basin's hydrologic budget can be stated as
follows (Equation 1.3a, 1.3b) when seen as a reservoir or as a black-box system:

∆S
= I −O
∆t ..…………(1.3a)

S 2 − S1 I 2 + I 1 O2 + O1
= −
∆t 2 2 ..…………(1.3b)
where,

I = average inflow for the time interval Δt

O =average outflow for the time interval Δt.

ΔS = rate of change of storage

Δt = given period of time
Subscripts 1 and 2 = values of the variables at the start and end of the time interval Δt
=t2 – t1. If I and O vary continuously with time t, then Equation (1.3a, 1.3b) can be written as
Equation (1.4).

dS (t )
= I (t ) − O(t )
dt ..…………(1.4)
It is implied in equations (1.3a), (1.3b), and (1.4) that I, O, and S are spatially uniform or do
not vary in space. Eq. (1.4) is also denoted as the spatially lumped continuity equation or
water budget equation. In terms of a rainfall-runoff relationship, the value of runoff in
equation (1.2a) can be represented as Equation 1.5:
R=P–L ..…………(1.5)
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where L = Losses = Water received from precipitation is not available for runoff due to
several losses, i.e., evaporation, transpiration, infiltration, and surface storage.
Example 1.1: The yearly flow from a watershed with a 12 km2 catchment area is 0.2x107m3.
What will the depth of water correspond to the given stream flow?
Solution:
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Depth of water = 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑑

0.2𝑥𝑥107
Depth of water = 12𝑥𝑥106

= 2/12 meter
= 16.67 cm
Example 1.2: At the start of a particular month, the water surface elevation of a reservoir
was 105.200 meters above the datum. Surface runoff sources contributed an average of 8.0
m3/s to the lake's inflow during that month. During that same time frame, the lake's discharge
averaged 7.6 m3/s. Additionally, the lake saw 175 mm of rainfall in that month, and 7.15 cm
of evaporation was measured from the lake's surface. At the end of the month, evaluate the
lake's water surface elevation and write down the water budget equation. 5,500 hectares
might be considered the typical lake surface area. Assume that the groundwater reservoir
receives no input at all.
Solution
In a time interval Δt, the water budget for the lake can be written as:
Input volume - Output volume = Change in storage of the lake

( I × Δt + P × A) - ( O × Δt + E × A) = ΔS

where I = Mean inflow rate of water into the lake,

O = Mean outflow rate from the lake,

P = Precipitation,
E = Evaporation,
A = Average surface area of the lake and
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ΔS = Change in storage volume of the lake.

Here Δt = 1 month = 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 2.592 X 106 s = 2.592 Ms
In one month:
Inflow volume = 𝐼𝐼 ̅ × Δt = 8.0 x 2.592 = 20.736 M m3
Outflow volume = 𝑂𝑂� × Δt = 7.6 x 2.592 = 19.699 M m3
175 𝑥𝑥 5500 𝑥𝑥 100 𝑥𝑥 100 175 𝑥𝑥 55
Input due to precipitation = PA = 1000𝑋𝑋 106
= 1000
M m3 = 9.625 M m3
7.15 𝑥𝑥 5500 𝑥𝑥 100 𝑥𝑥 100 7.15 𝑥𝑥 55
Outflow due to evaporation =EA = 100𝑋𝑋 106
= 100
=3.93 M m3

Hence ΔS= (𝐼𝐼 ̅ × Δt + PA) - (𝑂𝑂� × Δt + EA)

= 20.736 + 9.625-19.699-3.93
= 6.732 M m3
𝑆𝑆 6.732𝑥𝑥106
Change in elevation Δz = 𝐴𝐴= = 0.1224 m
5500 𝑥𝑥 100 𝑥𝑥 100

New water surface elevation at the end of the month = 105.200 + 0.1224
= 105.3224 m above the datum.
Example 1.3: A storm dropped 15.5 cm of rain in 2 hours over a tiny watershed of 250 ha.
Prior to the storm, the stream at the catchment's outlet was dry and had an average discharge
of 1.8 m3/s over a 12-hour period. When the runoff event ended, the stream was once again
dry. (a) How much water was unavailable for runoff as a result of the combined effects of
transpiration, evaporation, and infiltration? (b) What is the precipitation to runoff ratio?
Solution
The water-budget equation for the watershed in a time duration Δt is
R=P-L
where,
L = losses = Rainfall-generated water is unavailable for runoff because of evaporation,
transpiration, infiltration, and surface storage, among other losses.
Δt = duration of the runoff = 12 hours.
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Note: Rainfall received in the first 2 hours only, and for the rest 10 hours, the
precipitation was zero.
(a) P= Input due to precipitation in 12 hours
= 250 x 100 x 100 x (15.5/100) = 387,500 m3
R= Runoff volume = outflow volume at the catchment outlet in 12 hours
= 1.8 x 12 x 60 x 60 = 77,760 m3
Hence,
Losses L = 387,500 - 77,760 = 309,740 m3
(b) Runoff/rainfall = 77,760/387,500 = 0.20
(This ratio is known as runoff coefficient)
Example 1.4: A watershed's catchment area is 126 km2, and it obtains 112 cm of
precipitation annually. At the watershed's outlet, the average outflow rate for the stream that
drains the catchment was found to be 1.76 m3/s for the first four months, 2.2 m3/s for the next
seven months, and 3.7 m3/s for the last month. Find out: (i) what is the runoff coefficient for
the watershed? (ii) If the watershed's afforestation lowers the runoff coefficient to 0.30, what
is the increase in the abstraction from precipitation owing to infiltration, evaporation, and
transpiration for the same annual rainfall of 112 cm?
Solution:
(i) Before Afforestation:
Consider a period = Δt = 1 year
Input volume to the catchment through precipitation = P × A
112
=126 x l06 x �100�

=141.12 Mm3
Runoff = Output volume = (1.76 x 4) + (2.2 x 7) + (3.7 x 1) = 26.14 Mm3.month
365
= 26.14 x � 12 �x24 x 60 x 60
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= 68.69 Mm3
Runoff coefficient = Runoff / Rainfall
= 68.69/141.12 = 0.4867
Abstraction volume = 141.12 - 68.69 = 72.43 Mm3
(ii) After Afforestation
Runoff = 0.30 x 141.12 = 42.336 Mm3
New abstraction volume = 141.12 - 42.336 = 98.784 Mm3
Increase in abstraction = 98.784 - 72.43 = 26.354 Mm3

1.6 WORLD WATER BALANCE

The constant movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth is described
by the global water balance, commonly referred to as the water cycle or the global
hydrological cycle. It includes processes such as groundwater movement, runoff, infiltration,
condensation, and precipitation. The water balance is crucial for maintaining the Earth's
ecosystems, climate regulation, and providing freshwater resources for human activities.
The world water balance is dynamic and interconnected, with water constantly
cycling between different reservoirs and undergoing various physical processes. Changes in
climate, land use, and human activities can impact the water balance, leading to shifts in
precipitation patterns, changes in runoff dynamics, alterations in groundwater recharge rates,
and fluctuations in water availability. Understanding the world water balance is essential for
sustainable water management and addressing water-related challenges, such as water
scarcity, droughts, floods, and ecosystem degradation.
Approximately 1,357.5 million cubic kilometers (M km³) of water exist in the world.
Over 97% of the world's water is found in the oceans and seas, where it is too salty for its
most useful uses. Two third of the balance water is present in the form of glaciers, ice caps,
permafrost, underground aquifers, and marshes. An estimated 108,000 km3 of precipitation
falls over Earth's surface annually. By evaporation, around 60% (61,000 km³) of the water
returns directly to the sky, leaving 47,000 km³ to flow towards the sea. Thus, the globe only
has 35 M km3 of pure water accessible. Of this, 10.5 M km3 of fresh Groundwater and 21.6
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M km3 of Antarctic ice are present. Table 1.1 shows where Freshwater is distributed on
Earth.
The earth receives about 0.42 M km3 of water in the form of precipitation. Out of
these, 0.32 M km3 is received in the oceans and seas, while the remaining 0.10 M km3 is
received on the earth. Every year, the rivers, and springs transport 0.038 million cubic
kilometers of water to the sea. Nevertheless, only 4% of the entire river flow is utilized for
irrigation, and the remaining portion flows uselessly into the sea. Table 1.2 represents the
Global water balance from different sources.
Table 1.1: World Water Reserves.
Percent
Area (M Volume (M Percent
SN Item total
km2) km3) Freshwater
water
1. Oceans 361.3 1338.0 96.5 -
2. Groundwater
2a. Fresh Groundwater 134.8 10.530 0.76 30.1
2b. Saline Groundwater 134.8 12.870 0.93 -
3. Soil moisture 82.0 0.0165 0.0012 0.05
4. Ice caps and glaciers 16.0 24.0235 1.7 68.6
5. Other ice and snow 0.3 0.3406 0.025 1.0
6. Lakes
6a. Fresh Lakes 1.2 0.0910 0.007 0.26
6b. Saline Lakes 0.8 0.0854 0.006 -
7. Wetlands 2.7 0.01147 0.0008 0.03
8. Rivers 148.8 0.00212 0.0002 0.006
9. Biological water 510.0 0.00112 0.0001 0.003
10. Atmospheric water 510.0 0.01290 0.001 0.04
All kinds of water 510.0 1386.0 100.0
Total
Freshwater 148.8 35.0 2.5 100
Source: UNESCO (1978).
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The oceans' water balance is shown in Table 1.3. The table illustrates the considerable
water transfer between the oceans as well as the variations in precipitation and evaporation
levels between them.
Table 1.2: Global water balance
SN Item Unit Ocean Land
2
1 Area M km 361.30 148.8
km3/year 4,58,000 1,19,000
2 Precipitation
mm/year 1270 800
3
km /year 5,05,000 72,000
3 Evaporation
mm/year 1400 484
3
Runoff to Rivers km /year 44,700
Ocean Groundwater km3/year 2,200
4 3
km /year 47,000
Total runoff
mm/year 316
Source: UNESCO (1978).
According to Shiklomanov (2000), The worldwide estimated mean amount of
renewable water resources is 42,750 km3/year. Table 1.4 displays the continental land mass's
water balance. The table shows that while Africa is the driest continent in the world, with
only 20% of precipitation turning into runoff, North America and Europe have the largest
amounts of runoff. Asia has the most plentiful water resources worldwide.
The world's rivers release over 40,000 km3 of water into the ocean annually. Four
major rivers, the Amazon, Congo, Orinoco, and Parana, flow into the Atlantic Ocean,
accounting for about half of its discharge (20,000 km3). The world's rivers have an average
yearly flow of 1.2 million m3/s. The average discharge of the Amazon, the greatest river in
the world, is 200,000 m3/s. The Brahmaputra and the Ganges are India's two largest rivers,
with average discharges of 16,200 m3/s and 15,600 m3/s, respectively.
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Table 1.3: Water balance of the oceans

Inflow Water
Area from exchange
Ocean Precipitation Evaporation
(M km2) adjacent with other
continents oceans
Atlantic 107 780 200 1040 -60
Arctic 12 240 230 120 350
Indian 75 1010 70 1380 -300
Pacific 167 1210 60 1140 130

Table 1.4: Annual Water Balance of Continents

Area Runoff as %
Total Evapo-
Continent (M Precipitation of
runoff transpiration
km2) precipitation
Africa 30.3 686 139 20 547
Asia 45.0 726 293 40 433
Australia 8.7 736 226 30 510
Europe 9.8 734 319 43 415
North America 20.7 670 287 43 383
South America 17.8 1648 583 35 1065

1.7 GLOBAL FRESHWATER RESOURCES

The distribution of global freshwater resources is highly uneven, with some regions having
abundant water supplies while others face water scarcity. Here is an overview of the
distribution of freshwater resources globally:
a. Surface Water: Surface water refers to water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
The distribution of surface water is influenced by factors such as precipitation patterns,
topography, and geology. Regions with high rainfall, such as tropical rainforests and
temperate zones, tend to have abundant surface water resources. Conversely, arid, and
semi-arid regions receive less precipitation and have limited surface water availability.
19 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

b. Groundwater: Groundwater refers to water stored underground in aquifers. The

distribution of groundwater resources is influenced by geological factors such as rock
permeability and aquifer recharge rates. Groundwater is often more abundant in regions
with porous, permeable rock formations and high rates of recharge, such as alluvial plains
and coastal areas. However, overexploitation of groundwater resources can lead to
depletion and groundwater depletion, particularly observed in densely populated areas
and regions with intensive agriculture.
c. Glaciers and Ice Caps: Glaciers and ice caps store vast quantities of freshwater,
primarily in polar regions and mountainous areas. These ice masses slowly release water
over time, contributing to surface water runoff and maintaining river flow during dry
seasons. However, climate change is causing glaciers and ice caps to melt at an
accelerated rate, leading to concerns about water availability in downstream regions that
rely on glacier-fed rivers for freshwater supply.
d. Permafrost: Permafrost refers to permanently frozen ground found in polar and high-
latitude regions. Permafrost stores significant amounts of freshwater in the form of ice
and groundwater. However, thawing permafrost due to climate change can release stored
water, altering hydrological systems and impacting ecosystems and infrastructure.
e. Distribution Challenges: Despite the overall abundance of freshwater on Earth, access
to clean and reliable freshwater resources remains a challenge for many regions due to
uneven distribution, population growth, pollution, and water management issues.
Additionally, water scarcity and competition for water resources are exacerbated by
factors such as agricultural irrigation, industrial development, urbanization, and climate
variability.
In summary, freshwater resources are distributed unevenly across the globe, with
some regions having abundant surface water, groundwater, glaciers, and ice caps, while
others face water scarcity and challenges in accessing clean and reliable freshwater supplies.
Sustainable management and conservation of freshwater resources are essential to ensure
water security and meet the needs of growing populations while preserving ecosystems and
maintaining environmental sustainability.
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1.8 HISTORY OF HYDROLOGY

Since water is a basic necessity for life, humans have always tried to make the most of the
water resources that are accessible to them. The field of hydrology has a long history, having
developed from primitive water management techniques and early human observations to the
highly developed scientific field it is today. There are historical examples of civilizations that
thrived while there were stable water sources and then fell apart when those supplies ran out.
Vedic literature has numerous allusions regarding groundwater supply and its practical uses.
Archaeological excavations at Mohenjodaro have indicated that the Indus Valley culture was
aware of groundwater development through wells as early as 3000 BC. Quotations from old
Hindu scriptures imply that knowledge of the hydrologic cycle pertains back from the Vedic
period. The Arthashastra, written by Chanakya circa 300 BC, contains the earliest
explanation of the rain gauge and its application. The Brihatsamhita by Varaharmihira (c. AD
505–587) includes explanations of the rain gauge, wind vane, and rainfall forecast
techniques. Egyptians were aware of the value of measuring a river's stage; documents
detailing the Nile's stages from 1800 BC have been found. Europe did not learn about the
hydrologic cycle until much later, in the year 1500.
Here is a brief overview of key developments in the history of hydrology:
a. Ancient Civilizations: The earliest known civilizations, such as those in Mesopotamia,
Egypt, India, and China, developed rudimentary forms of hydrological knowledge and
water management techniques. They constructed irrigation systems, reservoirs, and
aqueducts to control the water flow for agriculture, domestic use, and flood mitigation.
b. Classical Period: Greek and Roman scholars made significant contributions to
hydrological understanding. Greek philosophers such as Thales and Aristotle pondered
the nature of water, while engineers like Archimedes developed principles of fluid
mechanics. The Romans constructed elaborate aqueducts and drainage systems to supply
water to cities and manage wastewater.
c. Middle Ages: During the Middle Ages in Europe, Islamic scholars preserved and
expanded upon classical knowledge. Islamic engineers developed sophisticated irrigation
systems, water clocks, and water-powered machines, contributing to advancements in
hydrological engineering.
21 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

d. Renaissance and Early Modern Period: The Renaissance saw renewed interest in
scientific inquiry, leading to advancements in hydrological measurement and
understanding. Leonardo da Vinci conducted studies on water flow, river morphology,
and sediment transport. In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists like Edme Mariotte and
Daniel Bernoulli made significant contributions to hydrodynamics and fluid mechanics.
e. 18th and 19th Centuries: The Enlightenment era brought further advancements in
hydrological science. Hydrological measurement techniques, such as stream gauging and
rainfall observation, began to be standardized. Engineers like Pierre Perrault and Henry
Darcy conducted pioneering studies on hydrological processes, including evaporation,
infiltration, and groundwater flow.
f. 20th Century: The 20th century saw rapid advancements in hydrological science and
engineering, driven by technological innovations and an increased understanding of
complex hydrological processes. The development of hydrological models, remote
sensing technologies, and computer simulations revolutionized the field. Hydrologists
made significant contributions to understanding climate change impacts, water resource
management, flood forecasting, and environmental conservation.
g. Contemporary Period: In the 21st century, hydrology continues to evolve in response to
emerging challenges such as climate change, population growth, and urbanization.
Integrated approaches to water management, incorporating principles of sustainability
and ecosystem management, are gaining prominence. Advances in data collection,
modelling, and computational techniques are enhancing our understanding of the
hydrological processes and improving water management practices worldwide.
Throughout history, hydrology has been essential for human survival and development,
shaping civilizations and influencing the management of water resources and the
environment. Today, hydrology remains a vital scientific discipline with interdisciplinary
applications in engineering, agriculture, environmental science, and policy-making.
1.9 APPLICATIONS IN ENGINEERING
Hydrology plays a crucial role in various engineering disciplines. Some of the key
applications of hydrology in engineering include:
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a. Water Resources Management: Hydrology helps in assessing the availability,

distribution, and sustainable use of water resources. Engineers use hydrological data to
design systems for water supply, irrigation, hydropower generation, and flood control.
b. Hydraulic Structure Design: Engineers use hydrological analysis to design hydraulic
structures such as dams, levees, spillways, and canals. Understanding the flow
characteristics of water bodies helps in designing structures that can withstand various
hydraulic conditions and efficiently manage water flow.
c. Flood Risk Assessment and Management: Hydrological studies are essential for
assessing flood risks in a given area. Engineers use hydrological models to simulate
rainfall-runoff processes, estimate flood volumes, and determine flood inundation
extents. This information is crucial for designing flood control measures, such as levees,
flood walls, and Stormwater management systems, to mitigate flood risks and protect
communities.
d. Stormwater Management: Hydrology is essential in designing Stormwater management
systems for urban areas. Engineers use hydrological principles to estimate peak flows and
runoff volumes from rainfall events, design drainage systems, and implement best
management practices for Stormwater control, such as detention ponds, green
infrastructure, and permeable pavements.
e. Erosion and Sediment Control: Hydrology helps assess the erosive potential of water
and design erosion and sediment control measures for construction sites, agricultural
lands, and riverbanks. Engineers use hydrological data to predict sediment transport,
erosion rates, and sediment deposition and develop erosion control structures and land
management practices to minimize soil erosion and protect water quality.
f. Groundwater Management: Hydrology plays a critical role in managing groundwater
resources sustainably. Engineers use hydrological models to simulate groundwater flow
and recharge processes, assess aquifer characteristics, and design well fields and
groundwater extraction systems for water supply, irrigation, and industrial use.
g. Environmental Engineering: Hydrology is integral to environmental engineering
projects aimed at protecting and restoring aquatic ecosystems. Engineers use hydrological
23 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

data to assess the impacts of human activities on water quality, habitat availability, and
ecosystem health and develop strategies for water quality improvement, habitat
restoration, and watershed management.
h. Climate Change Adaptation: Hydrology is increasingly important in adapting
engineering systems to the impacts of climate change, such as changes in precipitation
patterns, temperature, and sea level rise. Engineers use hydrological models to assess
future water availability, flood risks, and drought vulnerabilities and design resilient
infrastructure and adaptive management strategies to cope with changing hydrological
conditions.
These applications demonstrate the significant role of hydrology in engineering practices
aimed at managing water resources, mitigating risks, and promoting sustainable
development.

1.10 SOURCES OF DATA

A hydrologist would need information about the several crucial stages of the hydrological
cycle affecting the problem catchment, depending on the scope of the problem. Temperature,
humidity, wind speed, precipitation, stream flow, evaporation and evapotranspiration,
infiltration characteristics, soil characteristics, land use and land cover, groundwater
characteristics, physical and geological characteristics, water quality, etc., are among the
parameters that are usually required for studies. The different sources to obtain the required
data mentioned above are given below.
a. Government Agencies: Many countries have government agencies responsible for
monitoring water resources and providing hydrologic data. For example, In India:
• Hydro-meteorological data, including temperature, humidity, wind speed,
precipitation, etc., is gathered by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and a
few state government organizations.
• River flow data for all major rivers of the country have been monitored by the
Central Water Commission (CWC).
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• The State Water Resources/Irrigation Department collects stream-flow data of

various rivers and streams in India.
• Groundwater data is gathered by the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) and state
government groundwater agencies.
• Data on soil, evapotranspiration and infiltration properties of soil is provided by state
government agencies such as the Department of Agriculture, the Department of
Watershed Development, and the Department of Irrigation.
• The topographical maps that are provided by the Survey of India must be analyzed in
order to determine the physical characteristics of the study area.
• The State Geology Directorate and the Geological Survey of India would have
information on the geological features of the basin under study.
• A location's soil characteristics can be obtained on pertinent maps from the National
Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP), published in 1996.
• The State Watershed Development Department and the State Agriculture Department
have more comprehensive data available.
• State Remote Sensing Agencies often provide data on land use and land cover.
• The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) of the Government of India will
provide multispectral and multi-temporal satellite imagery, from which specific
details must be gathered.
• Data on water quality is gathered by the Central and State Pollution Control Boards
(CPCB/SPCB).
b. International Organizations: Organizations like the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) often gather and share hydrologic data globally.
c. Academic Institutions: Universities and research institutions conduct hydrological
studies and often make their data available to the public.
d. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): NGOs focused on environmental issues
may collect hydrologic data for specific regions or water bodies.
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e. Remote Sensing: Significant data for hydrological studies, including information on

precipitation, soil moisture, and surface water can be provided through satellite imagery
and remote sensing technologies.
f. Weather Stations: Weather stations frequently gather information on precipitation,
temperature, humidity, and wind speed etc, which can be used in hydrological analyses.
g. Private Companies: Some private companies specialize in hydrological monitoring and
may offer data services for a fee.
h. Published Literature: Hydrological research studies often publish their findings in
academic journals, which may include datasets as supplementary material.
i. Online Databases: Various online databases aggregate hydrological data from multiple
sources and make it accessible to researchers, policymakers, and the public.
j. Field Measurements: Hydrological data can also be collected through field
measurements using instruments such as stream gauges, rain gauges, and groundwater
wells.

SUMMARY
Hydrology is the scientific study of water in the environment, focusing on its distribution,
movement, and properties. It examines how water interacts with the atmosphere, land, and
living organisms, playing a crucial role in understanding water resources, flood forecasting,
and managing water-related challenges. Water resources management involves the planning,
developing, and managing of water resources to meet various human needs and
environmental requirements. This unit describes the main elements of the hydrological
cycle, including condensation, precipitation, abstraction losses, surface water & groundwater.
It has been described in detail which are affected by the watershed/catchment area having
different vital characteristics. The unit also deals with the water balance equation, a
fundamental concept in hydrology that represents the accounting of water inputs, outputs,
and changes in storage within a defined system over a specified period. The global water
availability on the earth, oceans, and continents is presented in this unit. In the end, the water
sources and the applicable fields of hydrology are also described.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 26

EXERCISE
Revision Questions
1. What do you understand by the term “Hydrology”? Explain key applications of
hydrology.
2. Describe the term “catchment area” with the sketch. Explain key characteristics and
concepts related to catchment areas.
3. Draw a sketch indicating Horton's representation of the hydrological cycle.
4. Explain the hydrologic cycle. Describe briefly how human influence affects different
stages of this cycle.
5. Describe key processes of the hydrologic cycle.
6. Explain the hydrological water budget using examples.
7. What are the noteworthy aspects of global water-balance studies?
8. Give a brief explanation of the distribution of freshwater resources around the world.
9. Enumerate the principal applications in which hydrological studies are important.
10. Give a brief overview of sources of hydrological data in India.

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. For a 210 km2 area, three and a half cm of rain each day is equivalent to an average rate
of input of how many cubic meters of water per second?
2. The total surface area of the watershed at a stream location is 80,000 hectares. At this
point, 980 mm of precipitation occurs on average each year. (i) Calculate the mean
annual flow rate of the stream in m3/s, if 30% of the rainfall reaches the basin outlet as
stream flow. (ii) For the same mean annual rainfall of 980 mm, if watershed restoration,
including afforestation, reduces the runoff rate to 25%, what will be the increase in the
volume of abstraction from all causes?
3. At the start of a specific month, the water surface elevation of a lake was 104.500 meters
above the datum. The surface runoff sources contributed an average of 6.5 m3/s to the
lake's inflow during that month. During that same time frame, the lake's discharge
27 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

averaged 7.0 m3/s. Additionally, the lake experienced 156 mm of rainfall in that month,
and 7.20 cm of surface evaporation was calculated. At the end of the month, compute the
lake's water surface elevation and write down the water-budget equation. One can
estimate the average lake surface area to be 5150 hectares. Assume that the groundwater
reservoir receives no input at all.
4. A storm produced 11.6 cm of rainfall in 75 minutes on a small 170-hectare watershed.
Prior to the storm, the river that drains the catchment at the exit was dry, and during the
nine-hour runoff, the average discharge was 1.6 m3/s. When the runoff event ended, the
river was once again dry. (A) How much water was prevented from flowing into the
stream as a result of transpiration, evaporation, and infiltration working together? What is
the precipitation to runoff ratio?
5. A watershed's catchment area is 160 km2. Rainfall in the watershed is 150 cm per year.
The average runoff rates at the watershed's outlet were determined to be (i) 1.6 m3/s for
the first three months, (ii) 2.5 m3/s for the next six months, and (iii) 4.5 m3/s for the final
three months in the stream that drains the catchment. What will the catchment's runoff
coefficient be? (ii) For a given annual rainfall of 150 cm, if the catchment's afforestation
decreases the runoff coefficient to 0.35, what is the increase in precipitation abstraction
from infiltration, evaporation, and transpiration?
6. Determine the steady rate of withdrawal from a 1295-hectare reservoir during the
duration of a 30-day month, where the reservoir's average daily intake was 0.6 Mm3/day,
but its level decreased by 0.74 m. Over the course of the month, the reservoir observed an
average seepage loss of 2.7 cm, a total of 19.5 cm of precipitation, and 9.8 cm of
evaporation.
7. A flood wave was moving through a river stretch. The estimated amount of water stored
in the reach at any given time was 16.6 hectare-meter. If, over a three-hour period, the
average inflow and outflow are 11.2 m3/s and 13.9 m3/s, respectively, what would be the
storage in the reach?
8. A catchment has four sub-areas. The following table shows the yearly precipitation and
evaporation from each of the sub-areas. Calculate the yearly average values of (i)
precipitation and (ii) evaporation for the entire watershed, assuming that there is no
annual change in the groundwater storage. What are the annual runoff coefficients for the
sub-areas and for the total catchment taken as a whole?
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 28

Sub-area Area (Mm2) Annual Annual

precipitation (mm) evaporation (mm)
A 11.2 997 510
B 3.5 850 440
C 8.1 890 425
D 16.9 1320 670

9. Estimate the residence time of the following by using Tables 1.1 and 1.2.
a. Global atmospheric moisture
b. Global groundwater by assuming that only the fresh groundwater runs off the
oceans
c. Ocean water
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is hydrology primarily concerned with?
A) The study of climate
B) The distribution and movement of water on Earth
C) The analysis of soil properties
D) The monitoring of weather patterns
2. Which process describes the movement of water from the surface into the soil?
A) Evaporation B) Transpiration
C) Infiltration D) Runoff
3. What is the term for water that flows over the ground surface after precipitation?
A) Infiltration B) Groundwater
C) Runoff D) Evaporation
4. Which of the following is a key component of the hydrological cycle?
A) Evaporation B) Filtration
C) Sedimentation D) Photosynthesis
5. Which term describes the area of land that drains water to a specific point, such as a river
or lake?
A) Aquifer B) Watershed
C) Estuary D) Basin
29 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

6. What is the role of transpiration in the hydrological cycle?

A) It contributes to surface runoff
B) It helps in the movement of groundwater
C) It releases water vapor from plants into the atmosphere
D) It facilitates water absorption by soil
7. Groundwater can be stored in which of the following?
A) Aquifers B) Reservoirs
C) Rivers D) Lakes
8. What is the primary process that transforms liquid water into water vapor?
A) Condensation B) Precipitation
C) Evaporation D) Infiltration
9. Which of the following processes is part of the hydrological cycle?
A) Transpiration B) Photosynthesis
C) Respiration D) Nitrogen fixation
10. During which phase of the hydrological cycle does water return to the Earth's surface?
A) Evaporation B) Condensation
C) Precipitation D) Runoff
11. What role do rivers and streams play in the hydrological cycle?
A) They contribute to evaporation only
B) They transport water from the land to the ocean
C) They primarily store water
D) They have no role in the cycle
12. In which part of the hydrological cycle does infiltration occur?
A) When water vapor condenses into clouds B) When rainwater soaks into the ground
C) When snow melts D) When water evaporates from lakes
13. What is the term for water vapor that plants release into the atmosphere?
A) Precipitation B) Evaporation
C) Transpiration D) Infiltration
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 30

14. How does climate change impact the hydrological cycle?

A) It has no impact B) It can increase evaporation rates
C) It can decrease precipitation D) Both B and C
15. What is the term for the continuous movement of water in the environment?
A) Water cycle B) Hydrological cycle
C) Aquatic cycle D) Atmospheric cycle
16. What is a catchment area?
A) An area where water is stored
B) A region from which water drains into a specific water body
C) A designated land area for irrigation
D) A type of water treatment facility
17. What is another term commonly used for catchment area?
A) Watershed B) Reservoir
C) Estuary D) Basin
18. Which of the following factors can affect the size of a catchment area?
A) Topography B) Land use
C) Vegetation cover D) All of the above
19. How does vegetation in a catchment area impact water flow?
A) It increases evaporation only
B) It decreases infiltration rates
C) It reduces runoff and enhances water absorption
D) It has no effect on water flow
20. What is the primary purpose of studying catchment areas in hydrology?
A) To assess soil quality
B) To monitor air quality
C) To manage water resources and predict flooding
D) To analyse climate patterns
21. Which of the following best describes a "sub-catchment"?
A) A smaller area within a larger catchment B) An area that only collects groundwater
C) A man-made structure for water storage D) A type of irrigation system
31 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

22. What role do catchment areas play in the water cycle?

A) They only store surface water
B) They facilitate water movement and distribution
C) They prevent evaporation
D) They eliminate the need for precipitation
23. What is a common challenge associated with urban catchment areas?
A) Increased vegetation growth B) Reduced water runoff
C) Increased runoff and pollution D) Enhanced groundwater recharge
24. What does the water balance equation typically represent?
A) The amount of precipitation only B) The input and output of water in a system
C) The temperature variations in a watershed D) The distribution of water in oceans
25. Which of the following components is NOT usually included in the water balance
equation?
A) Precipitation (P) B) Evapotranspiration (ET)
C) Groundwater recharge (G) D) Solar radiation (SR)
26. The simplified water balance equation can be expressed as:
A) P = ET + R + D B) P = ET + Q + ΔS
C) P + ET = Q + ΔS D) P + Q = ET + ΔS
27. In the water balance equation, what does ΔS represent?
A) The amount of precipitation B) The change in storage
C) The surface runoff D) The total evaporation
28. Which factor can lead to a negative water balance in a catchment area?
A) High precipitation rates B) Increased evapotranspiration
C) Reduced groundwater recharge D) Both B and C
29. When assessing water balance, what does "Q" typically refer to?
A) Water quality B) Groundwater levels
C) Streamflow or discharge D) Water temperature
30. Which of the following scenarios could result in a positive water balance?
A) Extended drought periods
B) Increased precipitation and reduced evaporation
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 32

C) High rates of evapotranspiration

D) Increased urbanization
31. What is the importance of understanding water balance in hydrology?
A) It helps to predict weather patterns
B) It aids in water resource management and planning
C) It determines soil fertility
D) It measures atmospheric pressure
32. What percentage of the Earth's surface is covered by water?
A) 50% B) 70%
C) 90% D) 30%
33. What proportion of the Earth's water is freshwater?
A) About 2.5% B) About 10%
C) About 25% D) About 50%
34. Where is the majority of the world's freshwater stored?
A) Rivers B) Lakes
C) Glaciers and ice caps D) Aquifers
35. What is the main source of freshwater for human consumption?
A) Surface water B) Desalination
C) Groundwater D) Atmospheric moisture
36. In the global water balance, what does "P" typically represent?
A) Precipitation B) Pollution
C) Permeability D) Pressure
37. What is a significant contributor to the loss of freshwater resources globally?
A) Increased vegetation B) Urbanization and industrialization
C) Natural climate variability D) Improved water management
38. Which of the following is NOT a major use of freshwater globally?
A) Agriculture B) Industrial processes
C) Hydropower generation D) Solar power generation
33 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

39. What does the term "virtual water" refer to?

A) Water stored in glaciers
B) Water used in the production of goods and services
C) Water that is recycled
D) Water that cannot be quantified
40. What is one of the primary applications of hydrology in agriculture?
A) Pest control B) Soil fertilization
C) Irrigation management D) Crop selection
41. How is hydrology applied in urban planning?
A) To determine building materials
B) To assess water supply and drainage systems
C) To forecast population growth
D) To design recreational parks
42. Which application of hydrology helps in flood risk assessment?
A) Streamflow monitoring B) Soil quality testing
C) Weather forecasting D) Wildlife conservation
43. In the context of water quality management, hydrology is used to:
A) Analyse soil erosion B) Measure atmospheric pressure
C) Monitor pollutants in water bodies D) Evaluate plant growth
44. What role does hydrology play in climate change studies?
A) It measures solar radiation levels
B) It assesses changes in precipitation patterns and water availability
C) It predicts wind patterns
D) It analyses soil temperature
45. How is hydrology utilized in water resource management?
A) To design new agricultural techniques B) To allocate water rights and usage
C) To build new cities D) To develop renewable energy sources
46. What is a key application of hydrology in the field of ecology?
A) Designing irrigation systems
B) Assessing the health of aquatic ecosystems
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 34

C) Creating urban landscapes

D) Predicting natural disasters
47. In what way is hydrology important for engineering projects?
A) It provides aesthetic designs
B) It ensures structures can withstand water-related impacts
C) It helps choose construction materials
D) It enhances project marketing
Answer: 1-B; 2-C; 3-C; 4-A; 5-B; 6-C; 7-A; 8-C; 9-A; 10-C; 11-B; 12-B; 13-C; 14-D; 15-B;
16-B; 17-A; 18-D; 19-C;20-C; 21-A; 22-B; 23-C; 24-B; 25-D; 26-B; 27-B; 28-D; 29-C; 30-
B; 31-B; 32-B; 33-A; 34-C; 35-C; 36-A; 37-B; 38-D; 39-B; 40-C; 41-B; 42-A; 43-C; 44-B;
45-B; 46-B; 47-B

KNOW MORE
For more information related to this topic scan the QR code.
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Type this link in your browser
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Asawa, G.L. (2005), “Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering, New Age International
(P) Ltd., ISBN-13: 978-8122416732
2. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY,
1964.
3. IMD (1971), “Scientific Report No. 136, India Meteorological Department,1971,
Government of India.
35 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

4. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources of India,
Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland, ISBN-10 1-4020-
5179-4(HB).
5. Schendel, V, (1975), “The world's water resources and water balance”, Natural Resources
and Development, Inst. for Sci. Coop, Hannover, Germany, pp. 8-14, Vol. 1, 1975.
6. Shiklomanov (2000), “Appraisal and assessment of world water resources”, Water Int
(25(1):11-32.
7. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
8. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India) Private
Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN(13): 978-1-25902997-4.
9. UNESCO, (1978), “World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth”, Studies and
Reports in Hydrology, 25, UNESCO, Paris, France, 1978.
10. Van der Leeden, (1975), “Water Resources of the World”, Water Information Center, Port
Washington, N.Y., USA, 1975.
 2
H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 36

Precipitation

UNIT SPECIFICS
In engineering hydrology, precipitation is the primary source of water supply, and it can take
different forms, including rain, snow, hail, and dew. The precipitation types, availability,
measurement, and use are considered the basic requirements of a hydrological investigation.
This unit describes the different forms of precipitation and their intensity and impact on
water resources, agriculture, and ecosystems. In this unit, the characteristics of precipitation
and different seasons in India have been discussed. Different measurement techniques of
rainfall/snowfall have been described for the annual precipitation in India. In addition,
methods to estimate missing data and data consistency analysis have also been discussed in
the unit. Different methods for obtaining mean rainfall over a watershed are presented.
Furthermore, the Depth Area Duration (DAD) curve, Probable Maximum Precipitation
(PMP) and Rainfall data availability in India have been discussed.

RATIONALE
To understand the different forms of precipitation, mean precipitation over an area, Depth-
area-duration relationship, maximum intensity/ depth-duration-frequency relationship, and
Probable Maximum Precipitation for the design of various hydrological problems.

PRE-REQUISITE
Nil

UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U2-O1: To understand different forms and characteristics of precipitation and its
measurement
U2-O2: Presentation of rainfall data and measurement of mean precipitation over an area
U2-O3: To understand the intensity-duration-frequency and depth-area-duration curves
U2-O4: To understand the Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) over an area
37 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Unit Expected Mapping with Course Outcomes

Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7 CO-8
U2-O1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
U2-O2 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3
U2-O3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
U2-O4 1 3 1 2 2 2 3 3

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Precipitation refers to any type of water, whether liquid or solid, that descends from the
atmosphere and falls on the earth. Rain, snow, sleet, and hail are the different forms of
precipitation. Precipitation is an important component of the Earth's water cycle, playing a
key role in replenishing freshwater sources such as rivers, lakes, and groundwater. It is
driven by various atmospheric processes, including condensation, which occurs when water
vapour in the atmosphere cools and forms droplets or ice crystals that eventually grow heavy
enough to descend to the ground under the influence of gravity. Different climates and areas
have quite distinct patterns of precipitation, which are determined by elements like air
pressure, temperature, humidity, and physical features.
The main source of water supply is precipitation, which can take different forms,
including rain, snow, hail, dew, and so forth. Based on the origin, the precipitation can be
classified into three types as orographic, convective, and cyclonic. During the monsoon season,
orographic precipitation accounts for the majority of precipitation in India. Rain makes up the
majority of precipitation, with relatively little coming from other forms like snow, hail, dew,
etc. It is desirable to know the amount of rainfall in a specific area in order to determine the
available water resources. Rain gauges are devices used to measure the amount of rain that
falls. The Standard Non-Recording Rain Gauge has been adopted by the Indian Meteorological
Department, which typically records rainfall at all stations at 8:30 AM.
The other types of rain gauges are the self-recording and tipping bucket models.
Rainfall that falls during a 24-hour period is referred to as daily rainfall, whereas rainfall that
falls within a year is referred to as annual rainfall. Rainfall data should be gathered annually
for a duration of 35 to 40 years in order to calculate the average yearly rainfall. The formula
for the index of wetness (Equation 2.1) can be given as:
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 38

𝑰𝑰𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝒐𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝒘𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 =

𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒊𝒊𝒏𝒏 𝒂𝒂 𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒚𝒚𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒂𝒂𝒕𝒕 𝒕𝒕𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝑨𝑨𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒇𝒇𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 𝒐𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
..…………(2.1)
A year's worth of wetness can be estimated using the index of wetness. For instance, a
nearly 60% index value indicates a 40% shortfall. A substantial deficiency is defined as 30-
45%, a major deficiency as 45–60%, and a calamitous deficiency as greater than 60%. A year
with rainfall that is equal to or greater than the average is referred to as a normal year,
whereas one with less rainfall is referred to as a sub-normal year.

2.2 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

Depending on atmospheric conditions, rain, snow, sleet, hail, and freezing rain are various
forms of precipitation. These different forms of precipitation are influenced by several
climatic factors, such as temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and air currents,
leading to diverse weather conditions in different regions. These forms of precipitation are
described briefly in the following sections.
a. Rain: Rain is one of the most common forms of precipitation, occurring when water
droplets in the atmosphere coalesce and become heavy enough to fall to the ground. It
is typically associated with nimbostratus or cumulonimbus clouds, although it can
occur with other cloud types as well. Rainfall is a crucial component of the Earth's
water cycle, replenishing freshwater sources and sustaining various ecosystems.
Rainfall can vary in intensity, duration, and geographic distribution, influenced by
factors such as atmospheric moisture content, temperature, air pressure, and wind
patterns. It can occur as light, moderate, or heavy rain and may be accompanied by
thunderstorms, lightning, or gusty winds in some cases. Rain plays a significant role
in shaping weather patterns and climatic conditions around the world. Different
regions experience varying amounts and frequencies of rainfall, leading to diverse
ecosystems and agricultural practices. Excessive rainfall can also lead to flooding,
while prolonged periods of drought can have severe impacts on water resources,
agriculture, and ecosystems. On the basis of intensity, rainfall is classified in Table
2.1 as follows:
Table 2.1: Intensity of different types of rain
Type of rain Intensity mm/hour
Light rain < 2.5 mm/hour
Moderate rain 2.5-7.5 mm/hour
Heavy rain >7.5 mm/hour
39 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

b. Snow: Snow is a type of precipitation that falls in the form of ice crystals or
snowflakes. It occurs when water vapour in the atmosphere condenses directly into
the ice crystals at temperatures below freezing (0°C or 32°F). These ice crystals join
together to form snowflakes, which accumulate on the ground as snowfall. Snowfall
can vary in intensity and accumulation, ranging from light flurries to heavy
snowstorms. The characteristics of snow, such as its density and moisture content,
can influence how much snow accumulates on the ground. Factors such as
temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure also play a role in determining the
type of snowfall. Snow is common in regions with cold climates, particularly during
the winter months. It is an important source of freshwater, contributing to the
replenishment of rivers, lakes, and groundwater when it melts. Snow cover also helps
to regulate temperatures by reflecting sunlight, which can have significant effects on
local climate patterns. Snowfall can impact transportation, infrastructure, and daily
activities, sometimes leading to disruptions and hazards such as slippery roads,
reduced visibility, and power outages. However, snow also provides opportunities for
winter sports and recreation, and it contributes to the scenic beauty of many
landscapes.
c. Sleet: Sleet is a form of precipitation that consists of small ice pellets or granules. It
occurs when raindrops pass through a layer of cold air near the ground and freeze
before reaching the surface. Sleet typically forms in winter conditions when there is a
shallow layer of warm air above the ground and a deeper layer of cold air near the
surface. The process of sleet formation begins when raindrops fall from higher layers
of the atmosphere where the temperature is above freezing point. As these raindrops
enter the colder layer of air near the ground, they supercool, meaning they remain in a
liquid state despite being at temperatures below freezing. Upon contact with surfaces
such as the ground, trees, or vehicles, the supercooled raindrops freeze into small ice
pellets, resulting in sleet. Sleet is often associated with wintry weather conditions and
can create hazardous driving and walking conditions, as the frozen pellets can
accumulate on roadways and sidewalks, causing them to become slippery. While sleet
may resemble hail, which forms within thunderstorms, it is generally smaller in size
and occurs in different atmospheric conditions.
d. Hail: Hail is a form of precipitation that consists of solid ice pellets or balls known as
hailstones. It forms within thunderstorms that have strong updrafts, which carry
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 40

raindrops high into the atmosphere where temperatures are below freezing point. As
the raindrops are lifted to colder altitudes, they freeze into small ice pellets. These
pellets can then collide with supercooled water droplets or other hailstones within the
storm cloud, causing them to grow in size. Hailstones can vary in size from small
pea-sized pellets to large golf ball-sized or even larger hailstones. The size of
hailstones is influenced by factors such as the strength of the updrafts, the duration of
time spent in the storm cloud, and the presence of supercooled water droplets.
Hailstorms can be destructive, causing damage to crops, vehicles, buildings, and other
properties. In severe cases, large hailstones can pose a threat to life and safety.
Hailstorms are most common in regions with strong thunderstorm activity,
particularly during the warmer months of the year when atmospheric instability is
high. While hail is often associated with thunderstorms, it can occur in other types of
convective weather systems as well. Forecasters use radar and other tools to monitor
atmospheric conditions and issue warnings for hailstorms when necessary to help
protect life and property.
e. Drizzle: Drizzle is a type of light precipitation characterized by fine water droplets
falling slowly from low-lying clouds. Unlike raindrops, which are larger and fall
more rapidly, drizzle droplets are very small and tend to float down almost
imperceptibly. Drizzle typically occurs when low-stratus clouds, such as nimbostratus
clouds, are present in the atmosphere. It often produces misty or hazy conditions and
can persist for extended periods, though it usually does not result in heavy
accumulation. Drizzle is common in regions with maritime climates, or it occurs
during transitional weather patterns, such as frontal passages. While not as intense as
heavier precipitation types like rain or snow, drizzle can still impact visibility and
create slippery road conditions.
f. Glaze: Glaze, also known as freezing rain, in meteorological terms, refers to a thin
layer of ice that forms on surfaces such as roads, sidewalks, trees, and power lines
when supercooled raindrops freeze upon contact. This phenomenon typically occurs
during freezing rain events. Freezing rain occurs when rain falls from the clouds in
liquid form and then encounters a layer of air at or near the surface with temperatures
below freezing point. As the raindrops come into contact with cold surfaces, they
freeze almost instantly, forming a transparent layer of ice known as glaze. This ice
glaze can be hazardous, as it creates extremely slippery conditions on roads and
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walkways, leading to accidents and disruptions in transportation. Glaze can also

accumulate on other surfaces, such as tree branches and power lines, adding weight
and potentially causing damage or power outages. During severe freezing rain events,
thick layers of glaze can build up, resulting in significant impacts on infrastructure
and communities. Forecasters closely monitor weather conditions to issue warnings
before freezing rain events and advise people to take precautions to stay safe during
icy conditions. Measures such as salting roads and sidewalks can help to mitigate the
risks associated with glaze formation.

2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECIPITATION IN INDIA

Precipitation in India is characterized by its variability in both spatial and temporal
dimensions due to the country's diverse geographical features, monsoon climate, and regional
influences. Understanding the characteristics of precipitation in India is essential for water
resource management, disaster preparedness, agriculture, and urban planning to mitigate the
impacts of extreme weather events and climate change. Here are some key characteristics of
precipitation in India:
a. Monsoon Dominance: India's precipitation patterns are heavily influenced by the Indian
Ocean monsoon system, which brings the majority of the country's annual rainfall.
During the months of June to September, the Southwest Monsoon accounts for about 75-
90% of India's annual precipitation. The Retreating Monsoon, which occurs from October
to December, brings rainfall to parts of southern India.
b. Regional Variation: Precipitation varies significantly across different regions of India.
Due to orographic effects and proximity to moisture sources, coastal areas such as the
Western Ghats and northeastern states typically receive heavy rainfall. In contrast, arid
and semi-arid regions, such as Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat, experience low
precipitation.
c. Seasonal Distribution: India experiences distinct wet and dry seasons. During the
monsoon season, most of the country receives abundant rainfall, while the pre-monsoon
and post-monsoon periods are generally drier. However, some regions, particularly in the
northeastern part and along the west coast, receive rainfall throughout the year.
d. Intensity and Frequency: Precipitation events in India can vary in intensity, ranging
from light drizzles to heavy downpours and thunderstorms. These events can occur
sporadically or in clusters, leading to localized flooding and waterlogging in urban areas.
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e. Variability and Trends: Precipitation patterns in India exhibit interannual and intra-
seasonal variability, influenced by several climatic factors such as the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), and other climate phenomena. Climate
change may also be affecting precipitation trends, with some studies suggesting changes
in the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events.
f. Importance for Agriculture: Precipitation is vital for India's agricultural productivity,
providing water for crops, irrigation, and replenishing groundwater resources. During the
monsoon season, getting adequate rainfall for food security and the livelihoods of
millions of farmers across the country is essential.

2.4 SEASONS IN INDIA

India has four different seasons based on differences in temperature and precipitation.
a. The Cold Winter Season: The cold winter season begins in early December and ends at
the end of February. The coldest months are January and February. The weather
throughout these months is dry and cool. In northern India, the temperature ranges from
10°C to 15°C, while in southern India, it is roughly 25°C. During this time, Tamil Nadu's
coast experiences significant rainfall as a result of western disturbances. During this
season, there are also occasional snowstorms or rainstorms in the northwest part of India.
There is pleasant weather in other regions of the country during the clear and dry months
of January and February.
b. The Hot Summer Season: March marks the beginning of the hot season, which lasts
until mid-June. Because of the vertical sunlight over India at this season, the weather is
quite hot. Some locations experience daytime highs that are nearly 50°C. Chottanagpur,
Kerala, and the Western Ghats are known to witness pre-monsoon showers due to low-
pressure, humid winds originating from the Arabian Sea. During the daytime, loo, or hot
winds, blow, and the northern plains continue to be dry. In Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar
Pradesh, dust storms can occasionally be followed by a cool breeze and light rain, which
significantly reduces the temperature.
During this season, thunderstorms that provide light rain are common. During this
season, hail also falls in some regions, which can occasionally harm crops. There are
occasionally dust storms across the northern plains that are referred to as Andhis locally.
These storms are accompanied by strong winds that carry large amounts of dust, which
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encourage erosion because of the dry weather. Large amounts of loose material, such as
papers, dried leaves, polythene bags, etc., are carried by the wind. Only in the event where
showers follow the gusts do this material usually settle quickly. Violent thunderstorms with
strong gusts and brief rain also occur over the eastern and northeastern parts of the states of
Bihar, West Bengal, and Assam.
a. The Advancing Monsoon Season: This season starts in mid-June and ends in
September. Monsoon winds from the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal bring heavy
rains to all parts of India. There are occasions observed when rain falls with varying
intensities practically in nonstop mode for several days. When the monsoon breaks,
the weather turns hot and muggy.
b. The Retreating Monsoon Season: The Retreating Monsoon Season spans from
October to November. The sky is often clear, and the humidity is low throughout this
season. Early October or late September is when the monsoon begins to recede. The
hot, wet season gives way to the dry winter season throughout the months of October
and early November.
Cyclones arise during the transitional phase when a low-pressure region moves from
the northwest of India to the Bay of Bengal. These cyclones can occasionally get so fast that
they cause terrible damage. Coastal regions of Bangladesh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh are
typically impacted by these cyclones. These types of devastations caused significant loss of
life and property, like in Bangladesh in 1970, Andhra Pradesh in 1977, and Andhra Pradesh
in 1997. Individually, the 1999 Orissa disaster, which claimed over 10,000 lives, will never
be forgotten.

2.5 MONSOONS
The Arabic term for "monsoon" refers to the shifting of the winds. Along the Indian Ocean
coast, it is often used to show when the wind direction changes seasonally. On the Indian
subcontinent, winds typically originate from the southwest half of the year and the northeast
the other. The air rises and is replaced by warm, humid air from over the Indian Ocean when
the Himalayan plateau warms up in the summer. This reversal of direction is caused by
differential heating. At the end of May, when the temperature in India reaches its peak, the
southeast trade winds originate from the south Indian Ocean and across the equator. The
earth's rotation then swiftly deflects them, causing them to spread out as southwesters over
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the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the north Indian Ocean. These redirected trade
winds arrive in the south Bay of Bengal early in May and then move over both marine areas.
The term "Indian southwest monsoon" refers to this westerly stream that crosses India from
the coast of Arabia to the China Sea.
The most notable aspect of the Indian climate is the summer monsoon or SW. This
monsoon originates in the equatorial belt and travels in two separate currents before reaching
the Indian subcontinent. These are known as the Bay of Bengal branch, which starts in the
northeast part of the country, and the Arabian Sea branch, which affects the southern part of
the peninsula. Together, the first and second branches travel the entire nation, with the first
going west and the second north. Rainfall falls on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands from the
Bay of Bengal branch and usually begins around May 20. Early June sees the monsoon move
along the Konkan coast, arriving in Kerala by June 1. The monsoon normally reaches every
part of the country by mid-July. During the monsoon season, the sky is usually dark, and
there are frequent bouts of intense rain. The dates on which the nationwide monsoon begins
are shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Dates on which the nationwide monsoon begins

All facets of Indian society, including politicians, planners, decision-makers, farmers,
dealers, and so on, eagerly await the coming of the major rainy season, which is heralded by
the summer monsoon. The monsoon season begins with the arrival of cool rains that relieve
the stifling heat and signal the beginning of extensive plantation.
"Monsoon depressions" are low-pressure cyclonic systems that start in the Bay of
Bengal around this time of year. In the northern part of the Bay of Bengal, they occur two or
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three times a month on average. They continue to move northward or northwestward,

bringing evenly distributed rainfall to the northern and central regions of the nation. These
depressions' route has a significant impact on how much rainfall falls in northern and central
India. The SW monsoon circulation weakens and starts to retreat from the northwest regions
of India in the second half of September. By the end of September, it virtually leaves the
nation completely and is gradually replaced by a continental airflow that points towards the
north. Along Tamil Nadu's east coast, the withdrawing monsoon winds occasionally produce
showers; however, these are less frequent in the interior.
It does not rain every day throughout the monsoon season. There are times throughout the
monsoon season known as "breaks in the monsoon" when there is no rainfall, and the
temperature is unbearably high. Breaks often last three to seven days, and they occur
frequently in August. Extended pauses could seriously harm the crops. The variability of
monsoon rains from year to year is influenced by global factors such as El Nino,
temperatures in the northern hemisphere, and snow cover, etc. During the monsoon, torrential
downpours in the hilly catchments produce flooding throughout the lowlands. Normally, in
the month of September, the monsoon withdraws. The typical monsoon withdrawal dates are
displayed in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Normal dates of withdrawal of monsoon

2.6 ANNUAL PRECIPITATION IN INDIA

Including snowfall, India receives about 4,000 cubic kilometers or 120 cm, of precipitation
annually. For a country of similar size, this sum is the biggest in the world. However, the
yearly precipitation varies widely. The country receives 1,100 cm of rainfalls above the
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Khasi and Jaintia Hills, whereas 200 cm falls in the Brahmaputra Valley to the north. At a
height of 1,330 meters, Cherrapunji records up to 104 cm of rainfall per day and about 1,142
cm of annual precipitation. Cyclonic depressions, western disturbances, and the North and
South East monsoons are the ways that India receives its rainfall. Most rainfall occurs
between June and September under the influence of the Southwest monsoon, with the
exception of Tamil Nadu, where it rains between October and November under the influence
of the northeast monsoon. The rainfall in India varies greatly, with irregularities in its
seasonal and geographical distribution as well as frequent departures from the normal.
A day is classified as a rainy day by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) if
there is at least 2.5 mm of precipitation. There are less than 20 mean yearly rainy days in the
northwest (West Rajasthan and the Kutchh region of Gujarat), but more than 180 days in the
northeast. The southern sections of the West Coast also see about 140 days of precipitation
annually. About 40 to 60 rainy days fall in India's central regions each year. Based on the
reported spatial pattern, the mean intensity of rainfall varies every rainy day between 10 and
40 mm. In the far north, the lowest amount is less than 10 mm/day. Every rainy day in
northwest India has an intensity of over 10 mm. The maximum value is seen in several
regions of northeastern India and along the West Coast, where it is about 40 mm/day.
Figure 2.3 displays the average annual rainfall for the entire nation. The graphic
illustrates the significant regional variation in India's annual precipitation. The annual rainfall
ranges from over 1,100 mm in the northeastern regions to about 100 mm in the western
deserts of the country. The wettest states in India include Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya.
Other states that receive rainfall between 250 and 400 cm annually include Assam, the sub-
Himalayas, West Bengal, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Konkan, Coastal Karnataka, and
Kerala. Over 50% of the precipitation occurs in less than 15 days or roughly 100 hours
annually. In the northeast, there are 150 rainy days on average, compared to roughly 5 in the
western deserts. The work of water resources engineers is extremely difficult because of this
huge variation.
India's west coast experiences heavy rainfall on the windward side of the Western
Ghats slopes, which rapidly diminishes on the leeward side. On the east coast of India, the
amount of rainfall increases near the sea and decreases in land. In the northern plains, the
amount of precipitation decreases from 150 cm in West Bengal to roughly 10 cm in
Rajasthan's extreme west.
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The eastern Himalayas receive more annual precipitation than the western ones, with the
former receiving over 200 cm while the later receives just over 70 cm. Additionally, it
rapidly drops in the upper mountains and is higher in the lower foothills.

Figure 2.3: Average annual rainfall over India

2.7 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION

Precipitation is the process by which water falls from the atmosphere to the surface of the
ground can be quantified using various tools and techniques. Overall, the measurement of
precipitation is crucial for understanding and predicting weather patterns, assessing water
resources, and managing various environmental and societal impacts associated with
precipitation, such as flooding, droughts, and agriculture. The most common unit for
measuring precipitation is depth, typically expressed in millimeters (mm) or inches (in). Here
are some methods used to measure precipitation:

2.7.1 Measurement of rainfall

A rain gauge, a basic meteorological device intended to gather and quantify the quantity of
precipitation that falls at a certain area during a predetermined amount of time, is commonly
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used to measure rainfall. Although there are many different designs of rain gauges, the most
popular one is a cylindrical container with a funnel at the top to collect rainwater and route it
into a graded measurement tube or cylinder. The collected water is measured in millimeters
or inches.
Measuring rainfall is crucial for many applications, such as climate research,
agriculture, water resource management, and weather forecasting. They provide valuable
information about precipitation patterns and help scientists and policymakers make informed
decisions related to water resources, flood control, and drought mitigation.
Rain Gauges
Rain gauges are the popular tools for calculating the total amount of precipitation(rainfall)
that falls on the earth during a certain time period. There are several types of rain gauges,
each with its own advantages and limitations. The rain gauges can be divided into two types:
(i) Non-recording rain gauges and (ii) Recording rain gauges. These instruments collect
precipitation (rainfall) in a container, and the amount of rainfall is measured manually or
automatically by measuring the depth of the gathered water to determine the amount of
precipitation.
a. Non-recording rain gauges:
A non-recording rain gauge is a simple device used to measure rainfall without providing a
continuous or automatic recording of the data. It is similar to the Syphon rain gauge but
without automated recording. Unlike recording rain gauges, which provide a continuous
record of rainfall over time, non-recording rain gauges typically require manual observation
and measurement. Rainwater is collected in a container equipped with a syphon tube, and the
user manually measures the water passing through the syphon to determine rainfall depth.
Non-recording rain gauges (Figure 2.4) are often used in situations where continuous
monitoring of rainfall is not necessary or in locations where automated recording systems are
not feasible due to cost or maintenance considerations. These are commonly used in manual
weather observation networks, educational settings, and for occasional or spot measurements
of rainfall.
A standard non-recording rain gauge is a simple device used to measure rainfall
without providing a continuous or automatic recording of the data. It is a basic instrument
typically employed in manual weather observation networks, educational settings, or where
automated systems are not feasible due to cost or maintenance considerations. A standard
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non-recording rain gauge consists of a cylindrical container with straight sides and an open
top. Rainfall collection in most rain gauges is through a funnel-shaped aperture on the top.
Rainwater gathered by the funnel collects at the bottom of the cylindrical container after
falling into it. To measure rainfall using a standard non-recording rain gauge, an observer
needs to manually check the gauge after a rainfall event. The collected rainwater depth in the
container is measured using a ruler or graduated cylinder. The depth of the collected water is
then recorded as the amount of rainfall that occurred during the observed period.

Figure 2.4: Non-recording rain gauge (syphon’s rain gauge)

The accuracy of measurements from a standard non-recording rain gauge depends on
various factors, including the gauge's design, placement, and the skill of the observer. These
gauges provide a single-point measurement for a specific location and time, so they might
not capture localized variations in rainfall. Standard non-recording rain gauges require
regular maintenance, including cleaning and calibration, to ensure accurate measurements
over time.
Overall, while standard non-recording rain gauges are simple and cost-effective tools for
measuring rainfall, they rely on manual observation and are suitable for applications where
continuous monitoring is not necessary.
b. Recording Rain gauges
i. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge: One kind of rain gauge that is frequently used to
measure precipitation is the tipping bucket rain gauge. It operates on a simple
principle: as rain falls into the funnel-shaped top of the gauge, it is collected in a
small container or bucket. When a particular volume of water accumulates in it, it
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tips or empties, allowing the next increment of rainfall to be collected. Each tip of
the bucket corresponds to a known volume of rainfall, making it relatively easy to
measure precipitation accurately.
Tipping bucket rain gauges are popular because they offer several advantages.
These rain gauges provide accurate and reliable measurements of precipitation. They
are relatively simple to operate and maintain and can measure both the intensity and
total accumulation of rainfall. Tipping bucket rain gauges can be automated and
integrated into weather monitoring networks for real-time data collection.
Tipping bucket rain gauges are widely used in meteorological stations, research
institutions, and environmental monitoring networks for various applications,
including weather forecasting, hydrology, and climate research.
ii. Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge: A weighing bucket rain gauge, also known as a
weighing precipitation gauge or weighing rain gauge, is another type of
instrument used to measure rainfall. In contrast to the tipping bucket rain gauge,
which measures rainfall by tipping a bucket, the weighing bucket rain gauge
directly measures the weight of the collected precipitation. This gauge measures
rainfall by the increase in weight of the collected water. It consists of a container
placed on a sensitive balance. As rain falls into the container, the weight of the
water increases and this change in weight is recorded as rainfall.
Weighing bucket rain gauges offer several advantages. These rain gauges
provide highly accurate measurements of precipitation, including rainfall intensity
and total accumulation. They are not affected by wind or other environmental factors
that may influence the accuracy of measurements in other types of rain gauges. They
can be used in remote or harsh environments where other types of rain gauges may be
less practical. However, weighing bucket rain gauges also have some limitations,
including their relatively high cost and the need for periodic maintenance and
calibration to ensure accuracy.
Overall, weighing bucket rain gauges are valuable tools for meteorological
stations, research institutions, and environmental monitoring networks, particularly in
applications requiring precise measurements of precipitation.
iii. Optical Rain Gauge: This type of gauge uses optical sensors to detect raindrops.
It typically emits light or laser beams across a known distance and measures
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disruptions in the beams caused by raindrops passing through. This data is then
used to calculate rainfall intensity.
iv. Acoustic Rain Gauge: This gauge measures rainfall by analyzing the sound of
rain hitting a surface. It typically uses sensors to detect the sound waves generated
by raindrops and converts this information into measurements of rainfall intensity.
v. Radar Rain Gauge: Radar technology can be used to estimate rainfall by
measuring the reflectivity of precipitation particles in the atmosphere. This
method provides spatial and temporal information about rainfall over a large area.
vi. Satellite-based Rain Gauge: Satellites equipped with remote sensing instruments
can provide estimates of rainfall over large geographical areas by analyzing cloud
patterns and other atmospheric parameters.
2.7.2 Measurement of snowfall
Measuring snowfall presents unique challenges compared to measuring rainfall due to the
variability in snow density and accumulation patterns. Several methods are commonly used
to measure snowfall. It is notable that each method has its advantages and limitations, and the
choice of measurement technique depends on factors such as accuracy requirements,
available resources, and environmental conditions. Combining multiple measurement
techniques can provide a more comprehensive understanding of snowfall patterns and their
impacts. The methods commonly used to measure snowfall are described in brief in the
following sections.
a. Snow Gauges: In regions where snowfall is common, snow gauges are used to measure
the depth of snow accumulation. These gauges typically consist of a flat surface where
snow accumulates, and a ruler or measuring stick are used to manually measure the depth
of the deposited snow.
b. Snowboard: A snowboard is a flat, elevated platform placed on the ground to collect
snow. Snow accumulates on the board, and its depth is measured at regular intervals
using a ruler or measuring stick. This method provides a simple and inexpensive way to
measure snow accumulation but may underestimate the true amount of snowfall due to
compaction.
c. Snow Stake: Similar to a snowboard, a snow stake is a vertical pole with markings to
measure snow accumulation. The stake is installed in an open area, and snow depth is
measured by observing the height of the snow relative to the markings on the stake. This
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method is also susceptible to compaction but can provide useful data when combined
with other measurement techniques.
d. Snow Pillow: A snow pillow is a large, inflatable bladder placed on the ground to
measure the weight of the snow above it. As snow accumulates, it compresses the pillow,
and the change in pressure is recorded electronically. This method is commonly used in
remote areas and automated weather stations.
e. Snow Depth Sensor: These sensors use various technologies, such as ultrasonic pulses
or lasers, to measure the distance between the sensor and the ground surface. By
continuously monitoring this distance, snow depth can be determined accurately.
f. Snow Course: A snow course involves measuring snow depth at multiple locations along
a transect using manual or automated techniques. This method provides a spatially
distributed view of snow accumulation and is commonly used for hydrological and water
resource management purposes.

2.8 MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL

2.8.1 Adequacy of Rain Gauge Stations
If there are already a few rain gauge stations in a catchment, statistical analysis can establish
the optimal number of stations that should exist to have a given percentage of error to
determine the estimate of mean rainfall as Equation (2.2):
𝐶𝐶 2
𝑁𝑁 = � 𝜀𝜀𝑣𝑣� ..…………(2.2)
Where,
N = optimal number of stations,
∑ = allowable degree of error to determine the estimate of mean rainfall and
Cv = coefficient of variation of the rainfall values (in %) at the existing m stations.
If the catchment has m stations, each of which records the amount of rainfall values X1,
X2,…..,Xi,….,Xm in a given time, the coefficient of variation Cv can be obtained as Equation
(2.2a):
100∗𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚−1
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 = ..…………(2.2a)
𝑋𝑋�
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where,
2
∑𝑚𝑚
1 �𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖 −𝑋𝑋�
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚−1 = �� �= standard deviation
𝑚𝑚−1

Xi = magnitude of precipitation in the ith station

1
𝑋𝑋� = 𝑚𝑚 (∑𝑚𝑚
1 𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖 )= average precipitation

Consider the existing m rain gauges, having 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 as their coefficient of variation and 𝑋𝑋� as their
mean rainfall. To find the percentage of inaccuracy (∈𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 ) in the mean estimation in the
existing m rain gauge system, then Equation (2.2) can be rewritten (by replacing N by m) as
Equation (2.3):
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 2
𝑚𝑚 = � � ..…………(2.3)
∈𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥

where,
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣
∈𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 = ...………(2.3a)
√𝑚𝑚

The term "∈𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 " in the aforementioned Equation (2.3a) denotes the predicted error (in
percentage) in the mean 𝑋𝑋�, estimation. Standard error in the estimation of mean precipitation
is used to assess the precision of mean precipitation estimation in the current system.
Typically, one uses Equation (2.3) to calculate the number of rain gauges N for a particular
amount of error, taking ∈𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 to be 10%. It may be observed that a smaller value of ∈𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 will
necessitate a larger number of rain gauges. WMO guidelines state that self-recording rain
gauges should make up at least 10% of all rain gauges.
Example 2.1: There are seven rain gauge stations inside the catchment of a watershed. The
annual rainfall in a given year that the rain gauges recorded is as follows:
Station A B C D E F G

Rainfall (cm) 82.8 105.9 170.3 116.5 99.9 130.7 115.8

Obtain the standard error in the average rainfall estimation for the current set of rain gauges.
Determine the ideal number of stations in the catchment, accounting for a 9% error in the
mean rainfall estimate.
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Solution
For the given data,
No of rain gauges M = 7;
1
Mean annual rainfall 𝑃𝑃� = 𝑚𝑚 (∑𝑚𝑚
1 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 )

82.8+105.9+170.3+116.5+99.9+130.7+115.8
= 7

= 117.41 cm

Standard deviation:
σ m−1 = ��∑𝑚𝑚 � 2
1 (𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 −𝑃𝑃 )
�
𝑚𝑚−1

= 27.73 cm
100∗𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚−1
Coefficient of variation Cv = 𝑃𝑃�
100∗27.73
= 117.41

= 23.62
Standard error in the mean rainfall Calculation:
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 23.62
∈𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 = = = 8.9%
√𝑚𝑚 √7

When the error is limited to 9%, ∈= 9; optimum number of raingauges in the watershed can
be determined by:
𝐶𝐶 2 23.62 2
𝑁𝑁 = � 𝜀𝜀𝑣𝑣� � 9
� =6.88 say =7 stations

For the watershed, the optimal number of stations is seven, which seems that the
number of rain gauges available in the catchment are optimum.

2.8.2 Preparation of data

Prior to using a station's rainfall records, the data must be verified for consistency and
continuity. A rain gauge malfunction or other damage can cause missing data, disrupting the
continuity of a record for a variety of causes. By utilizing the data from nearby stations,
estimation of the missing data is possible. The typical rainfall is utilized as a benchmark in
these computations. The average amount of rainfall at a specific date, month, or year for a
given 30-year period is known as the normal rainfall. Every ten years, the 30-year average is
55 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

recalculated. Accordingly, the average annual precipitation at station A based on a given 30-
year record is referred to as "normal annual precipitation at station A."
a. Estimation of missing data
At neighboring M stations 1, 2, 3….M, respectively, annual precipitation values P1, P2,
P3…Pm is known. The yearly precipitation Px that is missing at station X, which is not one of
the M stations listed above, is to be obtained. Additionally, each of the aforementioned (M +
1) stations, including station X, has known typical annual precipitation values N1, N2 …Ni ….
If the normal annual precipitation at several stations is within 10% of the normal annual
precipitation at station X, then Px can be estimated using a simple arithmetic average method
as Equation (2.4). Consequently,
1
𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 = 𝑀𝑀 [𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 +. . . +𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 ] ...………(2.4)
By measuring the precipitation at different stations based on the ratios of normal yearly
precipitations, the value of Px can be determined as Equation (2.5), if the normal
precipitations vary significantly. This method is known as the normal ratio method.
According to the normal ratio method:
𝑁𝑁𝑥𝑥 𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 = � + 𝑁𝑁2 +. . . + 𝑁𝑁𝑚𝑚 � ..……(2.5)
𝑀𝑀 𝑁𝑁1 2 𝑚𝑚

Example 2.2: In a particular catchment, at stations A, B, C, and D, the average yearly

rainfall is 85.90, 63.15, 75.18, and 89.91 cm, respectively. Station D was not operational in
1996; annual precipitation at stations A, B, and C was 91.71, 69.72, and 82.98 cm,
respectively. Calculate the amount of rain that year at station D.
Solution:
Maximum variation in normal rainfall at station D = 89.91-63.15 = 26.76 cm
Maximum variation with respect to normal at station D in percentage
26.76
=89.91 𝑥𝑥100 = 29.76%
As the variation in normal rainfall values is more than 10%, the normal ratio method is used.
In the normal ratio method M=3
𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑃𝑃1 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
Estimated rainfall at station D= PD = �𝑁𝑁 + 𝑁𝑁2 +. . . + 𝑁𝑁𝐶𝐶 �
𝑀𝑀 1 2 𝐶𝐶

89.91 91.71 69.72 82.98

𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 3
�85.90 + 63.15 + 75.18�
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=29.97(1.06+1.10+1.10)
= 97.70 cm
Example 2.3: Four rain gauge stations, namely Jhabua, Alirajpur, Dhar and Sardarpur, are
located in a typical region, as shown in the Fig below. The rainfall observed during a month
at Jhabua, Dhar and Alirajpur is 132.2 mm, 113.3 mm, and 150.5 mm, respectively, while the
corresponding rainfall value at Sardarpur is missing. If the normal monthly rainfall at
Sardarpur, Jhabua, Dhar and Alirajpur are 246.2 mm, 203.2 mm, 233.4 mm, and 220.8 mm,
respectively, obtain the value of missing rainfall data at Sardarpur rain gauge station using
the normal ratio method.

Figure 2.5: Estimation of missing rainfall data

Solution
Maximum variation in normal rainfall at Sardarpur = 246.2 - 203.2 = 43.0 cm
Maximum variation with respect to normal at station Sardarpur in percentage
43
=246.2 𝑥𝑥100 = 17.46%
As the variation in normal rainfall values is more than 10%, the normal ratio method is used.
In the normal ratio method M=3
Estimated rainfall at station Sardarpur
𝑁𝑁 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
=PD= 𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷 �𝑁𝑁1 + 𝑁𝑁2 + ⋯ + 𝑁𝑁𝐶𝐶 �
1 2 𝐶𝐶

246.2 132.2 113.3 150.5

𝑃𝑃𝐷𝐷 = 3
�203.2 + 233.4 + 220.8�
=82.07(0.65+0.49+0.68)
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= 149.36 cm

2.8.3 Test for Consistency of Record

The rainfall data from a rain gauge station will become inconsistent if there has been a
substantial change in the relevant conditions during the recording period. This discrepancy
would be apparent as soon as the big shift occurred. Several common reasons for inconsistent
records include (i) shifting the site of a rain gauge station, (ii) noticeable changes occurring
in the station's neighborhood, (iii) changes in the ecosystem as a result of natural calamities
such as forest fires and landslides; and (iv) observational errors occurring after a specific
date. The double-mass curve technique can be used to analyze a record for discrepancies. The
backbone of this approach is the concept that reported data are reliable if they come from the
same parent population.
A selection is made of five to ten base stations that are located in the vicinity of the
problematic station X. The annual (or monthly) mean rainfall at station X and the rainfall
average of base stations over an extended period of time are presented in reverse
chronological order, with the most recent record displaying first and the oldest record
displaying last in the list. The cumulative precipitation of station X (i.e., ∑Px) and the
accumulated value of the average of the base station group (i.e., ∑Pav) are computed
commencing with the most recent record.
Values of ∑Px versus ∑Pav are plotted for different successive time intervals, as shown in
Figure 2.6. The relation is used to rectify a clear break in the slope of the derived values at
station X following the regime change phase (see Figure 2.6, point 63). The corrected
precipitation at station X for any time period t1 can be obtained using Equation (2.6).
𝑀𝑀
𝑃𝑃𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 = 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐 ....………(2.6)
𝑎𝑎

where,
Pcx = corrected precipitation at station X for any time period t1
Px = original corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at station X
Mc = corrected slope of the double-mass curve
Ma = original slope of the mass curve
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Figure 2.6: Double-mass curve

Example 2.4: The annual rainfall data for station M and the average annual rainfall values
for ten neighboring stations situated in a region with a uniform climate are provided below.
Year Rainfall of Average annual Year Rainfall Average annual
station M rainfall of the of station rainfall of the
(mm) group (mm) M (mm) group (mm)
1950 676 780 1965 1244 1400
1951 578 660 1966 999 1140
1952 95 110 1967 573 650
1953 462 520 1968 596 646
1954 472 540 1969 375 350
1955 699 800 1970 635 590
1956 479 540 1971 497 490
1957 431 490 1972 386 400
1958 493 560 1973 438 390
1959 503 575 1974 568 570
1960 415 480 1975 356 377
1961 531 600 1976 685 653
1962 504 580 1977 825 787
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Year Rainfall of Average annual Year Rainfall Average annual

station M rainfall of the of station rainfall of the
(mm) group (mm) M (mm) group (mm)
1963 828 950 1978 426 410
1964 679 770 1979 612 588

Evaluate consistency in available yearly rainfall data for station M and modify the record if
any discrepancies are found. Determine the average annual precipitation at station M.
Solution:
The data is sorted by year in descending order, commencing from 1979, which is the most
recent year. Table 2.2 displays the computation of the ten station average rainfall values
(∑𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑣 ) and the cumulative rainfall value of station M (∑𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 ). Plotting the data using (∑𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚 )
on the Y-axis and (∑𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑣 ) on the X-axis results in a double-mass curve plot (Figure 2.7). Each
plotted point's corresponding year value is also displayed on the plot. Two straight lines are
used to represent the data, with a grade break occurring in 1969. This represents a change in
Station M management after 1968. The best straight line for the years 1979–1969 has a slope
of Mc = 1.0295, while the slope for the years 1968–1950 is Ma = 0.8779. The ratio of
modification to update the previous records, which span the years 1950–1968, is the 1968
record
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐 1.0295
= = 0.8779 =1.173.
𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎

Table 2.2: Evaluation of Double-Mass curve of Example 2.4.

Year Pm ΣPm Pav ΣPav Adjusted values Finalized values of

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) of Pm(mm) Pm (mm)
1979 612 612 588 588 612
1978 426 1038 410 998 426
1977 825 1863 787 1785 825
1976 685 2548 653 2438 685
1975 356 2904 377 2815 356
1974 568 3472 570 3385 568
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Year Pm ΣPm Pav ΣPav Adjusted values Finalized values of

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) of Pm(mm) Pm (mm)
1973 438 3910 390 3775 438
1972 386 4296 400 4175 386
1971 497 4793 490 4665 497
1970 635 5428 590 5255 635
1969 375 5803 350 5605 375
1968 596 6399 646 6251 698.92 699
1967 573 6972 650 6901 671.95 672
1966 999 7971 1140 8041 1171.51 1172
1965 1244 9215 1400 9441 1458.82 1459
1964 679 9894 770 10211 796.25 796
1963 828 10722 950 11161 970.98 971
1962 504 11226 580 11741 591.03 591
1961 531 11757 600 12341 622.70 623
1960 415 12172 480 12821 486.66 487
1959 503 12675 575 13396 589.86 590
1958 493 13168 560 13956 578.13 578
1957 431 13599 490 14446 505.43 505
1956 479 14078 540 14986 561.72 562
1955 699 14777 800 15786 819.71 820
1954 472 15249 540 16326 553.51 554
1953 462 15711 520 16846 541.78 542
1952 95 15806 110 16956 111.41 111
1951 578 16384 660 17616 677.81 678
1950 676 17060 780 18396 792.73 793
61 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Figure 2.7: Double mass curve of yearly rainfall at station M

Multiply each annual rainfall value before 1969 by the adjustment ratio of 1.173 to obtain the
corrected value. Column 6 of Table 2.2 shows the updated outcomes at station M. The
finalized Pm values (rounded to the nearest millimeter) for each of the 30 years of data are
shown in Column 7.
The mean annual precipitation at station M (based on the corrected time series)
= 19004/30 = 633.5 mm

2.9 PRESENTATION OF RAINFALL DATA

The following list includes often used techniques for calculating rainfall and precipitation
data that have been shown to be beneficial in the processing and interpretation of such data.

2.9.1 Mass Curve of Rainfall

The mass curve plot of rainfall is a representation of the total precipitation against time,
organized chronologically. This kind of record is applicable to float-type and weighing
bucket-type gauges. A typical mass curve of rainfall at a place during a storm is shown in
Figure 2.8.
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Figure 2.8: Mass Curve of rainfall

Rainfall mass curves are a valuable tool for determining the length and intensity of a
storm. In addition, the slope of the curve can be used to determine the intensities of a storm at
different times. When preparing mass curves for non-recording rain gauges, one employs the
mass curves of adjacent recording gauge stations as a gauge and approximates storm start and
end times.

2.9.2 Hyetograph
A hyetograph can be defined as plotting the amount of precipitation against a time duration.
The mass curve is the source of the hyetograph, which is typically shown as a bar chart
(Figure 2.9). It is a very important way to show the characteristics of a storm and can be
extremely beneficial when creating design storms to forecast catastrophic flooding. The
entire amount of precipitation received during the period is shown by the area under a
hyetograph. The duration employed varies depending on the goal; for example, brief
durations are used in urban drainage problems, whereas intervals of roughly six hours are
used in larger watershed flood-flow estimates.

Figure 2.9: Hyetograph of a storm

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2.9.3 Point Rainfall

Point rainfall, also known as station rainfall, is the term used to describe the rainfall data
obtained from a station. Depending on the demands, data may be presented as daily, weekly,
monthly, seasonal, or annual values for various time periods. The magnitude vs time graphs
for these data are displayed graphically as bar diagrams. However, such a plot is not valuable
for recognizing a trend in the rainfall because there will be huge variances in the rainfall
values that cause the plot to shift quickly. A moving average plot, which shows the average
precipitation value over three or five consecutive time intervals at the middle of the period,
can be used to smooth out differences and highlight patterns.

2.10 MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER AN AREA

Only the location of the rain gauge's installation area is represented by its representation of
rainfall. Nevertheless, in practical hydrological analysis, the estimate of point rainfall is
transformed into the average rainfall throughout a catchment using the following techniques:
(a) Arithmetic mean technique, (b) Thiessen Polygon technique and (c) The isohyet technique.

2.10.1 Arithmetical-Mean technique

When there is little variation in the rainfall recorded at various stations within the watershed,
the mean precipitation over the watershed is calculated by taking the arithmetic mean of the
station data. Thus, using the arithmetic-mean technique the mean precipitation P̅ over the
catchment area Equation (2.7) with the following values P1, P2, …., Pi, …, Pn of measured
precipitation at n stations rainfall during a specific period can be expressed as follows:
𝑃𝑃 +𝑃𝑃 +⋯𝑃𝑃 +⋯+𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 1
𝑃𝑃� = � 1 2 𝑁𝑁 𝑖𝑖 � =𝑁𝑁 ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 .………(2.7)
The Arithmetic method is suitable for basins with a large number of rain gauge
stations spaced uniformly and if the variation of individual gauge reading over the mean is
not large. However, it may lead to considerable error, if the rain gauge network over the
catchment is not uniform and sparse and when the variability of rainfall distribution over a
given catchment is large.

2.10.2 Thiessen Polygon Method

In this method, every rain gauge is allocated a certain area of the catchment which is closest
to that rain gauge. The allocation of area, Ai to the ith rain gauge is done using Thiessen
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 64

polygon method (Figure 2.10). Because different stations are assigned weights on a rational
basis, the Thiessen polygon approach is better than the arithmetic mean technique.

Figure 2.10: Thiessen polygon

Three stations exist in the neighborhood, although they are not inside the catchment.
The scale-drawn catchment region shows the exact locations of the total six rain gauge
stations. A network of triangles is created by connecting stations 1 through 6. For every side
of the triangle, the perpendicular bisectors are drawn. Around every station, these bisectors
create a polygon. If the catchment boundary intersects the bisectors, it is considered the
polygon's outer boundary. Therefore, the bounding polygon for station 1 is abcd. kade is used
to enclose the polygon for station 2. Like this, all the names have been given based on the
Thiessen polygons. These six Thiessen polygons had their areas measured using an overlay
grid or a planimeter. If A1, A2, …, A6 are the respective areas of the Thiessen polygons and
P1, P2, ….., P6 are the magnitudes of rainfall obtained by the stations 1, 2,..., 6 accordingly,
then the mean rainfall over the watershed can be denoted by Equation (2.8 and 2.9). The
weighting factor for each station is defined as the ratio Ai/A.
𝑃𝑃1 𝐴𝐴1 +𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴2 +⋯+𝑃𝑃6 𝐴𝐴6
𝑃𝑃� = ....………(2.8)
𝐴𝐴1 +𝐴𝐴2 +⋯+𝐴𝐴6

Thus, in general, for M rain gauge stations,

∑ 𝑀𝑀
𝑃𝑃 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖
𝑃𝑃� = 𝑖𝑖=1𝐴𝐴 𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 = ∑𝑀𝑀
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴 ....………(2.9)
The Thiessen-polygon method of calculating the mean precipitation over a region is better
than the arithmetic-average method because each station is given an appropriate amount of
weight.
In the case of a fixed station network, the computation is rather simple once the weightage
factors are established. This approach has an advantage over the arithmetic mean method in
65 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

that it considers the catchment's non-uniform rain gauge distribution by assigning distinct
areas to the appropriate rain gauges. This is merely a geometrical exercise that ignores the
catchment's true variability in rainfall frequency.
Example 2.5: Four rainfall stations are located inside a catchment region, roughly
represented by a circle with a diameter of 100 km, and one station is located nearby. The five
stations' coordinates as well as the catchment centers are listed below. The yearly
precipitation totals from the five sites in 1982 are also provided. Calculate the average annual
precipitation using (a) the Thiessen-mean approach (b) the arithmetical mean method.
Centre: (100,100) Diameter: 100 km Distance is in km
Station 1 2 3 4 5
Coordinates (30,80) (70,100) (100,140) (130,100) (100,70)
Precipitation (cm) 95.0 136.2 95.4 145.9 101.9
Solution: Thiessen-mean approach: The stations are indicated on a scale drawing of the
catchment region (Figure 2.11). After joining the stations to create a set of triangles, each
side's perpendicular bisector is drawn. The stations are then identified by the Thiessen-
polygon enclosing each station. It may be noted that station 1 in the given problem has no
influence within the catchment. One can use a planimeter or overlay a grid to calculate the
areas of different Thiessen polygons. The calculation of weighted rainfall by the Thiessen
polygon method is presented in Table 2.3 below.

Figure 2.11: Thiessen polygons

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Table 2.3: Calculation of weighted rainfall by Thiessen polygon method

Station Boundary Area Fraction Rainfall Weighted P(cm)
of area (km2) of total (col. 4 x col. 5)
area
1 - - - 85.0 -
2 abcd 2140.9 0.2726 136.2 37.13
3 dce 1608.8 0.2048 95.4 19.54
4 ecbf 2141.1 0.2726 145.9 39.77
5 fba 1962.7 0.2500 101.9 25.48
Total 7853.5 1.0000 121.92
Mean precipitation = 121.92 cm.
Arithmetical mean method: Out of five rain gauge stations, only four stations 2,3,4, and 5,
fall within the basin. Station no 1 fall outside the basin. Hence, only four stations 2,3,4, and 5
will be considered for obtaining the arithmetic mean. Hence, the mean annual precipitation
for the basin for 1982:
𝑃𝑃1 + 𝑃𝑃2 + ⋯ 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃� = � �
𝑁𝑁
136.2 + 95.4 + 145.9 + 101.9
𝑃𝑃� = � �
4
𝑃𝑃 +𝑃𝑃 +⋯𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 +⋯+𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃� = � 1 2 � = 119.85 cm
𝑁𝑁

2.10.3 Isohyet Method

A line connecting points of equal rainfall magnitude is called an isohyet. Using the isohyet
technique, the catchment area and rain gauge stations are marked. The recorded values that
need to be obtained areal average rainfall P and are then indicated at the appropriate
stations on the plot. Consideration is also extended to neighboring stations outside the
catchment. Next, using point rainfalls as a guide and eye interpolation between them, the
isohyets of different values are drawn (Figure 2.12).
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Figure 2.12: Isohyets of a storm

The process is like sketching contours of height using spot levels. The next step is to
calculate the distance between two nearby isohyets using a planimeter. If the isohyets escape
the catchment, the catchment boundary acts as the bounding line. It is assumed that the
average rainfall determined by two isohyets applies to the inter-isohyet region. Thus, if P1,
P2…Pn are the isohyet values, and a1, a2… an-1 are the inter-isohyet regions, then the mean
precipitation over area A catchment is given by Equation 2.10.
𝑃𝑃 +𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 +𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 +𝑃𝑃
𝑎𝑎1 � 1 2 �+𝑎𝑎2 � 2 3 �+⋯+𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 � 𝑛𝑛−1 𝑛𝑛 �
𝑃𝑃� = 2 2 2
.……(2.10)
𝐴𝐴

When there are a lot of stations, the isohyet technique performs better than the other two
methods.
Example 2.6: A watershed area surrounded by isohyets was estimated as follows, and the
isohyets caused by a storm in the catchment were illustrated (Figure 2.12).
Isohyets(cm) Area (km2)
Station – 12.0 35
12.0 – 10.0 150
10.0 – 8.0 75
8.0 – 6.0 170
6.0 – 4.0 25
Determine the storm's mean precipitation.
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Solution: An estimate of 12.0 cm of precipitation is obtained for the first area, which consists
of a rain gauge station surrounded by a closed isohyet. The mean of two bounding isohyets is
used for all other areas.
Isohyets Mean value Area Fraction of total Weighted P (cm)
of P (cm) (km2) area (col. 3/455) (col. 2 x col. 4)
1 2 3 4 5
12.0 12.0 35 0.0769 0.923
12.0 – 10.0 11.0 150 0.3297 3.627
10.0 – 8.0 9.0 75 0.1648 1.483
8.0 – 6.0 7.0 170 0.3737 2.616
6.0 – 4.0 5.0 25 0.0549 0.275
Total 455 1.0000 8.924

Mean precipitation P =8.924 cm.

2.11 STORM ANALYSIS

While estimating the mean rainfall for a given duration in a catchment, the volume of water
as rainfall can be obtained as P ×A. For instance, if a 150 km2 catchment area experiences
mean rainfall of 5 cm, the amount of water that falls as rainfall ( P ):
5
P =
100
×150×106 = 7.5×106 m3 ……(2.11)
Hydrological studies sometimes entail estimating the likelihood of major floods
brought on by heavy rains. Details about the highest quantity of precipitation in a variety of
durations that trigger different types of catchment areas to respond are therefore essential.
Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) analysis and maximum depth-duration analysis are the terms
used to describe these relationships. Below is a quick summary of the DAD analysis:

2.11.1 Depth Area Relation

The "depth-area relation" typically refers to a relationship between the depth of water and the
area it covers. This concept is often encountered in hydrology, geography, and engineering,
particularly in studies related to rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water. Understanding the
depth-area relation is crucial in various fields, including hydrology, hydraulic engineering,
69 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

flood risk assessment, and environmental management. It helps predict flood extents, design
hydraulic structures, manage water resources, and assess the ecological health of aquatic
ecosystems.
In general, the depth-area relation can be summarized as follows:
a. Direct Relationship: For rainfall of a given duration, as the depth of water increases, the
area it covers typically increases as well. This is an initiative, as deeper water will spread
out over a larger surface area. This method can obtain mean depth (cm) over an area by
Equation 2.12.
𝑃𝑃�= Poexp (-KAn) ....…(2.12)
where,
𝑃𝑃�= Mean depth (cm) over an area A sq. km
Po =Maximum value of rainfall in cm at the center of a storm
K = Coefficient for a given region
n = Coefficient for a given region
Dhar and Bhattacharya (1975) obtained the following values for K and n for storms of
varying duration based on 42 of the most severe storms in north India:
Duration K n
1 day 0.0008526 0.6614
2 days 0.0009877 0.6306
3 days 0.001745 0.5961
b. Non-linear Relationship: The relationship between depth and area is often non-linear. In
other words, a slight increase in depth may result in a larger increase in the covered area,
especially in shallow water bodies.
c. Topographic Influence: The shape and characteristics of the basin or water body,
including its topography, play a significant role in determining the depth-area relation.
For example, a flat, wide basin may have a different depth-area relation than a narrow,
steep-sided canyon.
d. Hydraulic Geometry: This concept refers to how the shape and size of a river channel or
water body change in response to the variations in flow and sediment transport. The
depth-area relation is a key component of hydraulic geometry studies.
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e. Cross-Sectional Analysis: The depth-area relation is often analyzed in conjunction with

cross-sectional data of rivers or other water bodies. This involves measuring the depth
and width of the water at various points along its course to understand how its geometry
changes.
2.11.2 Depth Area Duration Analysis
The preparation of maximum DAD curves for a given region is proceeded as follows:
i. The severe rainstorms that have occurred in the region are first noted.
ii. Isohyet maps are drawn for a given duration largest amount of areal rainfall occurs in
a small area of the region. As the area of the region increases, the areal rainfall also
decreases. For example, it is observed that 15 km2 of the area received a maximum of
9 cm of average rainfall and also 150 km2 of the area received a maximum of 7 cm of
average rainfall in 1 hour. A similar analysis can be carried out to estimate the
maximum amount of the average rainfall occurring with respect to the areas of the
region with duration as the third parameter.

Figure 2.13: Typical DAD curve

DAD curves help create design storms that may be used to calculate design floods
for major structures such as dams etc. These curves, which show the relationship between
storm depth and area for different durations, are essential in hydrological analysis. They help
to ensure that structures are able to handle the maximum potential rainfall that could occur
over their area. We can plot the DAD curve for that region (Figure 2.13) from the previous
71 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

rainfall record (In case records at the specific site are unavailable, even the data of
neighboring sites, which are hydrometeorological homogeneous, can be used).
The maximum storm duration can be 24 hours with a maximum rainfall depth of 20
cm. Again, one follows the depth duration analysis and can say that 20cm of average rainfall
in 24 hours will be distributed. Knowing this rainfall time distribution, one can do the
hydrograph analysis (which we will study later) to estimate not only peak flood but also the
time distribution of stream flow caused by this storm. A typical streamflow duration is shown
in Figure 2.14.
However, one can notice that the use of 'maximum' has certain ambiguity. Maximum
is related to the observed set of records of the second variable i.e., for the10 years; the
maximum depth of rainfall during the 10 years will have one value (let us say 5 cm), but if
the record is for 100 years, then the maximum observed value is likely to be larger than 5 cm
(let us assume it is 9 cm). In other words, the word maximum is ill-defined; instead, we
should bring the concept of return period or probability of occurrence. In the above example,
5 cm or more depth of rainfall has 10% probability of occurrence, similarly 9 cm or more
depth has a probability of occurrence of only 1 percent. In other words, instead of maximum
DAD curves we should Depth-Area-Duration frequency curves (Figure 2.15).

Figure 2.14: Streamflow distribution

The probability or the frequency of an event, be it rainfall or storm flow, is an
important concept in hydrology, and we will deal with this concept in detail in flood
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 72

frequency analysis. However, it will suffice to introduce the terms 'probability of occurrence'
and 'the return period' at this stage.

The probability of exceedance, p(X≥x) (X is the name of the process, be it max daily
rainfall in a year, and x is the value of rainfall), is defined as the chance that the rainfall will
exceed the amount x. p(X≥12) is equal to 0.1, meaning there is only a one percent chance
that x will be ≥ 12 cm. Obviously p(X<12 ) will be equal to 0.9. It means that the sum of
p(X<x) and p (X≥x) will be equal to 1.0.

Figure 2.15: Depth-Area-Duration frequency curves

The average time between the occurrence of an event with a magnitude equal to or
higher than x is known as the return period, or T. The value of T can be obtained through
Equation 2.13.

T=1/p (X ≥ x) = 1/(1-p (X < x)) …(2.13)

For example, if p(X≥12) is 0.1, it means that, on average, daily rainfall of 12 cm or

more occurs once in 10 years. Here it is important to stress the word ‘average’ since it
indicates that the sequence of interval when the amount of precipitation per day is 12 cm or
more is not necessary every 10 years in the chronological sense, but that 12 cm or more
rainfall may occur 100 times in 1000 years or on an average once in every 10 years.
How is probability assigned to a given value? Let us assume that one has n years
record of daily rainfall from 1949 (inclusive) to 1997. Now arrange the series in descending
order of magnitude m. The largest value x in 49 years of record has an order 1, 2nd largest
73 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

value has an order 2, and so on. Then the probability is defined as: p(X>x) =m/(n+1) and
Return Period T = 1/p(X>x).
2.11.3 Depth-Duration Curve
The rainfall is defined by three variables: - Rainfall depth, Duration & Frequency.
● Rainfall Depth (D): It is the magnitude of rainfall expressed in terms of total depth
(usually in cm or in mm) in the duration of rainfall.
● Duration: the period in hours in which the rainfall event occurred.
● The frequency of a rainfall event is represented by its return period (T) within which
the magnitude of the event will be exceeded or equaled once.
For example, we can say that a basin x can have 10 cm of rainfall in 3 hours once in
50 years. The Depth-Duration Curve represents the relationship between the maximum depth
and duration of rainfall.
Use of Depth Duration Curve: The maximum quantity of rainfall that is expected to fall
over a specific period of time is required for flood estimation. It is possible to determine the
duration of rainfall from a hypothetical storm using India's Depth Duration Curve. Typical
depth duration data with a curve is given in example 2.6 as Figure 2.16.
Example 2.7: The maximum intensity of rainfall was noted from a precipitation gauge
during a period of 50 years. Draw the max depth-duration curve.
Time Rainfall (Intensities/hr)

1 hr 1.84
2 hrs 1.74
3 hrs 0.84
4 hrs 0.83
5 hrs 0.78
6 hrs 0.37
7 hrs 0.12
8 hrs 0.05
Solution: Cumulative Depth of rainfall
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Time Rainfall (Intensities/hr)

1 hr 1.84
2 hrs 3.58
3 hrs 4.42
4 hrs 5.25
5 hrs 6.03
6 hrs 6.40
7 hrs 6.52
8 hrs 6.57

Cumulative depth (cms)

7
6
5
Depth (cms)

4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8
Duration (Hours)

Figure 2.16: Maximum Depth-Duration Curve

2.11.4 Rainfall - Depth - Duration Frequency Curve

While estimating floods, we may not be interested only in the maximum possible flood but
also the floods that may occur 1 in 50 years, 1 in 100 years, 1 in 500 years, etc. For example,
if an important structure is built on a given stream, it is to be designed for a larger flood than
if the structure is of comparatively less importance.

The depth-duration frequency curve refers to a curve that illustrates the relationship
between rainfall depth and duration for a specific frequency. By keeping the frequency as a
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parameter, we can draw curves. For drawing such curves, maximum rainfall intensities for
short-term durations such as 5, 10, 15, 30 minutes, 1, and 2 hours are needed. In a developing
country like India, where there are only a few recording rain gauges, it will take many years
before maps can be prepared from actual rain gauge duration frequency data for short-term
rainfall depth based on the rainfall relationship of the U.S.A. A typical rainfall depth-duration
curve for a frequency of occurrence of 1 in 50 years for India is as shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17: Maximum Depth-Duration-Frequency Curves

2.11.5 Depth-Area-Duration Curve

The largest amount of precipitation for a range of sizes and durations over various locations
are found using the Depth-Area-Duration curve, or DAD curve. For example, in a catchment
area of 650 km2 in Rajasthan, the maximum amount of rainfall in 6 hrs is 4.00 cm. The
preparation of such curves requires elaborate data.
For a given rainfall duration, the maximum average depth of rainfall will decrease as
the area increases. This is because the space distribution of rainfall is not uniform. The
maximum rainfall will occur in a localized zone called the Storm centre. In addition, as the
duration of rainfall increases in a particular area, the rainfall depth also rises.

2.12 PROBABLE MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION (PMP)

In order to design a large dam’s spillway, it is necessary to use a much higher precipitation
estimate than in the case of almost any other structure. The reasons are: (i) the structure being
very costly, its loss would involve a large economic expense, and (ii) failure of such structure
carries a significant danger of downstream property and life losses that would not occur
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otherwise. Meteorologists are consulted by design engineers to estimate the probable

maximum precipitation for such structures.
The estimates represent the best judgment of the meteorologists of the realistic upper
limit of precipitation that can occur. Many meteorologists have thought there is no upper
limit on precipitation amount - that any given amount can conceivably occur. Such a view is
not realistic physically. It is, therefore, certainly horrible to put an upper bound on the
amount of precipitation that can be possible. In precipitation, to fix an upper bound, there
must exist a least upper bound, which might be called the Possible Maximum or (PMP)
Probable Max Precipitation.
The procedure involves two steps:

a. The preparation of probable maximum depth-area-duration curves represents the

region of which the basin under study is a part.
b. The selection using these curves of a pattern storm for use in the basin.

2.13 RAINFALL DATA IN INDIA

Rainfall data in India varies significantly across different regions and seasons. India has a
diverse climate, influenced by the factors such as monsoons, proximity to the sea,
topography, and more. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is the primary
authority responsible for collecting and disseminating rainfall data in the country. For the
most up-to-date and detailed rainfall data for specific regions in India, it is advisable to refer
to reports and publications from the Indian Meteorological Department or other relevant
governmental agencies such as state water resources departments/state revenue departments.
Here is an overview of rainfall patterns in India:

● Monsoon Season: For most parts of India, the southwest monsoon, which typically
occurs from June to September, is the primary source of precipitation. This seasonal
rainfall is crucial for agriculture and water resources. The amount and distribution of
rainfall during the monsoon season vary from year to year and from region to region.
Coastal regions and areas with orographic features (mountains) tend to receive higher
rainfall compared to interior regions.
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● Regions with High Rainfall: States along the western coast of India, such as Kerala,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Goa, receive substantial rainfall during the monsoon
season due to the Western Ghats. Similarly, northeastern states like Assam,
Meghalaya, and West Bengal receive heavy rainfall due to their proximity to the Bay
of Bengal and the Himalayas.
● Regions with Low Rainfall: Some regions in India experience low rainfall or are
classified as arid or semi-arid. Examples include Rajasthan, Gujarat, parts of Punjab,
and Haryana. These regions rely heavily on irrigation for agriculture.
● Rainfall Variability: India experiences inter-annual and intra-seasonal variability in
rainfall. Factors such as El Niño and La Niña events, Indian Ocean Dipole, and other
atmospheric phenomena influence the monsoon patterns that can lead to droughts or
excess rainfall in different parts of the country.
● Data Sources: IMD maintains a network of rain gauge stations across the country to
monitor rainfall. Data collected from these stations are used to analyze rainfall
patterns, predict weather, and assess the overall climate situation. In addition to this, in
some states, water resources departments/ revenue departments also collect rainfall
data.
● Impact on Agriculture: Rainfall plays a crucial role in Indian agriculture, as a
significant portion of the population relies on farming for their livelihood. Adequate
and well-distributed rainfall is essential for crop growth, while inadequate rainfall can
lead to droughts and crop failures.
● Climate Change: Climate change is expected to influence the rainfall patterns in
India, leading to more extreme weather events, altered monsoon patterns, and potential
shifts in agricultural productivity.

SUMMARY
Precipitation, which might include rain, snow, hail, dew, and more, is the primary source of
water supply in engineering hydrology. The primary study subjects are thought to be the
varieties of precipitation, their availability, measurement, and use. The various types of
precipitation, their intensity, and its effects on ecosystems, agriculture, and water resources
are all addressed during this subject. Numerous subjects pertaining to precipitation patterns
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and India's several seasons have been discussed in this module. Several methods of measuring
rainfall and snowfall have been described for India's yearly precipitation. Furthermore,
techniques for estimating missing data and testing data consistency have also been covered in
the session. This unit presents various techniques for calculating the mean rainfall over a
watershed. Finally, the Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP), the Depth Area Duration
(DAD) curve, and the availability of rainfall data in India have all been explained.

EXERCISE
Revision Questions
1. Explain the term precipitation.
2. Describe the different forms of precipitation.
3. What do you understand by the Index of wetness?
4. What is the difference between light rain, moderate rain, and heavy rain?
5. Describe the different methods of recording rainfall.
6. Discuss the current practice and status of rainfall recording in India.
7. Describe the salient characteristics of precipitation in India.
8. Explain the different methods of determining the average rainfall over a catchment due to
a storm. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of the various methods.
9. Describe the different seasons in India based on differences in temperature and
precipitation.
10. What do you understand by monsoon depression?
11. Kindly explain the methods of measurement of rainfall in India.
12. What is the difference between recording & non-recording rain gauges?
13. Describe the different types of recording rain gauges.
14. Describe the different methods for measurement of snowfall.
15. Explain a procedure for checking rainfall data for consistency.
16. Explain a procedure for supplementing the missing rainfall data.
17. Explain briefly the following relationships relating to the precipitation over a basin:
a. Depth-Area Relationship;
b. Maximum Depth-Area-Duration Curves;
c. Intensity Duration Frequency Relationship.
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18. What is meant by Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) over a basin? Explain how
PMP is estimated.
19. Consider the statement: The 50-year-24-hour maximum rainfall at Bangalore is 160 mm.
What do you understand by this statement?
20. Describe briefly the procedures adopted to measure the water equivalent of snowfall.
21. Write brief notes on (i) moving average, (ii) Thiessen polygon, (iii) isohyetals maps.
22. What do you understand by Hyetograph?
23. Describe an overview of rainfall patterns in India.

Numerical Problems
1. There are eight rain gauge stations inside the catchment of a watershed. The annual
rainfall in a given year that the rain gauges recorded is as follows:
Station A B C D E F G H

Rainfall 73.8 95.9 160.3 117.5 89.9 121.7 123.8 126.5

(cm)
a. Determine the standard error in the mean rainfall estimation for the current set of rain
gauges.
b. Determine the ideal number of stations in the catchment, accounting for an 8% error in
the mean rainfall estimate.
2. In a particular catchment, at stations A, B, C, D, and E the average yearly rainfall is
88.90, 73.15, 81.19, 76.78 and 91.91 cm, respectively. Station E was not operational in
1998; annual precipitation at stations A, B, C and D was 89.71, 75.62, 83.88 and 74.39
cm, respectively. Calculate the amount of rain that year at station E.
3. Six rain-gauge stations, namely Roorkee, Bhagwanpur, Manglore, Laksar, Purkaji &
Bahadrabad located in a typical region. The rainfall observed during a month at Roorkee,
Bhagwanpur, Manglore, Laksar, Purkaji are 162.2 mm, 153.3 mm, 156.5 mm, 145.1 mm,
and 151.1 mm, respectively, while the corresponding rainfall value at Bahadrabad is
missing. If the normal monthly rainfall at Roorkee, Bhagwanpur, Manglore, Laksar,
Purkaji & Bahadrabad is 246.2 mm, 244.2 mm, 240.4 mm and 238.8 mm, 230.2 mm, and
245.2 mm, respectively, Obtain the value of missing rainfall at Bahadrabad rain-gauge
station using the Normal ratio method.
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4. The normal annual precipitation of five rain gauge stations A, B, C, D and E, respectively
124, 113, 86, 121 and 143 cm. During a particular storm, the precipitation recorded by
stations A, B, C, and D are 14.3, 9.5, 7.8 and 11.3 cm respectively. The instrument at
station E was inoperative during that storm. Estimate the rainfall at station E during that
storm.
5. Test the consistency of the 26 years of data of the annual precipitation measured at
station P. Rainfall data for station P, as well as the average annual rainfall measured at a
group of ten neighboring stations located in a meteorologically homogeneous region, are
given as follows.
Year Annual average annual Year Annual average annual
rainfall at rainfall of ten rainfall at rainfall of ten
station P stations group station P stations group
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1967 165 145 1980 152 183
1968 147 155 1981 143 173
1969 139 197 1982 146 159
1970 148 156 1983 149 158
1971 170 146 1984 148 172
1972 168 176 1985 158 181
1973 159 154 1986 155 158
1974 151 144 1987 165 159
1975 155 168 1988 167 135
1976 169 148 1989 169 189
1977 156 176 1990 171 140
1978 155 173 1991 165 168
1979 157 139 1992 164 149
a. In which year is a change in regime indicated?
b. Adjust the recorded data at station A and determine the mean annual precipitation.
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6. In a storm of 240 minutes duration, the incremental rainfall at various time intervals is
given below.
Time since the start of 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
the storm (minutes)
Incremental rainfall in 1.85 2.27 6.10 4.55 2.60 1.58 0.85 0.75
the time interval (cm)
a. Obtain the ordinates of the hyetograph and represent the hyetograph as a bar chart
with time in chronological order in the x-axis.
b. Obtain the ordinates of the mass curve of rainfall for this storm and plot it. What
is the average intensity of a storm over the duration of the storm?
7. Represent the annual rainfall data of station A, which is given below as a bar chart with
time in chronological order. If the annual rainfall less than 75% of the long-term mean is
taken to signify meteorological drought, identify the drought years and suitably display
the same in the bar chart.
Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

Annual 750 752 437 381 470 627 551 630 614 510
rain
(mm)
Year 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
Annual 401 366 710 570 524 112 525 920 610 408
rain
(mm)

8. The watershed of a stream has five rain gauge stations inside the basin. When Thiessen
polygons were constructed, three more stations lying outside the watershed were found to
have weights. The details of Thiessen polygons surrounding each rain gauge and the
recordings of the rain gauges in the month of July 2022 are given below:

Rain gauge station A B C D E F G H

Thiessen Polygon area 730 1390 1448 1050 908 2230 429 1457
(km2)
Recorded rainfall in mm 145 148 136 129 112 125 100 102
during July 2022
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Stations B, D and F are outside the watershed. Determine the average depth of rainfall on
the watershed in July 2022 by (i) arithmetic mean method and (ii) Thiessen mean
method.
9. For a drainage basin of 600 km2, isohyets drawn for a storm gave the following data:
Isohyets (interval) (cm) 18–15 15–12 12–9 9–6 6–3
Inter-isohyetal area (km2) 92 128 120 175 85
Estimate the average depth of precipitation over the catchment.
10. There are 10 rain gauge stations available to calculate the rainfall characteristics of a
catchment whose shape can be approximately described by straight lines joining the
following coordinates (distances in kilometers):
(30, 0), (80, 10), (110, 30), (140, 90), (130, 115), (40, 110), (15, 60). Coordinates of the
rain gauge stations and the annual rainfall recorded in them in the year 2011 are given
below.
Station 1 2 3 4 5
Co-ordinates (0, 40) (50, 0) (140, 30) (140, 80) (90, 140)
Annual Rainfall (cm) 132 136 93 81 85
Station 6 7 8 9 10
Co-ordinates (0, 80) (40, 50) (90, 30) (90, 90) (40, 80)
Annual Rainfall (cm) 124 156 128 102 128
Determine the average annual rainfall over the catchment by using the isohyetal method.

11. Following the figure shows a catchment with seven rain

gauge stations inside it and three stations outside. The 11. 11.
8.
rainfall recorded by each of these stations are indicated 10
13
14 2

in the figure. Draw the figure to an enlarged scale and 10

10 6.
calculate the mean precipitation by (a) Thiessen- mean 9

method, (b) isohyetal method, and by (c) arithmetic-

9
0 5
SCA
mean method.
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Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is precipitation?
A) Water vapor in the atmosphere
B) Any form of water, liquid or solid, that falls from the sky
C) Water that evaporates from the surface
D) Water stored in lakes and rivers
2. Which of the following is NOT a type of precipitation?
A) Rain B) Snow
C) Sleet D) Humidity
3. What is the primary factor that influences the amount and type of precipitation a region
receives?
A) Soil type B) Temperature
C) Wind patterns D) Elevation
4. Which type of precipitation occurs when raindrops freeze before hitting the ground?
A) Rain B) Snow
C) Sleet D) Hail
5. What is the term for precipitation that falls in the form of ice pellets?
A) Snow B) Sleet
C) Hail D) Freezing rain
6. Which of the following conditions is most likely to produce heavy rainfall?
A) High pressure systems B) Cold fronts
C) Warm, moist air rising D) Clear skies
7. What is "orographic precipitation"?
A) Precipitation caused by temperature changes
B) Precipitation resulting from the cooling of air over oceans
C) Precipitation that occurs when moist air rises over mountains
D) Precipitation associated with thunderstorms
8. How does climate change affect precipitation patterns?
A) It has no effect
B) It can lead to increased variability and extreme events
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C) It uniformly increases precipitation everywhere

D) It decreases precipitation in all regions
9. What is the most common form of precipitation?
A) Snow B) Rain
C) Hail D) Sleet
10. Which form of precipitation consists of ice pellets?
A) Rain B) Snow
C) Sleet D) Drizzle
11. What type of precipitation falls as crystalline ice and typically occurs in winter?
A) Rain B) Snow
C) Hail D) Fog
12. Which form of precipitation is characterized by larger ice balls and usually occurs during
thunderstorms?
A) Drizzle B) Sleet
C) Hail D) Snow
13. What is drizzle?
A) Light rain with very small droplets B) Heavy rain with large droplets
C) Ice pellets that bounce on impact D) Snowflakes falling gently
14. What is the primary difference between sleet and freezing rain?
A) Sleet is frozen before reaching the ground, while freezing rain forms liquid droplets that
freeze upon contact.
B) Sleet is heavier than freezing rain.
C) Sleet falls during summer, while freezing rain occurs in winter.
D) There is no difference; they are the same.
15. In which conditions is snow most likely to form?
A) High humidity and warm temperatures B) Low humidity and high temperatures
C) Low temperatures and moisture in the air D) Warm air with no moisture
16. What type of precipitation typically occurs in tropical regions?
A) Snow B) Hail
C) Rain D) Sleet
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17. Which of the following is the primary season for monsoon precipitation in India?
A) Winter B) Summer
C) Spring D) Autumn
18. What type of precipitation is most common in the Himalayan region of India during
winter?
A) Rain B) Hail
C) Snow D) Drizzle
19. Which of the following types of precipitation is primarily associated with the southwest
monsoon in India?
A) Orographic precipitation B) Convective precipitation
C) Cyclonic precipitation D) All of the above
20. What is the term for the rainfall that occurs due to the lifting of moist air over the
Western Ghats?
A) Convectional rainfall B) Orographic rainfall
C) Cyclonic rainfall D) Frontal rainfall
21. In India, what is the typical effect of the northeast monsoon?
A) Heavy rainfall in the northern plains B) Drought conditions in southern India
C) Moderate rainfall along the southeastern coast D) Snowfall in the northern mountains
22. What kind of precipitation is characterized by short, intense showers often followed by
clear skies in India?
A) Continuous rainfall B) Convectional rainfall
C) Orographic rainfall D) Cyclonic rainfall
23. Which Indian state receives the highest average annual rainfall?
A) Rajasthan B) Gujarat
C) Kerala D) Meghalaya
24. What is "rain shadow" effect, and how does it occur in India?
A) Increased rainfall on the windward side of a mountain range
B) Decreased rainfall on the leeward side of a mountain range
C) Equal distribution of rainfall across a region
D) Rainfall caused by urban heat islands
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25. What instrument is commonly used to measure precipitation?

A) Barometer B) Anemometer
C) Rain gauge D) Thermometer
26. What unit is typically used to express the amount of precipitation?
A) Meters B) Liters
C) Millimetres D) Degrees
27. Which type of rain gauge is designed to automatically record precipitation over time?
A) Standard rain gauge B) Tipping bucket rain gauge
C) Weighing rain gauge D) Non-recording rain gauge
28. What does a "pluviometer" measure?
A) Wind speed B) Atmospheric pressure
C) Humidity D) Precipitation
29. How is precipitation data typically expressed in meteorological reports?
A) As an average over a week B) As total precipitation over 24 hours
C) As a percentage of humidity D) As a temperature range
30. What is the purpose of a "snow gauge"?
A) To measure wind speed B) To measure the depth of snow
C) To measure rainfall D) To measure temperature
31. Which method involves estimating precipitation using radar technology?
A) Manual measurement B) Doppler radar
C) Satellite imagery D) Standard rain gauge
32. How often should precipitation measurements be taken for accurate data collection?
A) Once a month B) Once a week
C) Daily D) Every hour
33. What is the primary season for monsoon rainfall in India?
A) Winter B) Summer
C) Autumn D) Spring
34. Which region in India receives the highest annual precipitation?
A) Thar Desert B) Western Ghats
C) Himalayan region D) Indo-Gangetic Plains
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35. What is the average annual rainfall required for an area to be classified as a "humid"
region in India?
A) Less than 500 mm B) 500 mm to 1000 mm
C) 1000 mm to 2000 mm D) More than 2000 mm
36. Which phenomenon primarily affects the distribution of rainfall in India?
A) El Niño B) La Niña
C) Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) D) Polar Vortex
37. During which month does the southwest monsoon typically begin in India?
A) May B) June
C) July D) August
38. Which of the following states is known for its high levels of orographic rainfall?
A) Rajasthan B) Punjab
C) Assam D) Haryana
39. What is the main source of precipitation during the winter months in North India?
A) Southwest Monsoon B) Western Disturbances
C) Local Convection D) Tropical Cyclones
40. What is the impact of deforestation on precipitation patterns in India?
A) Increased rainfall B) Decreased rainfall
C) No impact D) Unpredictable changes
41. What is point rainfall?
A) Rain measured over a large area
B) Rain measured at a specific location
C) Average rainfall in a region
D) Rainfall measured in a specific time frame
42. Which instrument is primarily used to measure point rainfall?
A) Anemometer B) Rain gauge
C) Barometer D) Thermometer
43. What is the purpose of a consistency test in rainfall measurement?
A) To measure rainfall intensity B) To ensure data reliability over time
C) To predict future rainfall D) To calculate evaporation rates
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 88

44. How can point rainfall be affected by local geography?

A) It is not affected at all B) By the presence of mountains or valleys
C) Only by temperature variations D) By wind patterns alone
45. What does a consistency test typically compare?
A) Rainfall amounts over different seasons
B) Data from different rain gauges at the same location
C) Rainfall amounts from multiple regions
D) Rainfall intensity and temperature
46. Which of the following is a common method for performing a consistency test?
A) Statistical analysis of historical data B) Visual inspection of rainfall data
C) Comparing rainfall to evaporation rates D) Measuring wind speed
47. Why is it important to conduct a consistency test on point rainfall data?
A) To avoid data collection errors B) To ensure data fits a theoretical model
C) To improve rainfall prediction accuracy D) To assess the environmental impact
48. What type of rainfall can a point rainfall measurement capture?
A) Only heavy rainfall
B) All types, including light, moderate, and heavy
C) Only rainfall from storms
D) Rainfall occurring during specific seasons
49. In a consistency test, what is the significance of outliers?
A) They confirm the accuracy of the data
B) They indicate potential measurement errors
C) They are ignored in analysis
D) They are used to calibrate instruments
50. What is a common statistical method used in consistency tests?
A) Regression analysis
B) Mean and standard deviation calculations
C) Time series analysis
D) All of the above
89 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

51. What is a hyetograph?

A) A graph showing temperature changes over time
B) A graph that represents the amount of rainfall over a specific time period
C) A chart of wind speed variations
D) A diagram of geographical features
52. Which of the following best describes the Thiessen Polygon method?
A) A method to estimate evaporation rates
B) A technique to analyse stormwater runoff
C) A spatial analysis method to determine rainfall distribution based on gauge locations
D) A way to measure soil moisture content
53. In a hyetograph, what does the area under the curve represent?
A) Temperature B) Total rainfall over the time period
C) Wind speed D) Evaporation rate
54. Which of the following is a limitation of the Thiessen Polygon method?
A) It requires extensive data collection
B) It assumes uniform rainfall within each polygon
C) It is complex to construct
D) It is only applicable to urban areas
55. How is the Depth-Area relation typically used in hydrology?
A) To analyse soil properties
B) To estimate the volume of runoff from rainfall
C) To predict drought conditions
D) To calculate evaporation rates
56. What does the term "depth" refer to in the Depth-Area relation?
A) The height of rainfall measured B) The thickness of snow
C) The depth of water in rivers D) The total area affected by rainfall
57. Which graphical representation is often used to illustrate the relationship between rainfall
depth and area?
A) Line graph B) Scatter plot
C) Bar chart D) Cumulative frequency curve
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 90

58. What is a common application of hyetographs in hydrology?

A) Determining soil erosion rates B) Flood forecasting and modelling
C) Assessing water quality D) Mapping land use changes
59. In a Thiessen Polygon analysis, what determines the boundaries of each polygon?
A) Average rainfall amounts B) Proximity to the nearest rain gauge
C) Equal distances to surrounding rain gauges D) Topographical features
60. Why is the Depth-Area relation important in designing stormwater management systems?
A) It helps identify vegetation types B) It aids in predicting potential flooding
C) It measures soil compaction D) It assesses groundwater levels
Answer: 1-B; 2-D; 3-C; 4-C; 5-C; 6-C; 7-C; 8-B; 9-B; 10-C; 11-B; 12-C; 13-A; 14-A; 15-C;
16-C; 17-B; 18-C; 19-D;20-B; 21-C; 22-B; 23-D; 24-B; 25-C; 26-C; 27-B; 28-D; 29-B; 30-
B; 31-B; 32-C; 33-B; 34-B; 35-C; 36-C; 37-B; 38-C; 39-B; 40-B; 41-B; 42-B; 43-B; 44-B;
45-B; 46-A; 47-A; 48-B; 49-B; 50-B; 51-B; 52-C; 53-B; 54-B; 55-B; 56-A; 57-D; 58-B; 59-
C; 60-B.

KNOW MORE

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91 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Asawa, G.L. (2005), “Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering, New Age
International (P) Ltd., ISBN-13: 978-8122416732
2. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, 1964.
3. IMD (1971), “Scientific Report No. 136, India Meteorological Department,1971,
Government of India.
4. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources
of India, Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland,
ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4(HB).
5. Punmia, B.C. and Lal, Pande B.B., (1992), “Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering”, Twelfth Edition. Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
6. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
7. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India)
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN(13): 978-1-25902997-4.
 3
H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 92
Abstraction from
Precipitation

UNIT SPECIFICS
Once the precipitation falls on the Earth's surface, several abstractions, like evaporation,
transpiration, evapotranspiration, infiltration, surface detention, and storage, may be
considered losses before taking runoff. This unit describes the evaporation process and its
measurement through the physical evaporimeters, empirical equations, and analytical means
such as water budget, energy budget, and mass-transfer methods. Evapotranspiration is the
term used to describe the combination of transpiration from vegetation and evaporation from
soil and water bodies. This unit discusses potential evapotranspiration (PET) and actual
evapotranspiration (AET) in detail. The unit also discusses depression storages and
interceptions, which are "losses" in the runoff production process. Furthermore, the
infiltration process, its modelling, and measurement are discussed. Also, soil infiltration
capacity and the infiltration indices (Φ and W) are discussed, which is a significant
abstraction from precipitation to enhance soil moisture storage and groundwater recharge.

RATIONALE
To know about the abstractions from precipitation through various processes like
evaporation, evapotranspiration, interception, depression storages, and infiltration.

PRE-REQUISITE
Nil

UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U3-O1: Learn about the abstractions from precipitation through various processes like
evaporation, evapotranspiration, interception, depression storages, and infiltration
U3-O2: Assessment of evaporation using evaporimeters, empirical equations, and analytical
means
93 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

U3-O3: Assessment of PET & AET

U3-O4: Assessment of infiltration indices (Φ and W), infiltration, and infiltration capacity,
and applications in engineering problems

Unit Expected Mapping with Course Outcomes

Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7 CO-8
U3-O1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
U3-O2 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3
U3-O3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
U4-O4 1 3 1 2 2 2 3 3

3.1 EVAPORATION PROCESS

Thermal energy is transferred from a liquid to a gas at the free surface, or below the boiling
point, by the process of evaporation. Think about a pond or other body of water. With a vast
variety of instantaneous velocities, water molecules are always moving. Both this range and
average speed rise with the addition of heat. Certain molecules may be able to pass across the
water's surface if they have enough kinetic energy. In a similar manner, some of the water
molecules in the moving water vapour that are found in the atmosphere close to the water's
surface might make their way. The net passage of water molecules from their liquid state into
their gaseous state is known as evaporation. A water body must provide the latent heat of
vaporization, which happens at about 585 cal/g of evaporated water, during the cooling
process of evaporation.
The rate of evaporation is affected by the following variables: (a) the vapour
pressures in the air above the water's surface; (b) air and water temperatures; (c) wind speed;
(d) atmospheric pressure; (e) water quality; and (f) size of the water body.
● Vapour Pressure
John Dalton (1802) was the first to identify Dalton's law of evaporation, which is represented
by equation (3.1) below. According to Dalton's law, the rate of evaporation is determined by
the difference between the saturation vapour pressure at the water temperature, ew, and the
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 94

actual vapour pressure in the air, ea. Further, based on the law, evaporation is going until ew =
ea. Condensation occurs when ew> ea. Consequently,
EL = C(ew-ea) .…………(3.1)
where,
EL = rate of evaporation (mm/day),
C = constant,
ew= saturation vapour pressure at the water temperature (mm of mercury), and
ea = actual vapour pressure in the air (mm of mercury).
● Temperature
Considering other factors, when the water temperature rises, the rate of evaporation also
rises. There is no strong association between evaporation rate and air temperature, even
though there is a general increase in evaporation rate with rising temperatures. Therefore,
evaporation in a lake may occur to varying degrees in different months at the same mean
monthly temperature.
● Wind
Wind plays a crucial role in weather patterns and can have significant effects on various
aspects of life, including agriculture, transportation, and energy generation. Humans have
harnessed wind power for centuries, initially for sailing ships and later for windmills and wind
turbines to generate electricity. Today, wind energy is an important renewable energy source
contributing to global efforts to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate climate change.
More space for evaporation is created as a result of the wind's assistance in clearing the
evaporated water vapour from the evaporation zone. Any additional increase in wind velocity,
however, has no effect on evaporation if it is high enough to remove all of the evaporated water
vapour. Consequently, the rate of evaporation rises in proportion to wind speed up to a critical
speed, after which additional wind speed increases have no effect on the rate of evaporation.
The essential wind speed is dependent on the water's surface area. High-speed turbulent winds
are required to cause the maximum rate of evaporation in big water bodies.
● Atmospheric Pressure
If all other parameters are constant, evaporation will rise at high altitudes where a drop in
barometric pressure is observed.
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● Dissolvable Salts
During the dissolution of a solute in water, the rate of evaporation decreases because the
solution's vapour pressure is lower than that of pure water. The percentage rise in specific
gravity roughly matches the percentage decrease in evaporation. For instance, evaporation
from seawater is roughly 2-3% lower than that from Freshwater under the same conditions.
● Heat Storage in Water Bodies
Compared to shallow water bodies, deep water bodies can store more heat. Compared to a
shallow lake subjected to the same circumstances, a deep lake may store radiation energy
received in the summer and release it in the winter, resulting in less evaporation in the
summer and more in the winter. The annual evaporation rate is rarely impacted by heat
storage, and its main influence is to alter the seasonal evaporation rates.

3.2 EVAPORIMETERS
In many hydrologic issues related to the design and management of reservoirs and irrigation
systems, estimating evaporation is crucial. This assessment is especially crucial in arid zones
to preserve the limited water supplies. One of the difficult tasks to do is to precisely quantify
the amount of water that evaporates from a big body of water.
The amount of water that evaporates from a water surface can be calculated using
three different techniques: (i) empirical evaporation equations, (ii) evaporimeter data, and
(iii) analytical procedures.

3.2.1 Types of Evaporimeters

Pans of water that are exposed to the atmosphere and periodically measure water loss from
evaporation are called evaporimeters. Meteorological data such as humidity, wind direction,
air and water temperatures, and precipitation are also captured in addition to the evaporation
measurement. There are numerous varieties of evaporators in use; here is a description of a
few popular pans.
● Class A Evaporation Pan: The US Weather Bureau uses a standard pan, known as a
Class A Land Pan, which is a conventional pan with dimensions of 1210 mm in diameter
and 255 mm in depth. The water's depth is consistently between 18 and 20 cm (Figure
3.1). Typically, the pan is normally made from unpainted galvanized iron sheets. When
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 96

corrosion is an issue, Monel metal is employed. The pan is set up on a wooden platform
that is 15 cm above the floor to enable unrestricted airflow beneath the pan. In a stilling
well, the depth of water is measured using a hook gauge to determine the amount of
evaporation.

Figure 3.1: U.S. Class A Evaporation Pan

● ISI Standard Pan: This modified Class A Pan, or pan Evaporimeter, as defined by IS:
5973-1970, has a diameter of 1220 mm and a depth of 255 mm. The pan is composed of
0.9 mm thick copper sheet that is painted white on the exterior and tinned inside (Figure
3.2). The water level is shown using a fixed-point gauge.

Figure 3.2: ISI Evaporation Pan

Water is added or removed using a calibrated cylinder measure to keep the pan's water level
at a set level. To keep birds away from the pan's water, a hexagon-shaped net of galvanized
iron covers the whole top of the pan. Furthermore, the water's temperature is more consistent
97 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

day and night when a wire mesh is present. It is discovered that this pan evaporation is
approximately 14% lower than that of an unsealed pan. The pan is set on top of a square
hardwood platform that is 100 mm high and 1225 mm wide to allow air to circulate
underneath the pan.
● Colorado Sunken Pan: The Colorado Sunken Pan Evaporimeter (Figure 3.3) is a
specific type of evaporation pan used for this purpose. It is composed of an unpainted
galvanized iron sheet i.e., 920 mm square area and 460 mm deep, placed at ground level
within 100 mm of the top, filled with water, and exposed to the atmosphere. By
measuring the decrease in water level over time, scientists can calculate the rate of
evaporation. These Evaporimeters are used in various research and monitoring programs
related to agriculture, water management, and climate studies, particularly in arid and
semi-arid regions like Colorado, where water resources are particularly important.

Figure 3.3: Colorado Sunken Pan Evaporimeter

● United States Geological Survey Floating Pan: The United States Geological Survey
(USGS) uses various tools and instruments for hydrological and meteorological research,
including evaporation measurement devices. One such device is the floating pan
evaporation pan. The floating pan evaporation pan is a specialized instrument used to
measure the rate of evaporation from a water surface. It consists of a shallow square pan
900 mm side and 450 mm deep, filled with water, typically mounted on a floating
platform. The pan is placed on the surface of a body of water, such as a lake or reservoir,
and exposed to the atmosphere. As water evaporates from the pan, the water level drops.
By measuring the decrease in water level over time, scientists can calculate the rate of
evaporation. This information is valuable for understanding water balance, estimating
water loss from reservoirs, and studying climate patterns.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 98

3.2.2 Limitations and drawbacks

While pan Evaporimeters provide valuable information for estimating evaporation rates, it is
essential to consider their limitations and potential sources of error when interpreting the data
and making decisions based on the results. Some limitations and drawbacks of pan
evaporimeter are described in the following sections:
● Limited Representativeness: Evaporation rates measured by pan evaporimeter may not
always represent the actual evaporation occurring over a larger area. The conditions
within the pan, such as temperature, humidity, and wind speed, may differ from those in
the surrounding environment, leading to potential inaccuracies in the estimates.
● Sensitivity to Environmental Conditions: Pan evaporation rates are sensitive to
environmental factors such as wind speed, air temperature, humidity, and solar
radiation. Changes in these conditions can influence evaporation rates measured by the
pan, making it challenging to capture the full range of variability in evaporation.
● Maintenance Requirements: Pan evaporometers require regular maintenance to ensure
accurate measurements. This includes cleaning the pan to remove debris, refilling the
water as needed, and calibrating the instrument to account for changes in environmental
conditions over time.
● Spatial Variability: Evaporation rates can vary significantly across different locations
due to variations in climate, land cover, and other factors. Pan Evaporimeters provides
point measurements at a single location, which may not capture the spatial variability of
evaporation across a larger area.
● Influence of Pan Design: The design of the evaporation pan can influence the
measured evaporation rates. Different pan designs may yield different results, making it
challenging to compare data collected using different types of pans or to extrapolate
findings to other locations.
● Evaporation from Different Surfaces: Pan Evaporimeters measure evaporation from
open water surfaces, such as lakes or reservoirs, which may not accurately represent
evaporation from other surface types, such as soil, vegetation, or impervious surfaces.
99 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

● Uncertainty in Estimates: Despite efforts to account for environmental factors and

calibrate the instrument, there is inherent uncertainty associated with evaporation
estimates obtained from pan Evaporimeters. This uncertainty can affect the reliability of
the data for water resource management and other applications.

3.2.3 Pan coefficient Cp

The "pan coefficient" (Cp) is a term used in evaporation measurement, specifically with
reference to Class A evaporation pans, which are commonly used in hydrological and
meteorological studies to estimate potential evaporation rates from the earth's surface.
The pan coefficient represents a correction factor applied to the measured water loss
from the Class A evaporation pan to estimate actual evaporation rates. This correction factor
accounts for various factors that may affect evaporation, such as wind speed, humidity, solar
radiation, and pan design. The formula for estimating evaporation using a Class an
evaporation pan typically involves multiplying the observed water loss by the pan
coefficient. Therefore, a coefficient is introduced in Equation (3.2) as follows:
Lake evaporation = Pan Coefficient Cp x Pan evaporation ..…………(3.2)
The pan coefficient is determined based on calibration studies conducted under local
conditions. Different regions and climates may have different pan coefficients due to
variations in environmental factors. Therefore, it is crucial to calibrate the Class A
evaporation pan and determine an appropriate pan coefficient specific to the location where it
will be used. Table 3.1 shows the values of Pan Coefficient Cp for different pans.

Table 3.1: Value of pan coefficients Cp in use for different pans

S.N. Types of pans Mean value Range

1. Class A Land pan 0.70 0.60-0.80

2. ISI pan (modified class A) 0.80 0.65-1.10

3. Colorado sunken pan 0.78 0.75-0.86

4. USGS floating pan 0.80 0.00-0.82

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3.3 EMPIRICAL EVAPORATION EQUATIONS

3.3.1 Dalton type equation
There are numerous empirical equations for estimating lake evaporation that use widely
available meteorological data. Most of the formulas are based on the Dalton type equation,
which is a simple empirical equation used to estimate potential evaporation rates from open
water surfaces. It is named after John Dalton, an English scientist who made significant
contributions to meteorology and chemistry. The Dalton type equation provides a relatively
straightforward way to estimate potential evaporation rates based on meteorological data,
such as air temperature, humidity, wind speed, etc. The Dalton type equation (Equation 3.3)
relates potential evaporation to available energy at the earth's surface and the vapour pressure
deficit, which can be represented as the difference between the saturation vapour pressure
(ew) and the actual vapour pressure (ea) of the air. The equation is typically expressed as:
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 = 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓(𝑢𝑢)[𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 ] ..…………(3.3)
where,
EL = evaporation rate(mm/day),
K = coefficient,
ew= saturation vapour pressure at the water surface temperature (mm of Hg),
ea =actual vapour pressure in overlying air at a specific height (mm of Hg), and
f(u)= correction function for wind speed
(In Table 3.2: A is the slope of the saturation vapour pressure versus temperature curve at
the mean air temperature, in mm of Hg/ °C; A will be described in the panman equation in
subsequent sections).
Two evaporation formulas known as Meyer’s formula (Equation 3.4) and Rohwer’s
formula (Equation 3.5) are given in sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.3, respectively.

3.3.2 Meyer’s formula

𝑢𝑢
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 = 𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 [𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 ] �1 + 169 � ..…………(3.4)
where,
EL = evaporation rate (mm/day),
101 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

KM = Meyer’s coefficient (0.36 for large deep water and 0.50 for small shallow water,
Table 3.2: Saturation vapour pressure of water
Saturation vapour
Temperature (°C) pressure ew (mm of A(mm/°C)
Hg)
0 4.58 0.30
5.0 6.54 0.45
7.5 7.78 0.54
10.0 9.21 0.60
12.5 10.87 0.71
15.0 12.79 0.80
17.5 15.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 1.05
22.5 20.44 1.24
25.0 23.76 1.40
27.5 27.54 1.61
30.0 31.82 1.85
32.5 36.68 2.07
35.0 42.81 2.35
37.5 48.36 2.62
40.0 55.32 2.95
45.0 71.20 3.66

ew= saturation vapour pressure at the water surface temperature (mm of Hg),
ea =actual vapour pressure in overlying air at a specific height (mm of Hg), and
u9= monthly average velocity in km/hr at about 9 m above the earth.
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3.3.3 Rohwer’s formula

This formula (Equation 3.5) is used to adjust for the influence of pressure in addition to the
effect of wind speed, and it may be stated as:
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 = 0.77(1.465 − 0.000732𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎 )(0.44 − 0.0733𝑢𝑢0 )[𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 ] ..…………(3.5)
where,
EL = rate of evaporation (mm/day) and
ew= saturation vapour pressure at the water's surface temperature (mm of Hg),
ea = the real vapour pressure in the air above at a given altitude (mm of Hg),
u0= average wind velocity (km/hr) at earth, represents the velocity at a height of 0.6
meters above the ground and
pa= average barometric pressure (mm of Hg).
Example 3.1: During a week, the average value of climate parameters of a lake with a
surface area of 300 hectares are as follows: Water temperature = 25°C; Relative humidity =
50%; Wind velocity at 1.0 m above ground surface =18 km/hour. Using Meyer’s formula,
calculate the average daily evaporation from the lake.
Solution:
ew= saturation vapour pressure at the water surface temperature (mm of Hg)
= From Table 3.2= 23.76 mm of Hg
ea =actual vapour pressure in overlying air at a specific height (mm of Hg).
= ew x relative humidity = 23.76x0.50 = 11.88 mm of Hg
u9 = monthly mean velocity in km/hr at about 9 m above ground
= u1x(9)1/7= 18 x 1.368 = 24.64 km/h
𝑢𝑢
Average daily evaporation by Meyer’s formula:= 𝐾𝐾𝑀𝑀 [𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 ] �1 + 169 �

= 0.36 (23.76-11.88) (1+24.64/16)

=0.36 x11.88x2.54
= 10.86 mm/day
103 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

3.4 ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR EVAPORATION ESTIMATION

There are three basic groups of analytical approaches for determining lake evaporation.:
a. Water-budget method,
b. Energy-balance method, and
c. Mass-transfer method.

3.4.1 Water-Budget Method

In terms of analytical methods, the water-budget method is the most straightforward and least
trustworthy. It entails calculating the evaporation based on estimates or knowledge of other
factors and creating the lake's hydrological continuity equation. Thus, while considering a
lake's daily average values, the continuity equation (Equation 3.6) can be expressed as
follows:
𝑃𝑃 + 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 + 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑔𝑔 + 𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 + ∆𝑆𝑆 + 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 ..…………(3.6)
where,
P = daily precipitation,
Vis = daily surface inflow into the lake,
Vig = daily groundwater inflow,
Vos = daily surface outflow from the lake,
Vog = daily seepage outflow,
EL= daily lake evaporation,
∆S = increase in lake storage in a day,
TL = daily transpiration loss.
All the values in equation 3.6 are expressed in terms of depth (mm) or volume (m3) over a
reference region. It is possible to rewrite the equation (3.6) as equation (3.7).
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 = 𝑃𝑃 + (𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠 ) + �𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑔 − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑔𝑔 � + 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 − ∆𝑆𝑆 ..…………(3.7)
The terms P, Vis, Vos and ∆S are measurable in equation 3.7. However, variables like
Vig, Vog and TL can only be estimated because they cannot be measured. In certain reservoirs,
transpiration losses can be deemed negligible. It is possible to estimate EL with greater
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 104

precision if the time unit is kept big, such as weeks or months. It is unrealistic to expect
extremely accurate results from the water-budget technique because of the many
uncertainties in the predicted values and the potential for inaccuracies in the measured
variables. Controlled trials, like the one conducted in 1952 in Lake Hefner in the United
States, have produced results using this method that are reasonably accurate.

3.4.2 Energy-Budget Method

The law of energy conservation is applied through the energy-budget approach. When
estimating the amount of energy, all incoming, departing, and stored energy in the water
body during a predetermined period is taken into consideration. Considering the specified
water body seen in Figure 3.4, the daily energy balance to the evaporating surface is provided
by equation 3.8 as follows:

Figure 3.4: Energy Balance in a Water Body

𝐻𝐻𝑛𝑛 = 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎 + 𝐻𝐻𝑒𝑒 + 𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔 + 𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠 + 𝐻𝐻𝑖𝑖 ..…………(3.8)
where,
Hn = net thermal energy derived from the surface of the water
Hn = Hc(1-r) - Hb
in which,
Hc(1 - r) = sun radiation entering a surface with an albedo (reflection coefficient) r,
Hb = long-wave back radiation from a body of water,
Ha = sensible heat transfer from the water's surface to the atmosphere,
He = heat energy lost during evaporation= ρLEL,
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where,
ρ= water density,
L = latent heat of evaporation and
EL = amount of evaporation (mm)
Hg= heat flux into the earth
Hs= heat retained in a body of water
Hi = net heat that the water flow conducts out of the system (advected energy)
Calories per square millimeter per day are used for all energy expressions. The terms
Hs and Hi are negligible and can be ignored when time intervals are short. Every term, apart
from Ha, is measurable or evaluable indirectly. Using Bowen's ratio β, the sensible heat term
Ha, which is challenging to measure, is estimated as Equation 3.9.
𝐻𝐻 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 −𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
𝛽𝛽 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 6.1 × 10−4 × 𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎 ..…………(3.9)
𝐿𝐿 𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 −𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎

where,
Pa = atmospheric pressure in mm of Hg,
ew = saturated vapour pressure in mm of Hg,
ea = real vapour pressure of air in mm of Hg,
Tw = temperature of water's surface in degrees Celsius, and
Ta = temperature of air in degrees Celsius.
Based on equations (3.8) and (3.9) EL can be assessed as equation (3.10).
𝐻𝐻𝑛𝑛 −𝐻𝐻𝑒𝑒 −𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔 −𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠 −𝐻𝐻𝑖𝑖
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿 = ..…………(3.10)
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌(1+𝛽𝛽)

The energy balance method of calculating evaporation in a lake has been found to produce
good results, with errors in the order of 5%, when applied to durations shorter than a week.

3.4.3 Mass-Transfer Method

The mass transfer of water vapour from the surface to the surrounding atmosphere is
calculated using this method, which is based on theories of turbulent mass transfer in
boundary layers. This method can produce satisfactory results if it uses quantities measured
by sophisticated (and expensive) instrumentation.
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Example 3.2: During a period of a month of 31 days, following observations were obtained
to conduct a lake's water budget.
Mean Surface area= 20 km2; Rainfall= 15 cm; Mean surface inflow rate = 12 m3/s; Mean
surface outflow rate= 20 m3/s; Fall in lake level = 1.30 m; Pan evaporation = 22 cm;
Assuming Pan evaporation coefficient =0.70, calculate the average seepage discharge during
that month.
Solution
Area of lake = 20 x 106 m2
Surface inflow = 12 x 31 x 24 x 3600 = 32,140,800m3
Surface outflow = 20 x 31 x 24 x 3600 = 53,568,000m3
Evaporation = 0.7 x 22/100 x 20 x 106 = 3,080,000m3
Rainfall = 15 x 20 x 106/100 = 3,000,000m3
Reduction in storage = 20 x 106 x 1.3 =26,000,000m3

Inflow Outflow
Item Volume (m3) Item Volume (m3)
Surface inflow 32,140,800 Surface outflow 53,568,000
Rainfall 3,000,000 Evaporation 3,080,000
Total inflow volume 35,140,800 Seepage Volume Se Se
Reduction in storage 26,000,000 Total Outflow 56,648,000+ Se

Total volume of Outflow – Total volume of inflow = change in storage

(56,648,000 + Se) – (35,140,800) = 26,000,000
Se= 4,492,800 = 4.4928 Mm3

3.5 RESERVOIR EVAPORATION AND METHODS FOR ITS

REDUCTION
One can estimate reservoir evaporation using any of the previously described techniques.
While analytical approaches yield superior outcomes, they involve parameters that are
expensive to obtain or difficult to assess. Empirical equations can, at most, be used to obtain
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estimated values of the appropriate order of magnitude. Thus, the pan measures are generally
acknowledged for practical application. The mean monthly and annual evaporation statistics
that IMD gathers are very useful for field estimations. The monthly amount of water lost
from a reservoir as a result of evaporation is computed as equation 3.11 as follows:
VE = AEpm Cp ..…………(3.11)
where,
VE = volume of water lost in evaporation in a month (m3),
A= average reservoir area during the month (m2),
Epm = pan evaporation loss in meters in a month (m),
= EL in mm/day× No. of days in the month× 10-3 , and
Cp= relevant pan coefficient
Evaporation is a continuous process by which water evaporates from a water surface
continuously. In India, the average annual evaporation loss from a water body is
approximately 160 cm, with higher values in arid regions. Given the size of many of the
nation's lakes, both natural and artificial, the amount of water that evaporates each year is in
fact significant. A tiny tank (lake) may only have a surface area of about 20 hectares, but
large reservoirs like Narmada Sagar have a surface area of about 90,000 ha. Table 3.3 lists
the surface areas and capacities of some of the largest reservoirs in India.
3.5.1 Methods to Reduce Evaporation Losses
Reducing evaporation losses can be crucial in various industries, especially in sectors like
agriculture, water management, and chemical processing. Here are several methods to
mitigate evaporation losses:
(i) Covering reservoirs or water bodies: One of the most effective methods is to
cover open water bodies such as reservoirs, ponds, or tanks with impermeable
materials like plastic sheets, geomembranes, or floating covers. This prevents
direct exposure to air and significantly reduces evaporation.
(ii) Using floating covers: Floating covers made of materials like foam or plastic can
be placed directly on the surface of water bodies. These covers reduce the surface
area exposed to air and can also provide insulation, thereby reducing evaporation
losses.
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(iii) Implementing windbreaks: Wind can accelerate evaporation by increasing the

rate of water-air exchange. Planting windbreaks such as trees, shrubs, or
constructing barriers can reduce wind speed over water bodies, thereby decreasing
evaporation.
(iv) Using mulch: In agriculture, applying mulch to the soil surface helps to retain
moisture and reduces evaporation from the soil. Mulch can be made of materials
like straw, wood chips, or plastic film.
(v) Optimizing irrigation methods: Compared to conventional overhead irrigation
techniques, the use of efficient irrigation systems like drip irrigation or micro-
sprinklers minimizes surface evaporation by delivering water directly to the root
zone of plants.
(vi) Regulating water levels: Maintaining optimal water levels in reservoirs or tanks
can minimize the exposed surface area, thereby reducing evaporation losses.
(vii) Applying chemical monolayers: Chemical monolayers, such as biodegradable
organic compounds or synthetic substances, can be applied to the surface of water
bodies to form a thin film. These films inhibit evaporation by reducing surface
tension and suppressing vaporization.
(viii) Increasing humidity: In certain controlled environments, such as greenhouses or
industrial settings, increasing humidity can reduce the vapour pressure gradient
between the water surface and the surrounding air, thereby decreasing evaporation
rates.
(ix) Optimizing temperature control: Controlling the temperature of water bodies or
substances prone to evaporation can help reduce evaporation losses. This may
involve shading, insulation, or actively cooling the environment.
(x) Implementing technological solutions: Advanced technologies such as
evaporation suppressants or evaporation ponds with recirculation systems can be
employed in industrial processes to minimize evaporation losses effectively.
Implementing a combination of these methods tailored to specific environments and
requirements can significantly reduce evaporation losses and improve water conservation
efforts.
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Table 3.3: Surface Areas and Capacities of Some Indian Reservoirs

Gross
Surface
SI. reservoir
Reservoir River State area at
No capacity
MRL (km2)
(Mm3)
1. Narmada Sagar Narmada Madhya Pradesh 914 12,230
2. Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna Andhra Pradesh 285 11,315
3. Sardar Sarovar Narmada Gujarat 370 9510
4. Bhakra Sutlej Punjab 169 9868
5. Hirakud Mahanadi Orissa 725 8141
6. Gandhi Sagar Chambal Madhya Pradesh 660 7746
7. Tungabhadra Tungabhadra Karnataka 378 4040
8. Shivaji Sagar Koyna Maharashtra 115 2780
9. Kadana Mahi Gujarat 172 1714
10 Panchet Damodar Jharkhand 153 1497

3.6 TRANSPIRATION
The process by which moisture moves from roots to tiny pores on the underside of leaves,
where it transforms into vapour and is expelled into the atmosphere, is called transpiration. It
is one of the major components of the water cycle and plays a crucial role in plant
physiology, water movement within plants, and the overall moisture balance in the
environment. Transpired water contributes to the moisture content of the atmosphere,
ultimately influencing weather patterns and precipitation. Understanding transpiration is
crucial for various fields, including agriculture, ecology, and hydrology, as it influences
water availability, ecosystem dynamics, and climate patterns. Transpiration is a significant
component of the water cycle, along with processes like evaporation, condensation, and
precipitation.
The rate of transpiration can be affected by a number of environmental conditions, including
temperature, humidity, wind speed, and soil moisture content. For example, high
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temperatures and low humidity typically increase transpiration rates, while factors that
reduce water availability, such as drought stress, can lead to stomatal closure and decreased
transpiration.
While transpiration is essential for plant growth and function, excessive transpiration can
lead to water stress in plants, particularly in arid or drought-prone regions. Therefore,
strategies to manage transpiration, such as optimizing irrigation practices and selecting
drought-tolerant plant species, are important for sustainable water management in agriculture
and natural ecosystems.

3.7 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
The combined processes of transpiration from plants and evaporation from the Earth's surface
are known as evapotranspiration (ET). It represents the total amount of water lost by
vegetation and soil to the atmosphere. Evapotranspiration is a critical component of the
hydrological cycle and plays a significant role in the water balance of ecosystems,
agricultural systems, and the atmosphere. Changes in land use and land cover, such as
deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural expansion, can alter evapotranspiration rates and
patterns. These changes can have significant implications for local and regional hydrology,
ecosystem function, water availability, and climate dynamics. Understanding
evapotranspiration is essential for various applications, including water resource
management, agriculture, ecology, climate modelling, and weather forecasting. Overall,
evapotranspiration is a complex process that involves interactions between the atmosphere,
vegetation, and soil. It is a key driver of Earth's water cycle and has far-reaching effects on
both natural and human-dominated landscapes. Some of the important terms related to
evapotranspiration are given below:
● Consumptive use: The loss by evapotranspiration is often referred to as consumptive
use. Consumptive use refers to the portion of water withdrawn from a water source
that is consumed or not returned to its original source. It is a measure of the amount
of water that is removed from a water body or aquifer and is no longer available for
immediate reuse.
The amount of water that crops require throughout the growing season is referred as
consumptive use in agriculture. This includes water absorbed by plant roots,
transpired through plant leaves, and evaporated from the soil surface. Agricultural
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consumptive use is influenced by factors such as crop type, climate, soil properties,
irrigation practices, and water management techniques.
● Potential evapotranspiration (PET): Naturally, for a particular set of atmospheric
conditions, evapotranspiration obviously depends on the availability of water.
Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the amount of evapotranspiration that results
when there is always enough moisture present to fully supply the needs of vegetation
covering the entire region. Potential evapotranspiration no longer critically depends
on the soil and plant variables but mostly depends on climatic factors.
● Actual evapotranspiration (AET): The real evapotranspiration occurring in a
specific situation is called actual evapotranspiration (AET). Actual evapotranspiration
refers to the total amount of water evaporated from the soil and transpired by plants
into the atmosphere over a specific area during a given period. It is influenced by
various factors such as solar radiation, temperature, wind speed, humidity, soil
moisture content, and vegetation type and density.
Estimating actual evapotranspiration is crucial in various fields, such as
agriculture, hydrology, and environmental science, as it helps in understanding water
availability, managing water resources, and predicting drought conditions. There are
several methods to estimate actual evapotranspiration, including empirical equations,
physical models, and remote sensing techniques. These approaches frequently use
weather data, soil moisture measurements, and vegetation features to quantify water
loss from the ground surface. It is required to introduce two words at this stage: field
capacity and permanent wilting point. Field capacity and permanent wilting point are
important soil moisture concepts that play a crucial role in understanding plant-water
relationships and soil characteristics in agriculture and ecology.
● Field Capacity: Field capacity refers to the maximum quantity of water that the soil
can retain against gravity after surplus water has drained away, usually within 1-3
days following a rain or irrigation event. At field capacity, the soil is fully saturated,
and any excess water has drained off. It represents the maximum amount of soil
moisture available to plants. However, plants cannot extract all the water held at field
capacity due to gravitational drainage. Field capacity is affected by soil texture,
structure, organic matter content, and compaction.
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● Permanent Wilting Point: The soil moisture level at which plants wilt irreversibly
and are unable to recover, regardless of water additions, is known as the permanent
wilting point (PWP). It represents the lower limit of soil moisture available to plants
for uptake. Plants are unable to draw soil water at this stage because the soil particles
are holding it too firmly. The soil's organic matter content, structure, and texture all
affect the permanent wilting point, which varies depending on the kind of soil. The
range between field capacity and permanent wilting point is often referred to as the
plant-available water or available water capacity. This range represents the soil
moisture that is accessible to plants for uptake and is crucial for understanding
irrigation scheduling, crop water requirements, and soil fertility management. Soil
moisture sensors and measurements are often used to determine field capacity and
permanent wilting point for specific soil types and conditions.
The moisture that is available for plant growth is known as available water, and it is
the difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point. During the
adequate water supply to the plant, soil moisture will be at the field capacity, resulting
in AET and PET being equal. If the water supply is less than PET, the soil dries out,
and the ratio between AET and PET is less than 1.0. The kind of soil and the rate at
which it dries out determine how much the ratio of AET to PET decreases with
available moisture. The AET goes to zero when soil moisture hits the permanent
wilting point. The variation of AET is represented in figure 3.5. The hydrologic
budget equation for a watershed in a given time period can be expressed as follows:
𝑃𝑃 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 − 𝐺𝐺𝑜𝑜 − 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ∆𝑆𝑆 . … … … … (3.12)
where,
P = precipitation,
Rs = surface runoff,
Go = sub-surface outflow,
Eact = actual evapotranspiration (AET) and
∆S = change in the moisture storage.
Eact can be estimated using this water budgeting by computing the remaining elements of Eq.
(3.12). The stream flow at the basin exit can be roughly determined by adding the values of
Go and Rs.
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All applied hydrology studies, except for a few specialized ones, use PET (instead of
AET) as a fundamental parameter in a range of estimations connected to water utilizations
associated to the evapotranspiration process. The reliability of PET as a lake evaporation
approximation is widely recognized. As a result, PET can be used to predict lake evaporation
in situations where pan evaporation data is not available.

Figure 3.5: Variation of AET

3.7.1 Measurement of Evapotranspiration

There are two methods for measuring evapotranspiration for a particular type of vegetation:
(a) using lysimeters and (b) using field plots.
a. Using Lysimeters: Lysimeters are specialized instruments used to measure
evapotranspiration (ET) directly by monitoring the water balance within a controlled soil
column or plot. They offer a very precise means of measuring the volume of water lost
from the soil as a result of plant transpiration and evaporation. Here's how lysimeters are
typically used to measure evapotranspiration:
● Installation: Lysimeters are usually installed in the ground, either at the surface or at
various depths, depending on the research objectives. They consist of a soil column or
container equipped with sensors to measure changes in soil moisture, as well as
instruments to monitor weather parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind
speed, and solar radiation.
● Weighing Method: The most common technique used with lysimeters is the
weighing method. In this method, the lysimeter is periodically weighed to determine
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changes in its weight, which directly corresponds to changes in soil water content due
to evapotranspiration. By measuring the weight of the lysimeter and accounting for
any precipitation inputs, researchers can determine the volume of water lost to
evapotranspiration from the soil.
● Water Balance Approach: The water balance approach is another approach that
involves directly measuring the water inputs and outputs of the lysimeter to calculate
evapotranspiration. This includes measuring precipitation inputs, irrigation
applications, and drainage losses from the lysimeter, along with changes in soil
moisture content over time. Taking into consideration water inputs and outputs,
researchers can determine the amount of water lost through evapotranspiration.
● Data Analysis: Data collected from lysimeters are typically analyzed to determine
daily, weekly, or seasonal evapotranspiration rates. Statistical methods and modelling
techniques may be used to analyze the data and extrapolate evapotranspiration rates
for different conditions or time periods.
Lysimeters provide highly accurate and site-specific measurements of
evapotranspiration, making them valuable tools for research, water management, and
agricultural applications. However, they require careful installation, maintenance, and
calibration to ensure accurate measurements.
b. Using Field Plots: The field plot method for measuring evapotranspiration (ET) involves
setting up small plots of vegetation and measuring water use through a combination of
direct and indirect methods. Here is a general outline of how the field plot method works:
● Plot Setup: Select an area representative of the vegetation or crop of interest. Divide
this area into smaller plots, typically ranging from a few square meters to a hectare,
depending on the scale of the study and the heterogeneity of the vegetation.
● Vegetation Selection: Choose the vegetation or crop species for the plots. It is
important that the vegetation in each plot is homogeneous in terms of species, age,
and canopy cover to minimize variability.
● Instrumentation: Install instruments to measure the key parameters necessary for
calculating evapotranspiration. This may include weather stations to measure
meteorological parameters like temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar
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radiation; Soil moisture sensors to track the amount of water in the soil at various
depths; and devices to measure water inputs (e.g., rainfall) and outputs (e.g., runoff).
● Measurement of ET: Evapotranspiration is typically calculated using a water
balance approach (Equation 3.13), where inputs (precipitation, irrigation) are
measured, and outputs (runoff, deep percolation) are monitored. The difference
between these inputs and outputs represents the water loss due to evapotranspiration.
Evapotranspiration = [precipitation + irrigation input – runoff- increase in soil
storage -groundwater loss] ..…………(3.13)
Validation: Validation of the evapotranspiration estimation obtained from the field plots
against other independent methods or models to ensure accuracy and reliability.
By following these steps, the field plot method provides valuable insights into the water use
of different vegetation types or crops under varying environmental conditions, helping
researchers and resource managers make informed decisions regarding water management
and agricultural practices.
3.7.2 Evapotranspiration Equations
A multitude of techniques have been developed to estimate PET from climatological data due
to the scarcity of trustworthy field data and the challenges associated with acquiring
trustworthy evapotranspiration data. Several equations are commonly used to estimate
evapotranspiration (ET), depending on the available data, the complexity required, and the
accuracy desired. Here are some of the most commonly used equations:
a. Penman’s Equation
Penman's equation, which combines the mass-transfer and energy-balance approaches, is
derived from good theoretical reasoning. After considering some of the changes other
researchers have proposed, Penman's equation (Equation 3.14) can be written as:
𝐴𝐴𝐻𝐻𝑛𝑛 +𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 𝛾𝛾
𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇 = 𝐴𝐴+𝛾𝛾
..…………(3.14)

where,
PET = daily potential evapotranspiration in mm/ day;
A = slope of the saturation vapour pressure versus temperature curve at the mean
air temperature, in mm of mercury per °C (Table 3.2)
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Hn = net radiation of evaporable water/ day in mm

Ea= parameter comprising wind velocity and saturation deficit
𝛾𝛾 = psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm of mercury/°C
The following equation (Equation 3.15) is used to calculate the same net radiation in the
energy budget [Equation (3.8)].
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑛𝑛 = 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎 (1 − 𝑟𝑟) �𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑁𝑁 � − 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎4 (0.56 − 0.092�𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 )(0.10 + 0.90 𝑁𝑁) ..…………(3.15)
where,
Ha = incident solar radiation outside the atmosphere on a horizontal surface,
expressed in mm of evaporable water/per day (Ha is the function of latitude and
time period as given in Table 3.4)
a = a constant depending upon the latitude φ and is given by a = 0.29 cosφ
b = a constant with an average value of 0.52
n = actual duration of bright sunshine in hours
N= maximum possible bright sunshine hours (function of latitude as indicated in
Table 3.5)
r = reflection coefficient (albedo). Table 3.6 displays the typical ranges of r..
𝜎𝜎 = Stefan-Boltzman coefficient = 2.01 × 109 mm/day
Ta = mean air temperature in degrees kelvin = 273 + °C
ea = actual mean vapour pressure in the air in mm of Hg
The parameter Ea is estimated as equation 3.16:
𝑢𝑢
2
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 0.35 �1 + 160 � (𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 ) ..…………(3.16)
in which,
u2 = average wind speed at 2 m above the earth in km/day
ew = saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of Hg (Table 3.2)
ea = real vapour pressure, previously described
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Table 3.4: Mean monthly solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere (Ha), measured in
millimeters of evaporable water
North Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Latitude
0° 14.5 15.0 15.2 14.7 13.9 13.4 13.5 14.2 14.9 15.0 14.6 14.3
10° 12.8 13.9 14.8 15.2 15.0 14.8 14.8 15.0 14.9 14.1 13.1 12.4
20° 10.8 12.3 13.9 15.2 15.7 15.8 15.7 15.3 14.4 12.9 11.2 10.3
30° 8.5 10.5 12.7 14.8 16.0 16.5 16.2 15.3 13.5 11.3 9.1 7.9
40° 6.0 8.3 11.0 13.9 15.9 16.7 16.3 14.8 12.2 9.3 6.7 5.4
50° 3.6 5.9 9.1 12.7 15.4 16.7 16.1 13.9 0.5 7.1 4.3 3.0

Information on n, ea, u2, mean air temperature, and nature of the surface (i.e., the value of r)
is required for the computation of PET. These can be found by actual observations or by
looking up the region's meteorological data. It should be noted that r = 0.05 can be utilized to
calculate the quantity of evaporation from a water surface using Penman's equation. Many
countries, including Australia, the UK, India, and some areas of the USA, adopt Penman's
equation.

Table 3.5: Mean monthly values of possible sunshine hours (N)

North Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Latitude
0° 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1
10° 11.6 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5
20° 11.1 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
30° 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
40° 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.8 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.4
50° 8.6 10.1 11.8 13.8 15.4 16.4 16.0 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1
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Table 3.6: Values of reflection coefficient (r )

Surface Range of r values
Close ground crops 0.15-0.25
Bare lands 0.05-0.45
Water Surface 0.05
Snow 0.45-0.95

Example 3.3: Using Penman's method, determine the probable evapotranspiration from a
region close to New Delhi in October. The information listed below is accessible:
Latitude : 30°0'N
Elevation : 230m (above sea level)
Mean monthly temperature : 20°C
Mean relative humidity : 65%
Mean observed sunshine hours : 9h
Wind velocity at the height of 2 m : 75km/day
Type of surface cover : Close-ground green crop
Solution:
From Table 3.2,
ew= 17.54 mm of Hg A= 1.05 mm/°C
From Table 3.4,
Ha = 11.3 mm of water/day
From Table 3.5,
N = 11.5 h n/N = 9/11.5 = 0.78
From given data
ea= 17.54 x 0.65 = 11.40 mm of Hg
a = 0.29 cos 30° = 0.2511
b = 0.52
𝜎𝜎= 2.01 x 10-9 mm/day
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Ta= 273 + 20 = 293 K

𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎4 = 14.613
r = albedo for close-ground green crop is taken as 0.25
Using Equation (3.15),
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝐻𝐻𝑛𝑛 = 𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎 (1 − 𝑟𝑟) �𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑁𝑁 � − 𝜎𝜎𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎4 (0.56 − 0.092�𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 )(0.10 + 0.90 𝑁𝑁)
Hn = 11.3 x (1 - 0.25) x (0.2511 + (0.52 x 0.78)) - 14.813 x (0.56 - 0.092 x(11.40)0.5) x (0.10 + (0.9 x 0.78))
Hn = 5.5655 - 2.97 = 2.60 mm of water/day
Using Equation (3.16),
2 𝑢𝑢
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 0.35 �1 + 160 � (𝑒𝑒𝑤𝑤 − 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 )
75
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 0.35 �1 + 160� (17.54 − 11.40)

𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 =3.517 mm/day

Using 𝛾𝛾 = 0.49 mm of mercury/°C in equation (3.14),
𝐴𝐴𝐻𝐻𝑛𝑛 +𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 𝛾𝛾
𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝐴𝐴+𝛾𝛾
1.05𝑥𝑥2.60+3.517𝑥𝑥0.49
𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 1.05+0.49

PET = 2.89 mm/day

b. Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ET0)

Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETₒ), is the rate of evapotranspiration from a
hypothetical reference crop, typically grass, under standard meteorological conditions. It
serves as a benchmark for estimating the water needs of various crops and landscapes. ETₒ
represents the evaporative demand of the atmosphere when a crop is not water-limited,
meaning it has ample water supply and is actively growing without stress.
The most commonly used method for calculating reference crop evapotranspiration is
the Penman-Monteith equation, which considers various meteorological parameters such as
temperature, humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, and atmospheric pressure. The equation
provides a comprehensive estimation of ETₒ based on energy balance and aerodynamic
principles.
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Reference evapotranspiration is expressed in units of length per unit of time (e.g.,

millimeters per day or inches per day) and is used as a standard measure for irrigation
scheduling, water resource management, and agricultural planning. It allows for the
comparison of water requirements among different crops and landscapes under similar
climatic conditions.
Any other crop's potential evapotranspiration (ET) can be computed by multiplying
the Reference evapotranspiration by a coefficient K (Equation 3.17), whose value varies
depending on the crop's stage. The value of K varies from 0.5 to 1.3 depending on the type of
crop. Thus
ET = K (ETₒ) ..…………(3.17)

c. Penman-Monteith Equation
This is one of the most widely used and comprehensive equations (Equation 3.18) for
estimating evapotranspiration. It considers both the energy balance and aerodynamic
components of ET and requires meteorological data, including temperature, humidity, wind
speed, solar radiation, and atmospheric pressure.
900
0.408∆(𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 −𝐺𝐺)+ 𝛾𝛾𝑢𝑢2 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇0 = 𝑇𝑇
……(3.18)
∆+𝛾𝛾(1+0.34𝑢𝑢2 )

where,
ETO = Reference Evapotranspiration rate (mm/day)

Δ = saturation specific humidity change rate in relation to air temperature. (Pa K−1)

Rn = Net Radiance flux (M m−2 day−1); (MJ= million joule)

G = Ground heat flux (MJ m−2 day−1), which is typically equal to zero on a day

T = Air temperature at 2m (K)

u2 = Wind speed at a height of 2m (m/s)
δe = vapour pressure deficit (kPa)

γ = Psychrometric constant (γ H 66 Pa K−1)

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d. Blaney-Criddle Formula
The Blaney-Criddle formula is an empirical equation used to estimate potential
evapotranspiration (PET) based on temperature and latitude data. It is a simplified method
and widely used, especially in regions where more complex methods or extensive
meteorological data are not available. This formula estimates potential evapotranspiration
based solely on temperature, making it a straightforward and easy-to-use method. However,
it does not account for other factors, such as humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation, which
are important for more accurate estimations of evapotranspiration. Therefore, while the
Blaney-Criddle formula can provide a rough estimate of potential evapotranspiration, it may
not be suitable for all applications, especially in areas with significant variations in climate
and vegetation. Hence, the Blaney-Criddle formula may not be as accurate as more
comprehensive methods like the Penman-Monteith equation. The Blaney-Criddle formula
(Equation 3.19 and 3.20) is expressed as follows:
ET = 2.54 KF ..…………(3.19)
and
∑𝑃𝑃ℎ ����
𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓
F= ..…………(3.20)
100

where,
ET = PET in a crop season in cm
K = a coefficient depends on the type of the crop
F = Sum of monthly consumption uses factors
Ph= monthly percent of annual day-time hours depending on the latitude of the place.
𝑇𝑇�𝑓𝑓 = Mean monthly temperature °F

3.8 POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION OVER INDIA

Utilizing Penman's formula and pertinent meteorological information, the nation's PET
estimate has been produced. Isopleths, or the lines on a map that cross locations with
identical evapotranspiration depths, are used to display the mean annual PET (in cm) at
different regions of the nation [Figure 3.6 (a)]. The annual PET is observed to vary between
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140 and 180 cm across most of the nation. Rajkot, Gujarat, has the greatest annual PET,
measuring 214.5 cm. Tamil Nadu's extreme southeast likewise exhibits high average values
above 180 cm. At Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, the PET for the southern peninsula is the
highest, measuring 209 cm. Figure 3.6 (b) shows the monthly PET variance at selected
locations across the nation's various climate zones.
Example 3.4: Calculate an area's PET during the wheat-growing season, November through
February, using the Blaney-Criddle formula. The region is in North India, at latitude of 25°N,
and experiences the following mean monthly temperatures:

Month November December January February

Temp °C 18 15 10 13.5
Value of Ph at
7.40 7.42 7.53 7.14
25°C

Value of K for wheat = 0.65

Figure 3.6: (a): Annual PET (cm) over India, (b): Monthly Variation of PET (mm)
(Source: Scientific Report No. 136, India Meteorological Department,1971, © GoI)

Solution
The following table computes the temperature to Fahrenheit.
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Month 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 Ph Ph/100x𝑇𝑇�𝑓𝑓

November 64.4 7.40 4.77

December 59.0 7.42 4.38
January 50 7.53 3.77
February 56.3 7.14 4.02
∑𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝑇𝑇�𝑓𝑓
= 16.94
100
From Blaney-Criddle formula: ET = 2.54 KF = 2.54 x 0.65x16.94 = 27.97 cm

3.9 ACTUAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (AET)

The combined process of evaporation from soil and plant surfaces and transpiration, which
moves water from the Earth's surface into the atmosphere, is referred to as actual
evapotranspiration. It represents the actual amount of water that is lost from a given area due
to these processes, considering factors such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and the
type of vegetation present. The water cycle depends heavily on actual evapotranspiration,
which is also a critical component of hydrological research, agricultural water management,
and climate modelling. For hydrological and irrigation reasons, actual evapotranspiration
(AET) can be calculated by accounting for soil, plant, and atmospheric interactions, as well
as water budgeting. Below is a straight forward process according to Doorenbos and Pruit:
The combined process of evaporation from soil and plant surfaces and transpiration,
which moves water from the Earth's surface into the atmosphere, is referred to as actual
evapotranspiration. It considers variables like temperature, humidity, wind speed, and the
type of vegetation present to indicate the real amount of water lost from a given region as a
result of these activities. The water cycle depends heavily on actual evapotranspiration,
which is also a critical component of hydrological research, agricultural water management,
and climate modelling. For hydrological and irrigation reasons, actual evapotranspiration
(AET) can be calculated by accounting for soil, plant, and atmospheric interactions, as well
as water budgeting. The simple procedure described below is based on Doorenbos and Pruit:
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a. The reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) is determined using the meteorological data
that is currently available.
b. Published tables are used to determine the crop coefficient K for the specified crop (and
growth stage). The potential crop evapotranspiration ETc is estimated using the following
equation :
ETc = K(ETo).
c. The following formula (Equation 3.21a & 3.21b) is used to get the actual
evapotranspiration (ETa) at a given time t at the field growing the specified crop:
● If AASW ≥ (1- p) MASW
ETa = ETo (known as a potential condition) ..…………(3.21a)
● If AASW < (1 - p) MASW
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 = �(1 − 𝑝𝑝) 𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴� 𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 ..…………(3.21b)

where,
MASW = total available soil water content above the root depth
AASW = actual available soil-water at time t over the root depth
p = soil-water depletion factor for a given crop and soil complex.
(P values vary from roughly 0.1 in sandy soils to roughly 0.5 in clayey soils)
[Observe that the terms used previously, PET =ETo and AET = ETa, are equivalent]
Example 3.5: On Day 1, the total accessible soil moisture in a recently irrigated field plot is
at its maximum value of 15 cm. Determine the actual evapotranspiration on Days 1, 8, and 9
if the reference crop's evapotranspiration is 7.0 mm/day. Assume that crop factor K = 0.90
and soil-water depletion factor p = 0.20.
Solution
Here ETo= 7.0 mm and MASW= 150 mm
(1- p) MASW = (1- 0.2) x 150 = 120.0 and
ETc = K x ETo = 0.9 x 5.0 = 4.5 mm/day
Day I: AASW = 150 mm> (1 - p) MASW
Hence, a potential condition exists and ETa = ETc = 4.5 mm/day. This rate will continue till a
depletion of (150 - 120) = 30 mm takes place in the soil. This will take 30/4.5 = 6.66 days.
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Thus,
Day 7: will also have ETa = ETc = 4.5 mm/day
Day 8: At the beginning of Day 8, AASW = (150 - 4.5 x 7) = 118.5 mm
Since AASW < (1 - p) MASW
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 118.5
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 = �(1 − 𝑝𝑝) 𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴� 𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = � 120 � 4.5 = 4.44

Day 9: At the beginning of Day 9, AASW = (118.5 - 4.44) = 114.06 mm

Since AASW < (1 - p) MASW
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 1114.06
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 = �(1 – 𝑝𝑝)𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴� 𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = � 120
� 4.5 = 4.28 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

AASW at the end of Day 9 = 114.06- 4.28 = 109.78mm.

3.10 INITIAL LOSS

The "Initial loss" refers to the amount of water that does not contribute directly to runoff or
infiltration during the early stages of a rainfall event. When rain falls onto the ground, some
of it may initially be absorbed by surface materials such as soil, vegetation, or pavement
before it begins to runoff or infiltrate into the soil. This initial loss represents the water that is
temporarily held on the surface or within the surface materials before it starts to move
elsewhere.
Initial loss can vary depending on several factors, including the type of surface (e.g.,
soil, vegetation, and pavement), rainfall intensity and its duration, the slope of the terrain,
and the antecedent moisture conditions of the surface. In hydrological modelling and
engineering, it is important to account for this initial loss when estimating the amount of
rainfall that will contribute to runoff or infiltration, as it affects the timing and magnitude of
surface water flow and groundwater recharge.
The primary abstraction in precipitation that reaches a catchment's surface comes
from the infiltration process. Two other processes, however minor in scope, function as
abstractions by decreasing the amount of water available for runoff. These processes are the
interception process and the depression storage process. This concept represents the amount
of storage that needs to be fulfilled before overland runoff starts.
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3.10.1 Interception
Interception refers to the process by which precipitation (such as rain, snow, or hail) is caught
and retained by vegetation, such as trees, shrubs, grass, and other forms of vegetation, before
it reaches to the ground. This interception process is a crucial component of the hydrological
cycle and has significant effects on the movement of water within ecosystems. Interception
plays a significant role in hydrological processes, affecting the amount of water that reaches
the soil, the timing and magnitude of runoff, soil moisture dynamics, and overall water
balance within a watershed or ecosystem. It also influences various ecological processes and
ecosystem functions, such as nutrient cycling, microclimate regulation, and habitat
availability for organisms. Therefore, understanding interception processes is important for
water resource management, ecological studies, and land-use planning.
When precipitation falls onto a vegetated surface, some of it is intercepted by the
leaves, branches stems, and other parts of the vegetation. This intercepted water may then
undergo various processes:
● Storage: The intercepted water is temporarily held on the surface of the vegetation,
where it can be stored until it evaporates back into the atmosphere or is eventually
released to the ground or other surfaces.
● Evaporation: Interception can lead to evaporation directly from the vegetation
surface. The intercepted water absorbs solar energy and undergoes an evaporation
process, returning moisture to the atmosphere.
● Drip or Through fall: Some intercepted water may eventually drip off the vegetation
and reach the ground directly (known as through fall), bypassing interception, while
some may be transferred along the surface of the vegetation and eventually reach the
ground (known as stem flow).
Transpiration, through fall, and stem flow are not included in the definition of intercepted
loss; it is only caused by evaporation. Measuring the amount of water intercepted in a
particular region is very challenging. It is dependent upon the species composition, density,
and storm characteristics of the vegetation. The interception loss is thought to be between
10% and 20% of the total amount of rain that falls in an area while plants are growing. If a
region receives a lot of minor storms each year, the annual interception loss from forests will
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be significant and will exceed 25% of the total precipitation. Figure 3.7 presents the
quantitative change of interception loss with storm rainfall magnitude for small storms.

Figure 3.7: Typical Interception Loss Curve

It is observed that for tiny rainfall, the interception loss is high, and for heavier storms, it
levels out to a constant amount. The interception loss for a particular storm can be presented
as equation 3.22:
Ii = Si + KiEt ..…………(3.22)
where,
Ii = interception loss (mm),
Si = interception storage, which is dependent on the kind of vegetation and ranges in
value from 0.25 to 1.25 mm,
Ki = ratio of vegetal surface area to its projected area and,
Et = evaporation rate in mm/h during the precipitation.
It has been discovered that deciduous trees have less interception loss than conifers.
Furthermore, dense grasses can account for nearly 20% of the season's total rainfall and have
the same interception losses as fully-grown trees. In their growth season, agricultural crops
also account for a large portion of interception losses. Given this, the interception process has
a major effect on the region's water balance, in situ water harvesting, and the ecology of the
area regarding silviculture issues. Interception loss, however, is rarely considerable and is not
separately considered in flood-related hydrological studies. It is customary to let a lump sum
amount be subtracted from the storm's starting duration as the initial loss.
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3.10.2 Depression storage

Depression storage under initial loss refers to the portion of water that is retained within
depressions or low-lying areas on the ground surface during the initial stages of precipitation
events before runoff begins. These depressions can include natural features such as small
basins, potholes, or uneven ground surfaces, as well as artificial structures like ditches or
depressions in pavement.
During the initial phase of rainfall, water may accumulate in these depressions before
reaching a threshold level where runoff or infiltration begins. This stored water in
depressions is often considered a part of the initial loss because it does not immediately
contribute to runoff or infiltration. Instead, it represents a temporary storage reservoir for
water until the rate of rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil or the capacity of
the depression is reached, leading to runoff or further infiltration.
Before rain can flow over the surface, it must first fill in any depressions as it hits the
ground. The volume of water that these depressions hold is known as depression storage.
This quantity subsequently becomes part of the initial loss due to evaporation and infiltration
processes that lead to runoff. Depression storage is influenced by many variables, the main
ones being (i) soil type, (ii) surface conditions reflecting depression size and kind, (iii)
catchment slope, and (iv) antecedent precipitation as a proxy for soil moisture. It is evident
that there are no universal expressions available for the quantitative evaluation of this loss.
According to qualitative research, antecedent precipitation significantly reduces the amount
of precipitation loss to runoff during a storm because of depression. Values in sand (0.5 cm),
loam (0.4 cm), and clay (0.2 cm) can be used as indicators of the loss of depression-storage
after strong storms.
In hydrological modelling and engineering, accounting for depression storage under
initial loss is important for accurately estimating the timing and magnitude of surface runoff
and infiltration, particularly in areas with uneven terrain or significant surface irregularities.
It helps in understanding how precipitation interacts with the ground surface and how water
moves across the landscape during rainfall events.

3.11 INFILTRATION
Infiltration is a fundamental process in hydrology that refers to the movement of water from
the surface into the soil or porous rock layers beneath. When precipitation hits the earth, it
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can either infiltrate into the soil, runoff over the surface, or evaporate back into the
atmosphere. Here's how infiltration typically occurs:
a. Saturation: Initially, when precipitation falls onto the soil surface, the soil may absorb
water until it reaches its infiltration capacity. This capacity is determined by soil
properties such as texture, structure, porosity, and permeability.
b. Infiltration: Once the soil reaches its infiltration capacity, excess water starts to infiltrate
into the soil pores and move downwards due to gravity. This infiltrating water replenishes
soil moisture, which is crucial for plant growth and groundwater recharge.
c. Percolation: As water infiltrates deeper into the soil profile, it may continue to move
downward, driven by gravity, until it reaches a zone where all soil pores are filled with
water (the saturated zone). At this point, further infiltration is restricted, and the
infiltrated water may percolate horizontally towards streams, lakes, or other water bodies,
or it may contribute to groundwater recharge.
d. Surface Retention: Surface retention refers to the mechanism by which water stays on
the surface of the land without infiltrating into the soil or running off into streams, rivers,
or other water bodies. This water may be retained temporarily on various types of
surfaces, including soil, vegetation, pavement, or impermeable surfaces like concrete or
asphalt. Understanding surface retention is crucial for effective water management, land
use planning, and sustainable development practices, especially in regions prone to water
scarcity, flooding, or degradation of natural resources. Efforts to enhance surface
retention may involve implementing green infrastructure, such as permeable pavements,
green roofs, and rain gardens, and restoring natural hydrological processes in urban and
rural landscapes. Surface retention can occur due to various factors, including:
● Low Infiltration Rates: In areas with compacted soils, impermeable surfaces, or
saturated soil conditions, water may be unable to infiltrate into the soil, leading to
surface retention.
● Vegetation and Biomass: Vegetation, such as grass, shrubs, or trees, can intercept and
retain water on their surfaces through processes like interception, evapotranspiration,
and storage in biomass.
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● Depression Storage: Small depressions or low-lying areas on the land surface can act
as temporary storage for water, especially during rainfall events, before it evaporates
or slowly infiltrates into the soil.
● Pavement and Impervious Surfaces: Impermeable surfaces like roads, parking lots,
and buildings prevent water from infiltrating into the soil, leading to surface runoff
and retention on these surfaces until it evaporates or is drained away through
stormwater systems.
Surface retention can have both positive and negative impacts on the environment and human
activities:
● Positive Impacts: Surface retention can contribute to soil moisture replenishment,
support vegetation growth, reduce erosion, and mitigate the effects of drought by
providing water for plants and ecosystems.
● Negative Impacts: Excessive surface retention, especially on impermeable surfaces in
urban areas, can lead to flooding, waterlogging, and increased runoff pollution, as well
as reduced groundwater recharge and increased urban heat island effects.
Factors affecting infiltration include soil characteristics (texture, structure,
compaction), vegetation cover, slope gradient, land use practices, and antecedent moisture
conditions. Infiltration rates can vary widely depending on these factors and can be
influenced by human activities such as urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation.
Understanding infiltration is essential for various hydrological applications, including
groundwater recharge estimation, flood prediction, watershed management, and soil
conservation practices. It plays a crucial role in maintaining water balance within ecosystems
and sustaining groundwater resources.
The infiltration rate can be measured from consistent observations of storm rainfall. A
specific amount of water is placed on the soil's surface prior to runoff. This surface storage
evaporates when the rainfall stops, but some of it keeps seeping into the soil throughout that
time. During the process of infiltration, the total volume of precipitation can be defined as
equation 3.23:
P = Q + Da + Vd + Ic + F ..…………(3.23)
where,
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P = Volume of precipitation in cms

Q = Volume of Surface Runoff in cms
Ic+ Vd = Volume of initial storage in cms
Da = Volume of surface retention storage in cms
F = Volume of infiltrated water in cms
After the steady condition is reached

P = Q + F or F = P − Q

3.12 INFILTRATION CAPACITY

The maximum rate at which a soil can absorb water at a particular moment is known as its
infiltration capacity. It is denoted as fp and can be measured in units of cm/h. The actual rate
of infiltration f can be expressed as equation 3.24.

f = fp when i ≥ fp

and
f = i when i < fp ..…………(3.24)
where, i denotes the intensity of the rainfall. When a storm first starts, a soil's infiltration
capacity is high and decreases exponentially over time. Figure 3.8 illustrates how a soil's
infiltration capacity (fp) typically changes over time.

Figure 3.8: Infiltration Capacity Variation

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The infiltration capacity of a watershed may be dependent on several factors, out of which
some important factors affecting fp are described below:
● Soil characteristics (Texture, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity)
● Condition of the soil surface
● Current moisture content
● Vegetation cover and temperature of Soil
● Characteristics of Soil
The texture, structure, permeability, under drainage, and type of soil: clay, silt, or sand are
the key attributes that fall under this category. A sandy soil that is loose and permeable will
be able to absorb more water than a soil that is compacted and clayey. It makes sense that a
soil with good under drainage, that is, the ability to transfer the infiltrated water downward to
groundwater storage would have a larger capacity for infiltration. The total infiltration rate is
determined by the transmission capacity of the soil layers when the soils are found in layers.
Furthermore, dry soil has a higher capacity to absorb water than soil with fully developed
pores (Fig.3.10). Land use has a significant influence on fp. For instance, the same soil in an
urban environment that is subjected to compaction will have a considerably lower value of fp
than the same soil in a forest that is rich in organic matter.
● Surface of Entry
Raindrop impact displaces soil particles at the soil's surface, which might block the pore
spaces in the soil's higher layers. This has a significant impact on the infiltration capacity.
Therefore, a surface covered with grass and other vegetation can slow down this process,
which has a significant impact on the fp value.
● Fluid Characteristics
Numerous contaminants, both in suspension and in solution, will be present in the water that
seeps into the soil. The turbidity of the water, particularly the amount of clay and colloid, is a
significant impact. These suspended particles obstruct the small soil pores and decrease the
soil's ability to absorb water. The water's temperature plays a role because it influences the
water's viscosity, which in turn influences the rate of infiltration. Water contaminated by the
dissolved salts may have an impact on the soil's structure, which may, therefore, have an
impact on the rate of infiltration.
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3.13 MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION

In some problems of operational hydrology, the conduction of controlled experiments on a
representative watershed may be desirable. Determining the infiltration capability may be
obtained by:
1. Flooding type infiltrometers
2. Simple (Tube type) infiltrometer
3. Double-ring type infiltrometer
4. Rainfall simulator
5. Hydrograph analysis
3.13.1 Simple (Tube type) infiltrometer
A simple (Tube type) infiltrometer is a simple instrument made up of a metal tube that is
roughly 60 cm long and 30 cm in diameter and is pushed into the earth, with about 10 cm
sticking out above the ground. Depending on the kind of vegetation, water is poured into this
ring to a depth of 2.5 to 5 cm. The constant head is maintained by pouring additional water
into the ring. Time intervals are used to measure the increased volume. Experiments on
infiltration capacity may take two or three hours to reach a uniform rate of infiltration,
depending on the average infiltration rate during the measurement period. The measure
disadvantage of this type of infiltrometer is that the tube element of the experiment may
cause significant disruptions to the field circumstances.
3.13.2 Double-ring infiltrometer
A double-ring infiltrometer is a tool used in hydrology and soil science to measure the rate at
which water infiltrates into the soil. It consists of two concentric rings, typically made of
metal or plastic, which are pressed into the soil surface. The inner ring is open at the bottom
and serves as a reservoir for water, while the outer ring is closed at the bottom and acts as a
boundary to control the lateral flow of water.
For installing a double-ring infiltrometer, the soil surface is prepared by removing any
debris and levelling the area where the infiltrometer will be installed. The double-ring
infiltrometer is pressed into the soil surface using a mallet or other suitable tool. Both rings
should be firmly seated in the soil to prevent leakage. A measured volume of water is added
to the inner ring of the infiltrometer. This water is allowed to infiltrate into the soil through
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the bottom of the inner ring. The rate of water infiltration is monitored over time by
obtaining the water level in the inner ring at regular intervals. This can be done manually
using a graduated ruler or automatically with sensors connected to data loggers. The data
collected during the infiltration test can be used to calculate various parameters, such as the
infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, and soil infiltration capacity. These parameters
provide valuable information about the ability of soil to absorb and transmit water, which is
essential for various hydrological and engineering applications.
Double-ring infiltrometers are commonly used in field studies to assess soil infiltration
properties, evaluate the effectiveness of land management practices, and design drainage
systems and erosion control measures. They provide a simple and reliable method for
quantifying soil water infiltration under controlled conditions, allowing researchers and
practitioners to better understand and manage water resources in agricultural, urban, and
natural environments. A section view of the double-ring infiltrometer is given in figure 3.9.

3.13.3 Rainfall Simulators

Rainfall simulators (Figure 3.10) are devices used in hydrology, soil science, and agricultural
research to mimic natural rainfall under controlled conditions. These simulators generate
artificial rainfall with specific characteristics, such as intensity, duration, and droplet size
distribution, allowing researchers to study various aspects of water movement, soil erosion,
infiltration, and runoff in a controlled environment. Overall, rainfall simulators provide a
valuable tool for researchers to study the complex interactions between rainfall, soil,
vegetation, and land use, helping to improve our understanding of water resources
management and environmental sustainability.

Figure 3.9: Section view of double-ring infiltrometer.

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Rainfall simulators come in various designs, ranging from simple portable units to
complex systems with multiple components. The design may include a water source,
distribution system, and mechanism for generating raindrops. The simulator is connected to a
water source, such as a tank, reservoir, or water pump, which supplies water to generate
artificial rainfall. The water is distributed over a test plot or soil surface using a distribution
system, which may consist of pipes, hoses, or spray nozzles. The distribution system ensures
uniform coverage of the test area with artificial rainfall. Rainfall simulators generate raindrops
using various methods, such as gravity-fed nozzles, sprinklers, or rotating arms. These devices
produce raindrops with controlled characteristics, such as size, velocity, and distribution, to
simulate different types of natural rainfall events. Researchers can adjust the intensity, duration,
and other parameters of the artificial rainfall using control systems integrated into the
simulator. Data loggers and sensors may be used to monitor various parameters, such as
rainfall intensity, runoff volume, soil moisture, and erosion rates, during the experiment.

Figure 3.10: Rainfall simulator (Source: I. S. Mcqueen, 1963)

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3.13.4 Hydrograph Analysis

An accurate assessment of the infiltration capacity of a small watershed can be obtained by
analyzing runoff hydrographs that have been measured and corresponding rainfall records.
The water budget equation can be used to estimate the abstraction by infiltration if
sufficiently accurate rainfall records and runoff hydrographs corresponding to individual
storms in a small watershed with relatively homogeneous soils are available. By
understanding the watershed's land cover and use, the evapotranspiration losses are
approximated in this case.

3.14 MODELLING INFILTRATION CAPACITY

Typical changes in infiltration capacity fp over time are shown in Figure 3.11. Cumulative
infiltration capacity Fp(t) is the total amount of infiltration volume accumulated over time
since the start of the process and is calculated by equation 3.25a.
𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝 = ∫0 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 .…………(3.25a)
Hence, the curve between Fp(t)and time (t) shown in Fig. (3.11) is represented as
mass curve of infiltration. It can be represented as equation (3.25b) as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑃 (𝑡𝑡)
𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
..…………(3.25b)
For use in hydrological studies, numerous equations have been developed to express
the curves fp(t) or Fp(t). Four such equations will be explained in this section.

Figure 3.11: Infiltration Capacity and Cumulative Infiltration Capacity Curves

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3.14.1 Horton’s Equation (1933)

According to Horton, the infiltration capacity decays exponentially over time (equation 3.26)
as follows:

𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 + (𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 − 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 )𝑒𝑒 −𝐾𝐾ℎ 𝑡𝑡 for 0 ≥ t ≤ tc ..…………(3.26)

where,
fp = infiltration capacity from the beginning of the rainfall at any given time t
f0= initial infiltration capacity at t = 0
fc= final steady state infiltration capacity occurring at t = tc. Furthermore, fc is also
referred to as ultimate infiltration capacity or constant rate on occasion.
Kh=Horton’s decay coefficient which is influenced by the vegetation cover and the
properties of the soil.
Example 3.6: Using Horton's equation, the infiltration capacity in a watershed is represented
as
fp = 3.5 + e-2t
where fp is in cm/h and t is in hours. Estimate the depth of infiltration in (i) the first 30
minutes and (ii) the second 30 minutes of the storm, assuming that infiltration occurs at
capacity rates for a storm lasting one hour.
Solution
𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝 = � 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
0

and
fp = 3.5 + e-2t
(i) In the first 0.5 hour,
0.5 1 0.5
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝1 = ∫0 (3.5 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 )𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = �(3.5 𝑡𝑡 − 2 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 )�
0
1
= �3.5 𝑥𝑥 0.5 − 2 (𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥0.5 � − (−1/2)
= (1.75-0.184) + 0.5
= 2.066 cm
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(ii) In the Second 0.5 hour,

1.0 1 1.0
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝2 = ∫0.5 (3.5 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 )𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = �(3.5 𝑡𝑡 − 2 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 )�
0.5
1 1
=�3.5 𝑥𝑥 1.0 − 2 (𝑒𝑒 −2 � − �3.5 𝑥𝑥 0.5 − 2 (𝑒𝑒 −2𝑥𝑥0.5 �
= (3.5-0.0677) –(1.75-0.184)
= 1.8663 cm
Example 3.7: Before a rainfall event, the infiltration capacity of the soil in a small watershed
was found to be 8 cm/h. After ten hours of storming, the same was measured at 1.5 cm/h.
Find the value of the decay coefficient Kh in Horton's infiltration capacity equation if the total
infiltration over the storm's 10-hour duration was 18 cm.
Solution
Horton's equation:
𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 + (𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 − 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 )𝑒𝑒 −𝐾𝐾ℎ 𝑡𝑡
and
𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝 = � 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
0
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝 = ∫0 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 + (𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 − 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 ) ∫0 𝑒𝑒 −𝐾𝐾ℎ 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
∞ 1
As t → ∞ ∫0 𝑒𝑒 −𝐾𝐾ℎ 𝑡𝑡 dt → 𝐾𝐾
ℎ

Hence, for large t-values

(𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 −𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 )
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐾𝐾ℎ

Here, Fp = 18.0 cm,

f0 = 8.0 cm/h,
fc = 1.5 cm/h, and
t = 10 hours.
18.0 = (1.5 x 10) + (8.0 - 1.5)/Kh
Kh= 6.5/3.0 = 2.2 h-1
3.14.2 Philip’s Model
Philips represented the expression for Fp as Equation 3.27 as follows:
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−1
1
𝐹𝐹𝑝𝑝 = 2 𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 ..…………(3.27)
where, s = an expression of soil suction potential known as absorptivity
K= Darcy’s hydraulic conductivity
Plot the measured fp values against t –0.5 on an arithmetic graph paper. K is the intercept, and
(s/2) is the slope of the best-fitting straight line through the depicted points. It is important to
remember that K must be positive while fitting Philip's model, and in order to do so, it might
be necessary to exclude a few data points from the early phases of the infiltration experiment
(viz. at small values of t). K is going to be roughly equal to the asymptotic value of fp.
3.14.3 Kostiakov Model
In the Kostiakov model, the relation between Fp and t can be given as equation 3.28a as
follows:
Fp = atb ..…………(3.28a)
where, a and b are known as local parameters; in which a > 0 and 0< b < 1. Taking
logarithms of both sides of equation (3.28a), one gets equation (3.28b) as follows;
ln (Fp) = ln a + b ln(t) ..…………(3.28b)
On an arithmetic graph paper, the data is shown as ln(Fp) vs ln(t). The intercept of the
best fit straight line across the plotted points is ln a, and the slope is b. Keep in mind that 0 <
b < 1 indicates that b is a positive number.
3.14.4 Green–Ampt Model
Based on Darcy’s law, Green Ampt has proposed a model to obtain infiltration capacity,
which can be represented as equation (3.29).
𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚 + 𝐹𝐹 ..…………(3.29)
𝑝𝑝

where m and n are Green–Ampt coefficients. In this approach, the values of Fp are plotted
against (1/Fp), and the best fit straight line is drawn through the plotted points. The
coefficients m and n, respectively, represent the line's intercept and slope. In certain cases, it
may be necessary to exclude the values of fp and the corresponding Fp at very low values of t,
in order to obtain the best-fitting straight line with a good correlation coefficient.

3.15 CLASSIFICATION OF INFILTRATION CAPACITIES

Based on the Infiltration capacity, the soil classification is given in Table 3.7.
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3.16 INFILTRATION INDICES

In flood-related hydrological computations, it is found to be simple to utilize an infiltration
rate that remains constant during the storm. There are two commonly used forms of
infiltration indices, which are calculated as the average infiltration rate.
Table 3.7: Classification of soil based on the infiltration capacity
Infiltration Infiltration Soil Type
Class Capacity (mm/h)
Very low <2.5 Highly Clayey Soil
Low 2.5 to 25.0 Shallow soils, Clay, and Soils low in organic matter
Medium 12.5 to 25.0 Sandy loam, Silt
High >25.0 Deep sands, well-drained aggregated soil

3.16.1 Φ-index
The Φ index is the average rainfall above which the volume of runoff and the volume of
precipitation are equal. The Φ index is computed using the rainfall hyetograph and the known
resultant runoff volume. Infiltration also refers to the initial loss. The Φ value can be
determined by treating it as a constant infiltration capacity. However, the infiltration rate is
likewise equal to the intensity of the rainfall if the infiltration of the rainfall is more than or
equal to the intensity of the rainfall. When the intensity of rainfall and infiltration in a given
time frame is more than Φ, the Φ value is discovered, which indicates the runoff volume
(Figure 3.12).

Figure 3.12: Φ-index. (Source: Subramanya, 2006)

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Rainfall excess is the quantity of rainfall that exceeds the Φ index. Thus, the Φ -index
accounts for the whole abstraction and, for a given rainfall hyetograph, enables the estimation
of runoff magnitudes.
Procedure for Calculation of Φ-index
Imagine a rainfall hyetograph where N pulses are spread at Δt time intervals and the event
duration is D hours so that:
N .Δt = D. (In Figure 3.12, N = 7)
Let,
Ii = rainfall intensity in ith pulse and
Rd = total direct runoff than,
Total rainfall P= ∑𝑁𝑁
1 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 − 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
If Φ=Φ-index value then: P - Φ. te = Rd
where,
te = duration of rainfall excess.
The Φ -index of the storm can be found using the trial-and-error method described below,
provided that the rainfall hyetograph and total runoff depth Rd are known.

● Assume that M pulses out of the given N pulses have excess rainfall. (where M ≤ N).
Choose M pulses in decreasing order of rainfall intensity Ii.
● Obtain the value of Φ, which satisfies the relation.
𝑀𝑀

𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 = �(𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 − 𝛷𝛷)∆𝑡𝑡

1

● Determine the number of pulses (Mc) which give excess rainfall using the value Φ from
Step 2. (Therefore, Mc = number of pulses with 1i ≥ Φ rainfall intensity).
● If Mc= M, then Φ of Step 2 represents the accurate value of the Φ-index. If not, repeat the
procedure from Step 1 onwards and use the new value of M in the process. The result of
Step 3 can serve as a guide for the subsequent one.
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3.16.2 W- Index
To improve the value of the Φ-index, the initial losses are isolated from the overall
abstraction, resulting in an average infiltration rate known as the W index obtained, which
can be defined as equation 3.30 below.
𝑃𝑃−𝑅𝑅−𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎
𝑊𝑊 = ..…………(3.30)
𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒

where, P = total precipitation (cm),

R = total storm runoff (cm),
Ia = initial losses (cm),
te = Time duration of the rainfall excess, i.e. total time in which the rainfall
intensity > W (in hours) and
W = mean infiltration rate (cm/h).
Due to the difficulty of obtaining Ia values, it can be challenging to estimate the W index.
Wmin is the lowest value of the W index that is attained in extremely wet soil conditions and
indicates the steady-state minimum rate of catchment infiltration. The values of W-index and
the Φ index are not constant among storms and vary from storm to storm.

SUMMARY
Storm event runoff is often regarded as the primary study area in engineering hydrology. A
loss in the process of producing runoff could be attributed to any abstraction from
precipitation, including precipitation lost through transpiration, infiltration, surface detention,
and storage. The primary components of abstractions from precipitation are covered in this
lesson and are crucial to comprehend when examining various hydrologic conditions. The
combination of transpiration from vegetation and evaporation from soil and water bodies is
referred to as evapotranspiration. Several subjects pertaining to evapotranspiration from
basins and evaporation from water bodies have been thoroughly covered in this unit.
Depression storages and interceptions, which represent "losses" in the runoff production
process, are also covered in the module. Additionally, this unit explains the infiltration
process. Furthermore, the infiltration process is explained in this module. It is an important
process for improving soil moisture storage and groundwater recharge, as well as a
considerable drain from precipitation.
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EXERCISE
Revision Questions
1. Explain briefly about the several types of abstractions derived from precipitation.
2. Discuss in brief the evaporation process.
3. Explain various factors affecting evaporation from a water body.
4. Define Dalton's law of evaporation,
5. Describe a commonly used evaporimeter. Give an example of a typical evaporimeter.
6. Describe how to estimate evaporation from a lake using the energy budget approach.
7. Explain the importance of evaporation control of reservoir. Give the possible methods
for obtaining the same.
8. List the variables influencing the evapotranspiration process.
9. What do you understand about consumptive use?
10. Apply Penman's formula to get potential evapotranspiration from a specific location.
11. Discuss Meyer’s and Rohwer’s evaporation formulas.
12. Give a brief explanation of (a) the evapotranspiration of reference crops and (b) the
actual evapotranspiration.
13. Give a brief explanation of the soil moisture zones that are created because of
infiltration.
14. Explain various factors affecting the infiltration capacity of an area.
15. Describe how to fit an experiment's data from a particular plot to Horton's infiltration
equation.
16. Describe various methods for measuring the infiltration.
17. Describe the methods that are frequently employed to ascertain a plot of land's
infiltration characteristics. Clearly state the respective benefits and drawbacks of each
of the listed techniques.
18. Describe the various models that have been used to depict how infiltration capacity
changes over time.
19. Differentiate between the following:
● Infiltration rate and capacity;
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● Actual and projected evapotranspiration;

● Field capacity and permanent wilting point;
● Depression storage and interception.
20. Define Φ-index. Explain the procedure for calculating Φ-index.
21. Differentiate between Φ-index and W-index.

Numerical Problems
1. A reservoir had an average surface area of 28 km2 during June 1983. In that month
the mean rate of inflow = 20 m3/s, outflow = 25 m3/s, monthly rainfall = 18 cm and
change in storage = 18 million m3. Assuming the seepage losses to be 1.9 cm,
estimate the evaporation in that month.
2. Using Penman's method, determine the probable evapotranspiration from a region
close to Haridwar in November. The information listed below is accessible:
Latitude : 30°0' N
Elevation : 314 m (above sea level)
Mean monthly temperature : 16°C
Mean relative humidity : 25%
Mean observed sunshine hours : 7h
Wind velocity at the height of 2 m : 65km/day
Type of surface cover : Close-ground green crop
3. A class A pan was set up adjacent to a lake. The depth of water in the pan at the
beginning of a certain week was 186 mm. That week, there was a rainfall of 38 mm,
and 8 mm of water was removed from the pan to keep the water level within the
specified depth range. If the depth of the water in the pan at the end of the week was
180 mm calculate the pan evaporation. Using a suitable pan coefficient, estimate the
lake evaporation that week.
4. A reservoir has an average area of 60 km2 over a year. The normal annual rainfall at
the place is 110 cm, and the class A pan evaporation is 230 cm. Assuming the land
flooded by the reservoir has a runoff coefficient of 0.4, estimate the net annual
increase or decrease in the streamflow as a result of the reservoir.
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5. Using Horton's equation, the infiltration capacity in a watershed is represented as

fp = 4.5 + e-2t
where fp is in cm/h and t is in hours. Estimate the depth of infiltration in (i) the first
30 minutes and (ii) the second 30 minutes of the storm if infiltration occurs at
capacity rates for a storm lasting one hour.
6. The results of an infiltrometer test on soil are given below. Determine the best values
of the parameters of Horton’s infiltration capacity equation for this soil.

Time since
starts in 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 80 100
minutes
Cumulative
infiltration in 21.7 35.7 54.2 68.9 81.4 88.5 99.8 109.6 124.3
mm

7. During a week, the average value of climate parameters of a lake with a surface area
of 420 hectares are as follows: Water temperature = 28°C; Relative humidity = 60%;
Wind velocity at 1.0 m above ground surface =16 km/hour. Using Meyer’s formula,
calculate the average daily evaporation from the lake.
8. The following climatic data were observed at a reservoir in the neighborhood of
Jaipur. Estimate the mean monthly and annual evaporation from the reservoir using
Meyer’s formula.

Relative Wind velocity at 2m

Month Temp. (°C)
humidity (%) above GL (km/h)
Jan 13.5 65 4.6
Feb 14.8 70 5.1
Mar 20.9 35 4.7
Apr 29.0 40 4.9
May 36.5 20 6.9
Jun 33.5 30 9.0
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Relative Wind velocity at 2m

Month Temp. (°C)
humidity (%) above GL (km/h)
Jul 42.6 80 8.2
Aug 34.0 90 5.8
Sep 29.2 67 5.3
Oct 24.9 40 4.6
Nov 15.9 30 4.6
Dec 12.7 26 4.2

9. A wheat field has a maximum available moisture of 14 cm. If the reference

evapotranspiration is 7.7 mm/day, estimate the actual evapotranspiration on Day 1,
Day 6, and Day 9 after irrigation. Assume soil-water depletion factor p = 0.25 and
crop factor K = 0.65.
10. During a period of a month of 30 days, the following observations were obtained to
conduct a lake's water budget.
Mean Surface area = 25 km2; Rainfall= 26 cm; Mean surface inflow rate = 14m3/s;
Mean surface outflow rate= 22 m3/s; Fall in lake level = 1.10 m; Pan evaporation = 23
cm; Assuming Pan evaporation coefficient = 0.75, calculate the average seepage
discharge during that month.
11. The results of an infiltrometer test on soil are as follows:
Time since starts in
5 10 15 25 40 60 75 90 110 130
minutes
Cumulative
21.5 37.0 48.2 57.9 65.1 71.8 75.8 81.3 89.0 95.0
infiltration in mm

Determine the parameters of (i) Kostiakov’s equation, (ii) Green–Ampt equation, and
Philips equation
12. On Day 1, the total accessible soil moisture in a recently irrigated field plot is at its
maximum value of 17 cm. Determine the actual evapotranspiration on Days 1, 8, and
9 if the reference crop's evapotranspiration is 8.2 mm/day. Assume that crop factor K
= 0.85 and soil-water depletion factor p = 0.22.
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13. The infiltration process at capacity rates in soil is described by Kostiakov’s equation
as Fp = 3.5 t0.8 where Fp is cumulative infiltration in cm and t is time in hours.
Estimate the infiltration capacity at (i) 3.5 h, and (ii) 5.0 h from the start of
infiltration.
14. Before a rainfall event, the infiltration capacity of the soil in a small watershed was
found to be 10 cm/h. After twelve hours of storming, the same was measured at 1.7
cm/h. Find the value of the decay coefficient Kh in Horton's infiltration capacity
equation if the total infiltration over the storm's 12-hour duration was 16 cm.
15. For an area in South India (latitude = 13° N), the mean monthly temperatures are
given.
Month June July Aug Sep Oct
Temp 33.4 32.0 28.0 28.5 26.0
(°C)
Calculate the seasonal consumptive use of water for the rice crop in the season June
16 to October 15, by using the Blaney–Criddle formula.
16. Calculate an area's PET during the wheat-growing season, November through
February, using the Blaney-Criddle formula. The region is in North India, at a latitude
of 30°N, and experiences the following mean monthly temperatures:
Month November December January February
Temp °C 16 12 6 14
Value of Ph at 26°C 7.30 7.45 7.50 7.20
Value of K for wheat = 0.65
17. The mass curve of an isolated storm in a 500 ha watershed is as follows:
Time from the start (h) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Cumulative rainfall (cm) 0 1.8 3.7 4.8 5.9 9.3 14.8 16.8 19.4 22.6

If the direct runoff produced by the storm is measured at the outlet of the watershed
as 0.340 Mm3, estimate the Φ-index of the storm and duration of rainfall excess.
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18. In a 160-min storm, the following rates of rainfall were observed in successive 20-
min intervals: 7.0, 7.9, 19.0, 15.0, 2.6, 2.0, 2.0 and 12.0 mm/h. Assuming the Φ-index
value as 3.5 mm/h and an initial loss of 0.9 mm, determine the total rainfall, net
runoff, and W-index for the storm.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is evaporation?
A) The process of a liquid turning into a gas at a specific temperature
B) The process of a solid turning into a liquid
C) The process of a gas turning into a liquid
D) The process of a liquid turning into a solid
2. Which factor increases the rate of evaporation?
A) Decreasing temperature B) Increasing surface area
C) Increasing humidity D) Reducing air movement
3. At what temperature does evaporation occur?
A) Only at boiling point B) Only at freezing point
C) At any temperature D) Only at room temperature
4. Which of the following substances will evaporate fastest at room temperature?
A) Water B) Olive oil
C) Mercury D) Alcohol
5. Which of the following scenarios demonstrates evaporation?
A) Ice melting into water B) Water boiling
C) Sweat evaporating from skin D) Water freezing into ice
6. How does wind affect the evaporation process?
A) It has no effect B) It decreases the rate of evaporation
C) It increases the rate of evaporation D) It changes the state of the liquid
7. What is an evaporimeter?
A) A device used to measure humidity
B) A device that measures the rate of evaporation
149 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

C) A device that measures temperature

D) A device used to measure precipitation
8. Which type of evaporimeter uses a pan filled with water to measure evaporation rates?
A) Class A pan evaporimeter B) Lysimeter
C) Weighing-type evaporimeter D) Vacuum evaporimeter
9. What is the main principle behind a weighing-type evaporimeter?
A) Measuring temperature changes
B) Measuring water level changes
C) Weighing the amount of water lost over time
D) Measuring humidity levels
10. Which of the following is a disadvantage of using a Class A pan evaporimeter?
A) It is difficult to set up
B) It is expensive
C) It is affected by wind and temperature changes
D) It is not portable
11. What type of evaporimeter is often used in agricultural applications?
A) Class A pan evaporimeter B) Weighing-type evaporimeter
C) Electronic evaporimeter D) Both A and B
12. Which of the following types of evaporimeters is known for being highly accurate and
typically used in research?
A) Class A pan evaporimeter B) Weighing-type evaporimeter
C) Simple evaporation gauge D) Stick-type evaporimeter
13. In which type of evaporimeter would you likely find a built-in sensor to measure
evaporation directly?
A) Class A pan evaporimeter B) Weighing-type evaporimeter
C) Electronic evaporimeter D) Bucket evaporimeter
14. What is a common application of evaporimeters?
A) Measuring soil moisture B) Calculating crop water needs
C) Monitoring air pressure D) Assessing water quality
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 150

15. Which of the following methods estimates evaporation using meteorological data?
A) Class A pan method B) Penman-Monteith equation
C) Lysimeter method D) Water balance method
16. The Class A pan method primarily measures evaporation by:
A) Using temperature and humidity only B) Measuring water loss from a standard pan
C) Observing changes in soil moisture D) Analysing satellite imagery
17. What is a lysimeter?
A) A device that measures rainfall
B) A device that directly measures water loss from soil
C) A container used for Class A pan measurements
D) A method for calculating evaporation using wind speed
18. Which method estimates evaporation based on the energy balance at the surface?
A) Water balance method B) Penman equation
C) Class A pan method D) Evapotranspiration method
19. The water balance method for estimating evaporation relies on which key principle?
A) Direct measurement of water temperature
B) Balancing inputs and outputs of water in a system
C) Measuring wind speed and humidity
D) Analysing soil salinity
20. Which method is often used for estimating evaporation in large water bodies?
A) Penman-Monteith equation B) Energy budget method
C) Class A pan method D) Bulk transfer method
21. Which method is primarily used for short-term evaporation measurements?
A) Class A pan method B) Lysimeter method
C) Water balance method D) Energy balance method
22. What is transpiration?
A) The process of water evaporating from soil
B) The process by which plants lose water vapor through their leaves
C) The process of water moving through the atmosphere
D) The process of liquid water turning into ice
151 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

23. Evapotranspiration is defined as:

A) The sum of evaporation and plant transpiration
B) The loss of water only from the soil
C) The process of water freezing in plants
D) The condensation of water vapor in the atmosphere
24. Which of the following factors affects the rate of transpiration?
A) Soil moisture B) Temperature
C) Humidity D) All of the above
25. Which method is commonly used to estimate evapotranspiration?
A) Penman-Monteith equation B) Class A pan method
C) Weighing lysimeter D) Both A and C
26. The primary driver of transpiration in plants is:
A) Nutrient availability B) Water availability
C) Sunlight and temperature D) Soil pH
27. Which plant characteristic can significantly influence transpiration rates?
A) Leaf size and shape B) Root depth
C) Type of soil D) All of the above
28. In what way does humidity affect transpiration?
A) High humidity increases transpiration rates
B) Low humidity decreases transpiration rates
C) Humidity has no effect on transpiration
D) High humidity decreases transpiration rates
29. What role does stomata play in transpiration?
A) They absorb nutrients
B) They facilitate gas exchange and water loss
C) They store water
D) They protect the plant from pests
30. What is meant by "initial loss" in the context of evapotranspiration?
A) The immediate loss of water from precipitation before it enters the soil
B) The gradual loss of water through transpiration
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 152

C) The total amount of water lost in a watershed

D) The water retained in the soil after a rainfall event
31. Which of the following factors can influence initial loss?
A) Soil type B) Vegetation cover
C) Rainfall intensity D) All of the above
32. What does "depression storage" refer to in hydrology?
A) Water stored in aquifers
B) Water held in surface depressions like ponds and puddles
C) Water lost through evaporation from large water bodies
D) Water captured in the atmosphere
33. Which method is commonly used to estimate initial loss in a watershed?
A) Soil moisture balance B) Curve Number method
C) Penman-Monteith equation D) Water balance approach
34. How does depression storage affect the estimation of evapotranspiration?
A) It reduces the overall evapotranspiration rate
B) It increases the amount of water available for plants
C) It does not influence evapotranspiration rates
D) It only affects surface runoff
35. Which equation can be used to account for initial loss and depression storage in
hydrological modeling?
A) Water balance equation B) Continuity equation
C) Darcy’s law D) Penman equation
36. What is the primary impact of initial losses on runoff?
A) They increase runoff B) They decrease runoff
C) They have no effect on runoff D) They lead to immediate evaporation
37. In which scenario would depression storage be most significant?
A) A flat, dry landscape
B) An area with heavy rainfall and poor drainage
C) A desert environment
D) A mountainous region
153 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Answer: 1-A; 2-B; 3-C; 4-D; 5-C; 6-C; 7-B; 8-A; 9-C; 10-C; 11-D; 12-B; 13-C; 14-B; 15-B;
16-B; 17-B; 18-B; 19-B;20-D; 21-A; 22-B; 23-A; 24-D; 25-D; 26-C; 27-D; 28-D; 29-B; 30-
A; 31-D; 32-B; 33-B; 34-B; 35-A; 36-B; 37-B.

KNOW MORE
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Asawa, G.L. (2005), “Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering, New Age
International (P) Ltd., ISBN-13: 978-8122416732
2. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, 1964.
3. IMD (1971), “Scientific Report No. 136, India Meteorological Department,1971,
Government of India.
4. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources
of India, Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland,
ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4(HB).
5. McQueen, I.S. (1963), Development of a Hand Portable Rainfall-Simulator
Infiltrometer, Geological Survey Circular, 482, Washington, 1963.
6. Punmia, B.C. and Lal, Pande B.B., (1992), “Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering”, Twelfth Edition. Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
7. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
8. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India)
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN (13): 978-1-25902997-4.
 4
H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 154

Runoff

UNIT SPECIFICS
In engineering hydrology, runoff is described as the portion of precipitation that flows
through surface drains from a catchment area. It is influenced by various storm and
catchment characteristics such as the intensity and duration of rainfall, soil type, slope of the
land, vegetation cover, and various anthropogenic activities like urbanization and change in
land use and land cover. This unit deals with the runoff process along with the factors
affecting the runoff process, as well as methods to estimate runoff volume, including the
SCS-CN method. The unit also describes the runoff hydrograph with its components, factors
affecting the runoff hydrograph, flow duration curve, flow mass curve, etc. The unit also
describes India's effective rainfall and various surface water resources. Finally,
environmental flow techniques are described.

RATIONALE
To learn about the Rainfall-runoff process and modelling, flow duration, hydrograph, base
flow separation, unit hydrograph, flood hydrograph, and environmental flow.

PRE-REQUISITE
Nil

UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U4-O1: Rainfall-runoff process and modelling, methods of runoff assessment
U4-O2: Excess runoff hydrograph, unit hydrograph, factors affecting unit hydrograph
U4-O3: Flood hydrograph and environmental flow
155 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Unit Expected Mapping with Course Outcomes

Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7 CO-8
U4-O1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
U4-O2 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3
U4-O3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Runoff is the term used to describe the portion of precipitation that flows through a surface
channel and drains from a catchment area. As a result, it shows the catchment's output for a
specific time period. It is the movement of water across the earth's surface, primarily due to
rainfall, which has not been absorbed into the soil, evaporated into the atmosphere, or used
by plants. This phenomenon is a critical component in the hydrological cycle, acting as a
transporter of water from the land surface back into the water bodies like rivers, lakes, and
oceans. The runoff process is influenced by various factors such as the intensity and duration
of rainfall, soil type, slope of the land, vegetation cover, and human activities like
urbanization. Figure 4.1 shows different routes of runoff. A brief overview of the runoff
process is as follows:

Figure 4.1: Different routes of runoff

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a. Rainfall: Rainfall, also known as precipitation, is a fundamental component of the

Earth's hydrological cycle. Precipitation, in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail, falls
onto the Earth's surface. It refers to any form of water, in liquid or solid state, falling from
the atmosphere to the Earth's surface. Rainfall plays a vital role in shaping climates,
sustaining ecosystems, and supporting human activities such as agriculture and water
supply.
b. Infiltration: Infiltration refers to the process by which some of the precipitation
infiltrates into the soil, replenishing groundwater reserves and supporting plant growth. It
is a critical component of the hydrological cycle and plays a significant role in
groundwater recharge, soil moisture replenishment, and overall water availability. When
precipitation, such as rain or snow, falls onto the ground surface, a portion of it infiltrates
into the soil. This infiltration occurs primarily through the pores and spaces between soil
particles.
c. Surface Runoff: If the intensity of rainfall exceeds the rate at which the soil can absorb
water (infiltration capacity), excess water starts to flow over the land surface. This is
known as surface runoff. Surface runoff collects in low-lying areas, forms streams, and
eventually flows into larger bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, or oceans.
4.1.1 Factors Influencing Runoff
Several factors influence the runoff process, determining the amount and speed at which
water flows over the land surface. These factors interact in complex ways and can vary
depending on geographic location, climate, land use, and other variables. Here are some of
the key factors affecting runoff:
a. Precipitation Intensity and Duration: The intensity and duration of rainfall or other
forms of precipitation play a significant role in runoff generation. High-intensity rainfall
events or prolonged precipitation periods can lead to increased surface runoff, as the soil
may become saturated, and excess water cannot infiltrate quickly enough.
b. Soil Characteristics: Soil type, texture, structure, and permeability influence runoff by
affecting the infiltration rate. Sandy soils typically have higher infiltration rates due to
their larger pore spaces, while clay soils have lower infiltration rates because of their
smaller pore spaces and tendency to form a crust that impedes water movement. Soil
compaction, organic matter content, and soil moisture levels also impact runoff.
157 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

c. Vegetation Cover: Vegetation, including grasses, shrubs, trees, and other vegetation
types, can influence runoff by intercepting precipitation, reducing the impact of rainfall
on the soil surface, and promoting infiltration. Root systems help to bind soil particles
together, enhance soil structure, and increase water absorption capacity. Deforestation,
land clearing, and urbanization can reduce vegetation cover and increase runoff rates.
d. Topography and Slope: The slope and topography of the land play a crucial role in
runoff generation. Steeper slopes generally lead to faster runoff as water flows down
slope more rapidly, whereas flatter terrain may allow for more infiltration and slower
runoff. Topographic features such as ridges, valleys, and depressions can also affect the
distribution and concentration of runoff.
e. Land Use and Land Cover Changes: Human activities such as urbanization,
agriculture, deforestation, and construction alter the natural landscape and can
significantly impact runoff patterns. Impermeable surfaces like roads, parking lots, and
buildings increase surface runoff by preventing water from infiltrating into the soil.
Changes in land cover, such as the conversion of forests to agricultural fields or urban
areas, can exacerbate runoff and lead to downstream flooding, erosion, and
sedimentation.
f. Antecedent Soil Moisture Conditions: The moisture content of the soil prior to a
rainfall event, known as antecedent soil moisture, affects runoff generation. Dry soils
have higher infiltration rates and can absorb more water before runoff occurs, whereas
wet or saturated soils may produce more runoff because they have less capacity to absorb
additional moisture.
g. Climate and Weather Patterns: Climate factors such as temperature, humidity, wind,
and atmospheric pressure influence precipitation patterns and evapotranspiration rates,
which in turn affect runoff. Seasonal variations, weather events like storms or droughts,
and long-term climate change can all impact runoff dynamics on regional and global
scales.
4.1.2 Need for the study about Runoff
The study of runoff is essential in hydrology for several reasons:
a. Water Cycle Balance: Runoff is a key element in maintaining the balance of the water
cycle. It ensures the continuous movement of water from the land to water bodies,
contributing to the global distribution of water resources.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 158

b. Flood Prediction and Management: Understanding the dynamics of runoff enables

hydrologists to predict and manage floods. By analyzing runoff patterns and volumes, it
is possible to estimate the flood potentiality in certain areas, which is crucial for planning
and implementing flood control measures.
c. Water Resource Planning: Runoff analysis is vital for water resource planning and
management. It aids in the assessment of water availability for various uses such as
irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, and domestic consumption.
d. Environmental Impact: Studying runoff patterns helps in understanding the
environmental impact of various land use changes, such as deforestation, urbanization,
and agriculture. Changes in land use can significantly affect runoff characteristics,
influencing both the quantity and quality of water in a region.
e. Hydraulic Structure Design and Construction: Knowledge about runoff characteristics
is essential for the design and construction of various hydraulic structures like dams,
reservoirs, canals, and Stormwater drainage systems.
f. Erosion and Sediment Control: Runoff can cause soil erosion and transport sediments.
Understanding runoff patterns helps in designing effective soil conservation and
sediment-controlling strategies.
g. Water Quality Management: Runoff can carry pollutants from urban and agricultural
areas into water bodies. Studying the runoff process is crucial for implementing effective
water quality management practices.
4.1.3 Runoff Classification
Runoff is a fundamental concept in hydrology and water resources engineering with far-
reaching implications for environmental management, water resource planning, and
infrastructure development, which is altogether meant for water resources development. Its
study helps in understanding the dynamics of water movement, predicting, and managing
natural events like floods, and ensuring the sustainable management of water resources. The
runoff is divided into two groups according to the time delay between the precipitation and
the runoff as (a) Direct runoff and (b) Base flow.
a. Direct Runoff
Direct runoff is the amount of runoff that flows into the stream immediately after it rains.
Surface runoff, instantaneous interflow, and precipitation on the stream's surface are all
159 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

included in direct runoff. The flow that results from snowmelt and enters the stream is
likewise referred to as direct runoff. Direct runoff is sometimes referred to by expressions
like storm runoff and direct storm runoff.
b. Base Flow
Base flow is the delayed flow that effectively acts as groundwater flow and reaches a
stream. This category frequently includes delayed interflow as well. The base flow of a
perennial stream can be easily identified in its yearly hydrograph as the stream's gradually
declining flow during dry spells. A typical annual hydrograph has been shown in Figure 4.2
above.

4.1.4 Natural Flow

The response of a watershed to precipitation, or runoff, is an expression of the combined
influence of various rainfall, climate, and catchment features. Thus, stream flow in its natural
state, that is, without human interference, represents true runoff. A stream's natural flow, also
known as its virgin flow, is uninterrupted by human constructions like reservoirs and
diversion structures. If a stream has storage or diversion works, then the downstream
channel's flow is impacted by the hydraulic and operational properties of these structures and,
unless it is adjusted for return and diversion flow, fails to accurately represent the actual
runoff.
At a catchment's terminal point, the natural flow (virgin flow) volume in time Δt is
expressed by the water balance equation as:

Figure 4.2: Perennial Stream

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RN = (Ro - Vr) + Vd + E + Ex+ ΔS ..…………(4.1)

where,
RN= Natural runoff volume in time Δt
Ro= observed runoff volume in time Δt at the terminal site
Vr= volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and industrial use
Vd= volume diverted flow of the stream for irrigation, domestic water supply, and
industrial use
E = net evaporation losses from reservoirs and lakes
Ex= net export of water from the basin
ΔS= change in the storage volumes of water storage bodies
Correlation for natural flows is developed in hydrological investigations. On the other
hand, natural flows must be estimated from data on abstractions from the stream and
observed flows. In real life, however, upstream abstractions have an impact on the observed
stream flow at a site and include return flow. Therefore, data on abstractions from the stream
and observed flows must be used to determine natural flows.
Example 4.1 The measured discharge values for a given year at a river gauging station are
displayed in the following table. A weir constructed across the river, upstream of the gauging
site, diverts 4.0 Mm3 and 1.00 Mm3 of water each month for irrigation and industrial usage,
respectively. Estimated return flows to the river upstream of the gauging location are 0.80
Mm3 from irrigation and 0.60 Mm3 from industry. Calculate the natural flow. Find the
runoff-rainfall ratio if the catchment area is 200 km2 and the average annual rainfall is 190
cm.

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Gauged Flow (Mm3) 2.3 1.6 1.0 0.9 2.0 8.6 17.9 24.0 13.6 9.7 7.0 3.5

Solution
In a month the natural runoff volume RN is obtained from Equation (4.1) as:
RN = (Ro - Vr) + Vd+ E + Ex+ ΔS
Here E, Ex and ΔS are assumed to be insignificant and of zero value.
161 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Vr = volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and industrial use
= 0.80 + 0.60 = 1.40 Mm3
Vd = volume diverted to the stream for irrigation, domestic water supply and Industrial use
= 4.0 + 1.0 = 5.0 Mm3
The calculations are shown in the following table:

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Gauged Flow 2.3 1.6 1.0 0.9 2.0 8.6 17.9 24.0 13.6 9.7 7.0 3.5
(Mm3)
Vd (Mm3) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Vr (Mm3) 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
RN (Mm3) 5.9 5.2 4.6 4.5 5.6 12.2 21.5 27.6 17.2 13.3 10.6 7.1

Total RN=135.3 Mm3

Annual natural flow volume = Annual runoff volume = 135.3 Mm3
Area of catchment = 200 km2= 2.00 x 108m2
8
1.1353𝑥𝑥10
Annual runoff depth = 8 =0.567 m =56.7 cm
2.0𝑥𝑥10
Annual Rainfall = 190 cm
runoff-rainfall ratio = 56.7/190 = 0.30
4.1.5 Runoff Volume (Yield)
The Runoff Volume (yield) of the catchment in a given period is the entire amount of surface
water that may be anticipated from a river at the outlet of its catchment over that period of
time. We have annual yield and seasonal yield, which indicate the catchment's yield each
year and season, respectively, depending on the time selected. The word "yield", unless
specified otherwise, usually refers to the annual yield. In India, the term "yield" is mostly
used by specialists in irrigation engineering. The water balance equation (Equation 4.1) can
be used to express the yield of a catchment Y in a period Δt as follows:
Y = RN + Vr = Ro + Ab + ΔS ..…………(4.1a)
where,
RN= Natural runoff volume in time Δt
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Ro= observed runoff volume in time Δt at the terminal site

Vr= volume of return flow from irrigation, domestic water supply and industrial use
Ab = abstraction in time, Δt for irrigation, water supply and industrial use and
inclusive of evaporation losses in surface water bodies on the stream.
ΔS = change in the storage volumes of water storage bodies

4.2 HYDROGRAPH
Hydrographs are important tools in hydrology for understanding the response of a watershed
or river basin to rainfall events or other hydrological inputs. They can provide insights into
the timing and magnitude of peak flows, the duration of high-flow events, and the overall
behavior of the river system.
A hydrograph is a graphical representation of the response of a given catchment to a
rainfall input. It represents the flow rate or discharge of a river or stream over a period of
time. It typically shows the variation in water level (or discharge) over time, usually plotted
as a line graph with time on the x-axis and discharge (or water level) on the y-axis.
Hydrograph comprises flow in all three phases of runoff—surface runoff, interflow, and base
flow—and represents the combined effects of numerous complexes interacting with
catchment and rainfall characteristics. Let us assume that catchment A, shown in Figure 4.3
has a regular record of rainfall. Also, the discharge of the river AB is measured at the
point B.

Figure 4.3: (a). Fan-shaped catchment (b) Leaf-shaped catchment

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Hydrographs are useful for a variety of purposes, including flood forecasting, water
resources management, and understanding the effects of land use changes or climate
variability on river systems. They are often generated using stream flow data collected by
gauging stations located along rivers and streams, which measure the water level or discharge
at regular intervals. These data are then plotted to create the hydrograph. Additionally,
hydrographs can be simulated using hydrological models to predict river behavior under
different scenarios. A hydrograph has the following parts:
a. Rising Limb: The portion of the hydrograph where discharge or water level increases in
response to rising rainfall or snowmelt.
b. Peak Flow: The highest point on the hydrograph, representing the maximum discharge
during the event.
c. Recession Limb: The portion of the hydrograph where discharge or water level decreases
as the rainfall event subsides and runoff diminishes.
d. Base flow: The relatively constant, low-level flow in a river or stream that is sustained
between storm events. Base flow contributes to the overall hydrograph shape, especially
during dry periods.

4.2.1 Hydrograph generation

It is quite obvious that the rainfall is in isolated spurts, whereas the stream flow is more
continuous. Rainfall is generally shown as a hyetograph, whereas the stream flow is
represented on a hydrograph. A hydrograph is a graphical representation of discharge
measured at a particular point on a stream and is plotted as a function of time. The shape of
the hydrograph tells us how the stream flow varies with respect to time. The following
elements make up stream flow, as mentioned in the hydrological cycle:
a. Rain directly falling into the stream: Streamflow is mostly instantaneously generated
when rain falls directly into the stream. However, in a typical catchment, this motion is
negligible; however, in a watershed with huge lakes, it could be highly significant.
b. Surface runoff: Surface water reaches the stream by the process of overland flow.
c. Interflow: The term "interflow" describes the horizontal movement of water through
the soil's higher strata. Infiltration produces streamflow much more slowly than direct
runoff, but that leads to generally insignificant results compared to surface runoff.
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d. Groundwater flow: When the surrounding area's water table is higher than the river
beds, the water table reaches the stream.
Usually, some water mass continues to flow in the stream even when there is no rainfall
in the catchment. This streamflow may be due to the (i) melting of snow in the catchment or
(ii) because of the groundwater. In general, surface runoff appears to contribute to the
streamflow most significantly and most quickly, which makes it an instrument for generating
the peak flow.
4.2.2 Components of a natural hydrograph
A hydrograph represents the response of a watershed or river basin to a hydrological input,
typically rainfall. It consists of various components that reflect different aspects of the water
flow within the system. By analyzing the different components of a hydrograph, hydrologists
can gain insights into the behavior of watersheds and rivers, including their response to
rainfall events, the dynamics of flow generation, and the factors influencing flood risk and
water availability. A natural hydrograph's components can be broadly categorized as follows:
a. Direct Runoff: Direct runoff refers to the portion of the rainfall that quickly runs off the
land surface into streams and rivers without infiltrating into the soil. This component
contributes to the rising limb of the hydrograph and is often associated with peak flows
during storm events.
b. Base flow: Base flow represents the portion of streamflow that comes from delayed
sources such as groundwater discharge and subsurface flow. It is typically sustained
between storm events and contributes to the relatively constant flow in rivers and streams
during dry periods. Base flow can influence the recession limb of the hydrograph, helping
to sustain flow even after rainfall has ceased.
c. Quick Flow: Quick flow refers to the rapid response of a watershed to rainfall,
characterized by high flow rates and short response times. It includes both surface runoff
and rapid subsurface flow through shallow soil layers or preferential flow paths. Quick
flow contributes to the initial rise in streamflow during a storm event.
d. Slow Flow: Slow flow represents the delayed response of a watershed to rainfall,
characterized by lower flow rates and longer response times compared to quick flow. It
includes delayed infiltration into deeper soil layers, groundwater recharge, and the
gradual release of stored water within the watershed. Slow flow contributes to the
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recession limb of the hydrograph, sustaining flow in rivers and streams after the storm
event has ended.
e. Peak Flow: Peak flow refers to the maximum discharge observed during a storm event,
typically occurring during the rising limb of the hydrograph. It reflects the combined
effects of direct runoff, quick flow, and any other contributing factors, such as channel
routing or reservoir releases.
When there is no rainfall, there may be some flow in the river stream, such as Qi. This
quantity will depend on the groundwater flow. Obviously, if the groundwater continues
contributing to the stream, its own water level will decrease very slowly, and its contribution
will also decrease. The flow in the river is called base flow, which is constantly decreasing
over time. An exponential decay curve represents the base flow hydrograph, and the quantity
can be written precisely as equation 4.2 is given below.
𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡 = 𝑄𝑄0 × 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 .…………(4.2)
where,
Qo = discharge at start of time period
Qt = discharge at end of time t
k = coefficient of aquifer
t = base of natural logarithm
Before any measurable runoff reaches to the stream channels, there is an initial period
of interception and infiltration as soon as the rainfall starts. There is not any surface runoff
input during this time. Surface runoff starts when rainfall exceeds losses and continues to a
peak value, which is determined at a time tp. The infiltration and percolation that have been
continuing during the gross rainfall period result in an elevated groundwater table, which
therefore contributes more at the end of the storm than at the beginning, but thereafter, again,
it declines along its depletion curve. The streamflow will begin to recede once the peak has
been reached, and the rainfall stops until it completely disappears.
However, it is very difficult to differentiate between base flow and surface flow
exactly as there are many interrelated factors on which they are dependent. Because of the
complexity of the process, several empirical methods have been devised to discriminate
between direct runoff.
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4.2.3 The contribution to base flow to stream discharge

The base flow represents the discharge from the groundwater. The change in base flow
occurs very slowly, and that is a lag between the change in the water table and the
contribution from the base flow. This lag depends upon the transmissibility characteristics of
the aquifer and may extend up to a period of days and weeks. There are two types of streams,
known as influent streams and effluent streams, depending on whether the base flow is
positive or negative.
● Influent stream: An influent stream is one in which water moves from the stream into
the groundwater or when the base flow is negative. This can happen when the
Groundwater table is below the water in the stream (Figure 4.4). There are times when an
influent stream is entirely dry; these streams are known as ephemeral streams. The
hydrograph of such streams is shown in Figure 4.5.
● Effluent stream: An effluent stream is fed up by groundwater as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.4: Influent stream

Figure 4.5: Hydrograph of an ephemeral stream

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Figure 4.6: Effluent stream

4.2.4 Factors Affecting Hydrographs

Hydrographs, which represent the flow or discharge of water in a river or stream over time,
are influenced by various factors. These factors can be natural or human-induced and can
impact the shape, size, magnitude, and duration of hydrographs. These factors contribute to
the rising limb, peak flow, recession limb, and overall form of the hydrograph.
Understanding the complex interactions between these factors is crucial for predicting
hydrological responses to rainfall events, assessing flood risk, effectively managing water
resources, forecasting, and conserving ecosystems. Hydrological modelling techniques are
often used to simulate hydrograph shapes under different scenarios and identify the dominant
controls on hydrological processes. Here are some key factors affecting hydrographs:
a. Precipitation: The amount, intensity, duration, and spatial distribution of precipitation
events directly affect the shape of hydrographs. Higher intensities or longer durations
result in steeper rising limbs and higher peak flows, while shorter or less intense rainfall
events produce gentler hydrograph responses. Heavy rainfall can lead to rapid increases
in river flow, resulting in steep rising limbs on hydrographs.
b. Antecedent Conditions: The moisture status of the catchment prior to a rainfall event,
known as antecedent conditions, influences how water is partitioned between infiltration,
surface runoff, and groundwater recharge. Wet antecedent conditions lead to faster runoff
response times and higher peak flows compared to dry antecedent conditions.
c. Catchment Characteristics: The physical characteristics of the catchment, including
size, shape, slope, soil type, land use, and vegetation cover, influence the hydrograph
shape. Catchments with steep slopes, impermeable soils, and limited vegetation tend to
generate flashier hydrographs with rapid responses to rainfall. The geological
composition of the catchment area and its topographical features influence how water
moves through the landscape. Figure 4.7 shows the effect of catchment shape on the
hydrograph.
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Figure 4.7: Effect of catchment shape on the hydrograph

d. Vegetation Cover: Vegetation plays a crucial role in regulating the hydrological cycle.
Vegetative cover affects infiltration rates, evapotranspiration rates, and interception of
rainfall. Changes in land use, such as deforestation or afforestation, can alter hydrographs
significantly.
e. Land Use Changes: Human activities such as urbanization, agriculture, deforestation,
and construction of impervious surfaces alter the natural hydrological processes.
Urbanization, for example, increases surface runoff and reduces infiltration rates, leading
to flashier hydrographs with faster response times.
f. Drainage Density and Channel Network: The drainage density is defined as the ratio of
the total channel length to the total drainage area. The density and connectivity of the
drainage network within the catchment affect the flow pathways and travel times of
runoff. Higher drainage densities and well-connected channels lead to faster conveyance
of water and shorter response times in hydrographs. A skewed hydrograph with a gently
rising limb is the result of overland flow predominating in basins with lower drainage
densities (Figure 4.8).
g. Storage Capacities: Natural and artificial storage features such as lakes, wetlands,
reservoirs, and detention basins within the catchment can attenuate or delay peak flows,
leading to modified hydrograph shapes. Storage capacities influence the recession limb of
hydrographs by regulating base flow contributions.
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Figure 4.8: Role of drainage density on the hydrograph

h. Human Modifications: Engineering structures such as dams, reservoirs, levees, and
channel modifications alter the natural flow regime of rivers. These structures can
attenuate or amplify hydrograph peaks, change flow velocities, and modify base flow
dynamics. Anthropogenic alterations to the landscape, such as urbanization,
deforestation, channelization, and construction of drainage infrastructure, can
significantly impact hydrograph shapes.
i. Climate Variability: Climate variability and long-term climatic trends influence
precipitation patterns, temperature regimes, and hydrological processes. Changes in
climate can lead to alterations in the frequency, magnitude, and timing of rainfall events,
thereby affecting hydrograph shapes.
j. Snowmelt Dynamics: In regions where snowmelt contributes to streamflow, the timing,
rate, and duration of snowmelt events influence hydrograph shapes. Rapid snowmelt can
produce distinct peaks in hydrographs, while prolonged melt periods result in more
gradual responses.
k. Hydrological Connectivity: The connectivity between surface water and groundwater
systems within the catchment affects base flow contributions and recession limb
characteristics of hydrographs. Changes in groundwater levels and flow paths influence
the shape of hydrographs, particularly during the dry periods.
● Extreme Events and Natural Disasters: Extreme weather events such as hurricanes,
tropical storms, and prolonged droughts can produce hydrograph shapes that deviate
from typical patterns. Natural disasters such as landslides or dam failures can also
alter hydrograph shapes abruptly.
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● Soil Moisture: Soil moisture content influences the partitioning of rainfall into
infiltration, surface runoff, and groundwater recharge. Wet or saturated soils can lead
to increased surface runoff and faster response times in hydrographs.
● Natural Events: Natural phenomena such as wildfires, earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides can influence hydrographs by altering land surface
characteristics, increasing sediment loads in rivers, or changing drainage patterns
temporarily or permanently.

4.3 BASE FLOW SEPARATION

Base flow, also known as groundwater flow or interflow, refers to the portion of streamflow
that is sustained by groundwater discharge. It represents the slow-moving, relatively constant
component of streamflow during dry periods between precipitation events. Base flow is vital
for maintaining streamflow during dry seasons, regulating stream temperature, providing
habitat for aquatic organisms, and supporting ecosystem functions.
The technique of separating surface runoff from base flow or groundwater runoff on
the streamflow hydrograph is known as base flow separation, sometimes referred to as
hydrograph analysis. Hydrograph analysis benefits from this sort of division despite the fact
that it is somewhat arbitrary and subjective. Numerous methods have been devised for
executing base flow separation. Some of the techniques separate the hydrograph into direct
runoff and groundwater runoff and some into surface runoff, interflow, and base flow.
4.3.1 Factors affecting Base flow generation
Here are some common factors influencing base flow generation:
a. Infiltration and Recharge: Infiltration of precipitation into the soil and subsequent
recharge into the groundwater system contribute to base flow generation. The rate and
extent of infiltration depend on soil properties, land cover, slope, and antecedent moisture
conditions.
b. Groundwater Seepage and Springs: Groundwater discharge through seepage zones,
springs, and gaining streams directly contribute to base flow. These features represent
direct pathways for groundwater to enter surface water bodies, sustaining streamflow
during dry periods.
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c. River-Aquifer Interaction: The exchange of water between rivers and aquifers through
hypothetic zones or the loss/gaining of stream reaches influences base flow dynamics.
During high-flow periods, rivers can recharge adjacent aquifers, which subsequently
discharge groundwater to sustain the base flow during low-flow periods.
d. Watershed Characteristics: Watershed characteristics, including geology, topography,
soil type, and vegetation cover, influence base flow generation. Watersheds with
permeable soils, high recharge rates, and extensive groundwater storage tend to have
higher base flow contributions.
e. Land Use and Land Cover Changes: Alterations in land use and land cover, such as
urbanization, deforestation, agriculture, and construction of impervious surfaces, can
affect base flow generation. Changes in land cover alter infiltration rates, groundwater
recharge patterns, and streamflow dynamics.
f. Aquifer Properties: Hydrogeological properties of aquifers, such as porosity, hydraulic
conductivity, and storage capacity, control the movement and storage of groundwater.
Aquifers with high storage capacity and slow hydraulic conductivity tend to sustain base
flow for a longer duration.
g. Climate Variability: Climatic factors, including precipitation patterns, temperature
regimes, evapotranspiration rates, and drought frequency, influence base flow generation.
Changes in climate can alter groundwater recharge rates and seasonal patterns of base
flow.

4.3.2 Methods for base flow generation

The methods for base flow generation are often used in combination to improve accuracy and
reliability in estimating base flow contributions and understanding the hydrological processes
controlling base flow generation within watersheds. Several Methods for estimating or
quantifying base flow contributions to streamflow include:
a. Hydrograph Separation: Hydrograph separation techniques separate total streamflow
into baseflow and stormflow components based on the recession limb characteristics of
hydrographs. Methods include graphical methods (e.g., recession curve analysis), digital
filtering (e.g., Eckhart filter, Web-based filter), and automated techniques (e.g., PART,
HYSEP).
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b. Chemical and Isotopic Tracers: Chemical and isotopic tracers such as stable isotopes of
water (e.g., δ18O, δ2H), dissolved ions (e.g., chloride, sulfate), and environmental tracers
(e.g., tritium, CFCs) can be used to distinguish between different water sources (e.g.,
groundwater vs surface water) and quantify base flow contributions.
c. Hydrological Modeling: Hydrological models, such as conceptual, semi-distributed, or
physically-based models, can simulate groundwater-surface water interactions and
estimate base flow contributions to streamflow. Models integrate various data sources
and hydrological processes to simulate base flow dynamics at different spatial and
temporal scales.
d. Field Measurements: Direct field measurements, such as groundwater level monitoring,
streamflow gauging, streamflow recession analysis, and dye tracing studies, provide
valuable data for understanding base flow dynamics and estimating base flow
contributions.
e. Two-component separation methods
● the area method and
● the subjective method
I. Area Method: Base flow separation using the area method is based on a
nonlinear relationship between time and area (Linsley et. al., 1958) as given in
Equation 4.3. Smaller watersheds should not use this equation, and it should be
verified for a variety of streamflow hydrographs. Typically, it provides a longer
time base.
N = bA0.2 .…………(4.3)
where,
A = drainage-basin area (km2);
b = coefficient with a value of 0.83; and
N = time in days from the hydrograph peak, which, as Figure 4.9 illustrates, marks
the start of groundwater flow.
Example 4.2: If the basin area of a catchment (A)= 1000 km2, find out the time in days from
the hydrograph peak.
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Solution
Here, ,
A = drainage-basin area (km2) = 1000 km2
b = coefficient = 0.83;
time in days from the hydrograph peak

N = bA0.2 = 0.83x (1000)0.2

= 3.30 days
This shows that if rainfall occurs for 6 hours, its effects will be felt for more than 3 days.
Therefore, it is preferable to employ an arbitrary approach by looking at the hydrograph.

Figure 4.9: Base flow separation based upon area

II. Subjective Method: There are several subjective methods of base flow
separation. One simple method is to visually inspect the hydrograph and choose a
discharge on the recession that appears to represent the beginning of base flow
based upon inspection of previously recorded base flow hydrographs. A base flow
hydrograph has a slow recession because the rate of movement of groundwater is
slow. The slope of the recession is low and is similar for all preceding recessions.
Drawing a straight line from the chosen position on the hydrograph recession to
the place on the hydrograph where the rise starts or the peak is located allows for
the separation. This linear separation may be theoretically objectionable because
channel banks become saturated as water rises in the channel, and this same bank
storage water drains back into the channel as the stage recedes. This process is not
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linear, and hence, linear separation is not correct. Because the actual contribution
of base flow to the hydrograph is not known, many hydrologists object to any
base flow separation.
f. Three-Component Separation Method: Separating groundwater flow, interflow, and
surface runoff is the three-component separation process. Barnes (1940) created a system
that is shown in Figure 4.10. The approach is predicated on Equation (4.4).
Qt = Q0 K rt
.…………(4.4)
where,
Q0 = Initial discharge at any time,
Qt = discharge at time interval t later and
Kr = recession constant dependent upon the units of time and less than unity.
Considerable smoothing of the runoff hydrograph is necessary for the application of
this method. The hydrograph recession frequently has numerous humps considering the
direct runoff from different areas of the drainage basin, which makes it impossible to
determine surface flow and interflow. This method may typically be used to achieve
groundwater flow from these irregular recessions despite these issues.

4.4 EFFECTIVE RAINFALL

The effective rainfall is that portion of rainfall that contributes to direct runoff. In a similar
vein, rainfall excess is the amount of rainfall that ends up in surface runoff. The difference
between effective rainfall and rainfall excess is that the former includes the latter plus some
abstractions. However, the terms effective rainfall and rainfall excess are freely interchanged
in hydrologic usage. Thus, a rainfall storm is considered to be composed of two portions: one
that contributes to runoff and the other that contributes to abstractions, including interception,
evaporation, transpiration, depression and detention storage, and infiltration. Because the
effective rainfall entirely becomes direct runoff, its volume must equal to the volume of
direct runoff.
By isolating the base flow, the volume of direct runoff for a particular rainfall-runoff event
can be calculated. This yields the volume of effective rainfall and, in turn, the volume of
rainfall that is used up by abstractions. The distribution of this volume in time (determination
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of loss function) and then its subtraction from the rainfall hyetograph yields effective rainfall.
This is illustrated in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.10: Three-component hydrograph separation

However, due to extreme space-time heterogeneity in antecedent conditions,
extrapolation of this loss function for any other rainfall event is extremely difficult. Let us
briefly pause for a moment. If we neglect all other abstractions than infiltration for
simplicity, it is immediately seen that during and after a rainfall episode, runoff and
infiltration occur simultaneously. Indeed, infiltration continues to occur as long as surface
runoff occurs or there is water over the ground. It is normally true that surface runoff has a
much greater duration than rainfall when comparing the lengths of rainfall and runoff.
However, infiltration is allowed to occur only during the period of rainfall. The question is:
What happens to the infiltration during the period of surface runoff and in excess of rainfall?
One might argue that infiltration may be very small after the cessation of rainfall and hence
neglected. This may not be true. Besides, a physical standpoint, in order to compensate for
infiltration accounted for after the period of rainfall, infiltration has to be allowed to occur at
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a rate higher than that at which it actually occurs. This is inevitable to ensure the volume
continuity of rainfall excess and surface runoff. Therefore, the concept of rainfall excess or
effective rainfall is an artificial one can be said about direct runoff. In nature, rainfall occurs
as a continuum. And so does runoff.

Figure 4.11: Determination of effective rainfall from rainfall-runoff

4.5 SCS-CN METHOD OF ESTIMATING RUNOFF VOLUME

In hydrologic engineering and environmental impact evaluations, the SCS-CN (Soil
Conservation Service Curve Number) method is a widely used empirical approach for
estimating direct runoff volume from rainfall events. It is commonly used in hydrology and
watershed modelling. The method was developed by the USDA Soil Conservation Service,
and it is documented in the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) National Engineering Handbook
Section 4: Hydrology (NEH-4) (SCS 1985). Its simplicity, authority, ease of use, and
responsiveness to four easily comprehended catchment properties: soil type, land
use/treatment, surface condition, and antecedent condition have made it extremely popular.
Simplexes, predictability, stability, reliance on a single parameter, and reactivity to key
runoff-producing watershed factors (soil type, land use/treatment, surface condition, and
antecedent condition) are among the technique's alleged benefits of SCS curve number
method.
SCS-CN (Soil Conservation Service Curve Number) is a method used in hydrology to
estimate direct runoff from rainfall events in small, ungauged watersheds. It is a widely used
method due to its simplicity and effectiveness in estimating runoff. Here is a basic method to
obtain the SCS-CN:
a. Understand the Variables: The SCS-CN method requires three main parameters:
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● Land Use and Land Cover (LU/LC) Classification: The type of land cover affects
runoff characteristics. Each land cover type has an associated curve number.
● Hydrologic Soil Group (HSG): Soils are classified based on their infiltration
characteristics, ranging from A to D, where A represents the highest infiltration rate and
D represents the lowest.
● Rainfall Characteristics: The amount and intensity of rainfall also influence runoff.
b. Determine Curve Numbers (CN): The curve number is a key parameter representing
the hydrological properties of a watershed. It depends on land use, soil type, and
antecedent moisture conditions. You can obtain curve numbers from lookup tables
provided by the Soil Conservation Service or other relevant sources. These tables
categorize land uses and soil types and provide corresponding curve numbers.
c. Determine Hydrologic Soil Group (HSG): Determine the hydrologic soil group (A, B,
C, or D) for the area of interest based on soil type and infiltration characteristics. Soil
surveys or soil data maps can provide this information.
d. Applying Antecedent Moisture Conditions: If the watershed has experienced previous
rainfall events, you may need to adjust the curve number based on antecedent moisture
conditions. SCS-CN method provides methods for this adjustment.
e. Estimating Runoff: Once the curve number is determined for the specific area of
interest, it is used in conjunction with the rainfall characteristics to estimate the direct
runoff volume. The SCS-CN method consists of a Water balance equation (Equation 4.5).
P = Ia + F + Q
.…………(4.5)
where,
P = total precipitation,
Ia = initial abstraction,
F=cumulative infiltration excluding Ia and
Q= direct surface runoff.
In addition, two significant concepts are utilized in SCS-CN method as follows:
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● the amount of actual infiltration (F) divided by the amount of potential maximum
retention (S) is equal to the ratio of the actual amount of direct surface runoff (Q) to the
maximum potential surface runoff (= P- Ia), given as equation 4.6; and
Q F
=
P − Ia S .…………(4.6)
● the amount of initial abstraction (Ia) is a portion of the potential maximum retention (S),
given as equation 4.7.
Ia = λ S
.…………(4.7)
Combining eqs. (4.6) and (4.7) with equation (4.5), we get equation 4.8 as below.
( P − Ia )
2

Q=
P − Ia + S .…………(4.8)
where,
S= potential maximum retention or infiltration.
λ= constant ranging from 0.1 to 0.4 (Refer to section 4.5.4)
when P >Ia, equation (4.8) is true; in other cases, Q = 0. For λ = 0.2, equation (4.8) can be
rewritten as equation 4.9.
( P − 0.2S )
2

Q=
P + 0.8S .…………(4.9)
The catchment's soil, vegetation, and land use complex, as well as the antecedent soil
moisture condition in the catchment immediately before the start of the rainfall event,
determines the parameter S, which represents the potential maximum retention. The Soil
Conservation Services (SCS) of the USA have expressed S (in mm) in terms of a
dimensionless parameter CN (the Curve number) for simplicity of use in practical
applications as given in equation 4.10.
25400  100 
S= − 254 = 254  − 1
CN  CN  .…………(4.10)
To express S in mm, use the constant 254. Now, the curve number CN with S can be written
as equation 4.11.
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25400
CN =
S + 254 .…………(4.11)
Moreover, its range is 100 > CN > 0. A CN value of 100 is represented by a condition
of zero potential retention or an impermeable catchment. An infinitely abstracting catchment
with S = ∞ represents a CN value of 0. This curve's CN value is dependent on (a) Soil type,
(b) Antecedent moisture condition, (c) Land use/cover, described in the following sections.
4.5.1 Soils
The hydrological soil classification is used to determine CN. Here, the infiltration and other
features are used to categorize soils into four classes: A, B, C, and D. The effective soil
depth, average clay content, infiltration properties, and permeability are significant soil
attributes that affect the hydrological categorization of soils. Table 4.1 represents minimum
infiltration rates for all four hydrologic soil groups. A synopsis of the four hydrologic soil
groups is provided below:
Table 4.1: Description of hydrologic groups
Hydrologic Soil Group Minimum infiltration rate (inch/hr.)
A >0.30
B 0.15-0.30
C 0.05-0.15
D 0-0.05

a. Group-A (Low Runoff Potential): Soils mostly consisting of deep, well-too-

excessively-drained sands or gravels, having high infiltration rates even when heavily
wetted. There is a high rate of movement of water within these soils. For instance,
aggregated silt, deep loess, and deep sand.
b. Group-B (Moderately Low Runoff Potential): Soils with moderately fine to
moderately coarse textures, moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well-drained
soils, and moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted comprise most of these
soils. The rate of water conveyance in these soils is moderate. For instance, red loamy
soil, red sandy soil, and red loess.
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c. Group-C (Moderately High Runoff Potential): Soils with relatively low rates of
infiltration under thorough wetting, mostly composed of moderately deep to deeply
drained, moderately fine to moderately coarse-textured soils that are moderate to deeply
embedded. The rate of water conveyance in these soils is moderate. Examples: Reddish-
black soils with a high clay content, shallow sandy loams, clayey loams.
d. Group-D (High Runoff Potential): Soils with extremely low rates of infiltration upon
complete wetting, consisting mainly of clay soils with a high potential for swelling, soils
with a permanent high-water table, soils with a clay pan or layer at or near the surface,
and shallow soils covering nearly impermeable material. For instance: Deep black soils,
some salty soils, and heavy plastic clays.
4.5.2 Antecedent Moisture Condition (AMC)
The moisture content of the soil at the start of the rainfall-runoff event under investigation is
referred to as the antecedent moisture condition (AMC). It is commonly known that AMC
controls both initial abstraction and penetration. SCS recognizes three degrees of AMC,
which are as follows for practical application:
● AMC-I: The soils are dry but not completely up to the wilting point. A satisfactory level
of cultivation has occurred.
● AMC-II: Average conditions
● AMC-III: Over the last five days, there has been enough rainfall. Soil conditions are
saturated.
Table 4.2 lists the limitations of these three AMC classes based on the total amount of
rainfall during the preceding five days. It should be mentioned that the restrictions vary
depending on the two seasons (i) the growth season and (ii) the dormant season. Table 4.3
shows curve numbers for all three antecedent moisture conditions.
Table 4.2: Antecedent Moisture (AMC) for Obtaining the CN
AMC Type Total Rain in Previous 5 Days Dormant Growing Season
Season
I Less than 13 mm Less than 36 mm
II 13 to 28 mm 36 to 53 mm
III More than 28 mm More than 53 mm
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Table 4.3: Curve numbers for three antecedent moisture conditions

AMC AMC AMC AMC AMC AMC
II I III II I III
100 100 100 60 40 78
99 97 100 59 39 77
98 94 99 58 38 76
97 91 99 57 37 75
96 89 99 56 36 75
95 87 98 55 35 74
94 85 98 54 34 73
93 83 98 53 33 72
92 81 97 52 32 71
91 80 97 51 31 70
90 78 96 50 31 70
89 76 96 49 30 69
88 75 95 48 29 68
87 73 95 47 28 67
86 72 94 46 27 66
85 70 94 45 26 65
84 68 93 44 25 64
83 67 93 43 25 63
82 66 92 42 24 62
81 64 92 41 23 61
80 63 91 40 22 60
79 62 91 39 21 59
78 60 90 38 21 58
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AMC AMC AMC AMC AMC AMC

II I III II I III
77 59 89 37 20 57
76 58 89 36 19 56
75 57 88 35 18 55
74 55 88 34 18 54
73 54 87 33 17 53
72 53 86 32 16 52
71 52 86 31 16 51
70 51 85 30 15 50
69 50 84
68 48 84 25 12 43
67 47 83 20 9 37
66 46 82 15 6 30
65 45 82 10 4 22
64 44 81 5 2 13
63 43 80 0 0 0
62 42 79
61 41 78

4.5.3 Land Use

In the SCS-CN method, the type of land use is a critical parameter that influences the runoff
characteristics of a watershed. Different land uses have different abilities to absorb water and
generate runoff. The Soil Conservation Service (SCS), now known as the Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS), has categorized land uses into various classes, each assigned a
specific curve number (CN) that represents the runoff potential. These land use categories
typically include:
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a. Urban or Built-up Areas: This category includes developed areas such as cities, towns,
and industrial zones with impervious surfaces like roads, buildings, and pavements.
Runoff from these areas tends to be high due to limited infiltration.
b. Agricultural Land: Agricultural land includes crop land, pasture land, and orchards. The
runoff potential varies based on factors such as crop type, tillage practices, and soil
management techniques.
c. Forest and Woodland: Forested areas generally have lower runoff potential compared to
developed areas or agricultural land due to the presence of vegetation and relatively high
infiltration rates.
d. Grassland and Open Spaces: These areas, including meadows, grasslands, and parks,
typically have moderate to low runoff potential depending on vegetation cover and soil
characteristics.
e. Water Bodies: Lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams are considered water bodies. In the
SCS-CN method, they are usually not assigned a curve number as they represent the
endpoint of the runoff process rather than a source of runoff.
f. Barren Land: Barren land includes areas with little or no vegetation cover, such as
deserts, sand dunes, or rocky terrain. Runoff potential from barren land can vary widely
depending on soil characteristics and surface conditions.
g. Mixed Land Use: Some areas may have a mix of different land use types, resulting in
varied runoff characteristics. In such cases, a weighted average of curve numbers
corresponding to the predominant land uses may be used.
These are general categories, and specific land use classifications may vary depending on
the region and the purpose of the analysis. It is essential to select the most appropriate land
use category or combination of categories to accurately represent the runoff characteristics of
the watershed under consideration. The runoff curve numbers for hydrological cover
complexes for selected land use categories may be taken from Table 4.4. Additionally,
adjustments may be made to account for land management practices, soil conservation
measures, and other factors that influence runoff.
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Table 4.4: Runoff curve numbers for Hydrological cover conditions

Hydrologic Hydrologic soil groups
Condition /
Land use Description/
SN Percentage
Treatment A B C D
impervious
Area
Urban
1 Residential:
Average lot size - 1/8 acre or less 65 77 85 90 92
¼ acre 38 61 75 83 87
1/3 acre 30 57 72 81 86
½ acre 25 54 70 80 85
1 acre 20 51 68 79 84
2 acre 12 46 65 77 82
2 Paved parking lot, roofs, 98 98 98 98
3 Streets and roads:
Paved with curbs, storm sewers 98 98 98 98
Paved, open ditches 82 89 92 93
Gravel (including right-of-way) 76 85 89 91
Dirt (including right-of-way) 72 82 87 89
4 Western desert areas:
Natural desert landscaping areas 63 77 85 88
5 Urban districts:
Commercial and business areas 85 89 92 94 95
Industrial districts 72 81 88 91 93
6 Developing areas:
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Hydrologic Hydrologic soil groups

Condition /
Land use Description/
SN Percentage
Treatment A B C D
impervious
Area
Graded areas, No vegetation 77 86 91 94
7 Open spaces, lawns, parks
Grass cover on >75% area Good 39 61 74 80
Grass cover in 50% -75% area Fair 49 69 79 84
Agricultural
Cultivated lands:
8 Fallow:
Bare soil Straight row ---- 77 86 91 94
Crop residue cover Poor 76 85 90 93
Good 74 83 88 90
9 Row crops:
Straight row Poor 72 81 88 91
Straight row Good 67 78 85 89
Crop residue cover straight row Poor 71 80 87 90
Crop residue cover straight row Good 64 75 82 85
Contoured Poor 70 79 84 88
Contoured Good 65 75 82 86
Crop residue cover Contoured Poor 69 78 83 87
Crop residue cover Contoured Good 64 74 81 85
Contoured & terraced Poor 66 74 80 82
Contoured & terraced Good 62 71 78 81
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Hydrologic Hydrologic soil groups

Condition /
Land use Description/
SN Percentage
Treatment A B C D
impervious
Area
Crop residue cover Contoured Poor 65 73 79 81
Crop residue cover Contoured Good 61 70 77 80
10 Small grain:
Straight row Poor 65 76 84 88
Straight row Good 63 75 83 87
Crop residue cover straight row Poor 64 75 83 86
Crop residue cover straight row Good 60 72 80 84
Contoured Poor 63 74 82 85
Contoured Good 61 73 81 84
Crop residue cover Contoured Poor 62 73 81 84
Crop residue cover Contoured Good 60 72 80 83
Contoured & terraced Poor 61 72 79 82
Contoured & terraced Good 59 70 78 81
Crop residue cover Contoured Poor 60 71 78 81
Crop residue cover Contoured Good 58 69 77 80
11 Close-seeded legumes or rotation meadow:
Straight row Poor 66 77 85 89
Straight row Good 58 72 81 85
Contoured Poor 64 75 83 85
Contoured Good 55 69 78 83
Contoured & terraced Poor 63 73 80 83
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Hydrologic Hydrologic soil groups

Condition /
Land use Description/
SN Percentage
Treatment A B C D
impervious
Area
Contoured & terraced Good 51 67 76 80
12 Pasture or range: Poor 68 79 86 89
Fair 49 69 79 84
Good 39 61 74 80
Contoured Poor 47 67 81 88
Contoured Fair 25 59 75 83
Contoured Good 6 35 70 79
13 Meadow- grass, protected from Good 30 58 71 78
Brush- weed grass with brush Poor 48 67 77 83
being the major element Fair 35 56 70 77
14 farmsteads-building, lanes,
driveways, and surrounding lots ---- 59 74 82 86
Woods and forests
15 Woods and forests land Poor 45 66 77 83
Fair 36 60 73 79
Good 25 55 70 77
Woods-grass combination
16 (orchard) Poor 57 73 82 86
Fair 43 65 76 82
Good 32 58 72 79
Arid and Semiarid rangelands:
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Hydrologic Hydrologic soil groups

Condition /
Land use Description/
SN Percentage
Treatment A B C D
impervious
Area
17 Herbaceous Poor 80 87 93
Fair 71 81 89
Good 62 74 85
18 Oak-aspen Poor 66 74 79
Fair 48 57 63
Good 30 41 48
19 Pinyon-juniper Poor 75 85 89
Fair 58 73 80
Good 41 61 71
20 Sagebrush with grass understory Poor 67 80 85
Fair 51 63 70
Good 35 47 55
21 Desert shrub Poor 63 77 85 88
Fair 55 72 81 86
Good 49 68 79 84

4.5.4 SCS-CN Equation for Indian Conditions

Numerous researchers from different geographical regions, including the USA and many
other countries, have documented values of λ varied in the range 0.1 < λ< 0.4. after extensive
research in small catchments, the value of λ = 0.2 has been adopted as a standard value. It has
also been suggested that λ = 0.1 and 0.3 be used in Indian settings, subject to specific
limitations related to soil type and AMC type (Refer to equation 4.12 and 4.13).
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● for black soil under AMC-II & III

(𝑃𝑃−0.1𝑆𝑆)2
𝑄𝑄 = for P > 0.1S; …………(4.12)
𝑃𝑃+0.9𝑆𝑆
● for black soils under AMC-I of type I and for all soils having AMC-I, II and III

( P − 0.3S )
2

Q=
P + 0.7 S for P > 0.3S …………(4.13)
4.5.5 Procedure for Estimating Runoff Volume from a Catchment
The following is the process for estimating runoff volume from a catchment:
● The catchment under study's land use/cover data is obtained through the interpretation of
multi-season satellite imagery. Establishing a GIS database for the watershed and
connecting it with land use/cover data is very beneficial.
● The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP) (1966) soil
maps are used to obtain the soil information of the catchment. The identification of
pertinent soil data for the catchment, the creation of an appropriate hydrological soil
classification, and the spatial storage of this data in a GIS database are all performed.
● The available rainfall data of the catchment is collected by multiple rain gauge stations,
verified for quality and consistency, and linked to the GIS database. A rainfall record
spanning at least 25 years is ideal for accurate estimation of catchment yield.
● Thiessen polygons are generated for every identified rain gauge station.
● Appropriate area-weighted CN values for each Thiessen cell are determined by
considering the spatial variance in soil types, land use, and/or cover. Additionally,
equivalent AMC-I and AMC-III values have been obtained for every cell.
● For each cell, the appropriate daily runoff series is produced sequentially with the rainfall
data using the pertinent SCS-CN equations. This technique is utilized to derive the
required weekly, monthly, and annual runoff time series. Furthermore, the relevant
catchment runoff time series is created by merging the data from several cells that make
up the catchment.
● By appropriately summing up the aforementioned time series, seasonal and annual runoff
volume series are generated and the necessary, consistent catchment yield can be
obtained from there. A graph illustrating the SCS-CN approach is presented in Figure
4.12.
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4.5.6 Advantages of SCS-CN method

• The SCS-CN method is applied at the watershed scale, where land use, soil types, and
other relevant factors vary across the area. The method provides a quick and relatively
simple way to estimate runoff volumes for a variety of storm events and watershed
conditions.
• Possibly the most widely used technique for estimating the amount of surface runoff that
small agricultural, forest and urban watersheds will produce during a specific rainfall
event.
• Considers most of the factors of watersheds that cause runoff, such as soil type, land use,
hydrologic state, and antecedent moisture condition.
• A conceptually sound, stable, and straightforward one-parameter rainfall-runoff model
that can be used in ungauged watersheds.
4.5.7 Limitations
• Does not contain any expression for time.
• Ignores the impact of rainfall intensity and its temporal distribution.
• A lack of clear guidance on the variation of AMC for lower curve numbers and/or rainfall
amounts.
• Works best on agricultural watersheds, well on urban watersheds, fairly well on
rangelands, and poorly on forest sites.
• No explicit provision for spatial scale effects. Literature warns against its use on
watersheds greater than 250 km2.
• It is important to note that while the SCS-CN method is widely used and provides
reasonable estimates for many situations, it has its limitations, particularly in areas with
highly variable soils or land cover types. Additionally, calibration and validation with
local data are often necessary to ensure accurate results.
• Disregard the influence of the amount and timing of rainfall.
• A lack of precise instructions on how to adjust the AMC for smaller curve numbers
and/or rainfall totals.
• Does not specifically account for the impacts of spatial scale; it performs best on
agricultural watersheds, well on urban watersheds, mediocrely on rangelands, and poorly
on forest sites. Research advises against applying it to watersheds larger than 250 km2.
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Figure 4.12: SCS-Runoff Curve Number Method

Example 4.3: Calculate the direct runoff for a storm that had an average rainfall depth of
129.22 mm on a watershed with good pasture cover, soil type B, and antecedent moisture
condition (AMC II).
Solution
From Table 4.2, the curve number for soil type Cis equal to 61.
The potential maximum retention S can be obtained as:
25400 25400
𝑆𝑆 = − 254 = − 254 = 162.39 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝐶𝐶𝑁𝑁 61
Compute the amount of initial abstraction Ia as
Ia =0.2 x S=0.2 x 162.39 = 32.48 (mm)
The direct runoff Q is:
(𝑃𝑃 − 0.2𝑆𝑆)2 (129.22 − 0.2 ∗ 162.39)2 9358.63
𝑄𝑄 = == = = 36.11 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑃𝑃 + 0.8 ∗ 𝑆𝑆 129.22 + 0.8 ∗ 162.39 259.13
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Example 4.4: For AMC-1I1, the CN value in a 450-ha watershed was determined to be 79.
(Calculate the direct runoff volume for the next four days of precipitation. On July 15, the
AMC fell into category III. Apply the standard SCS-CN equation.

Date July 15 July 16 July 17 July 18

Rainfall (mm) 60 45 12 20

Solution
Given CNIII = 79;
The potential maximum retention S can be obtained as:
25400 25400
𝑆𝑆 = − 254 = − 254 = 67.52 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝐶𝐶𝑁𝑁 79
The direct runoff Q is:
(𝑃𝑃 − 0.2𝑆𝑆)2 (𝑃𝑃 − 0.2 ∗ 67.52)2 (𝑃𝑃 − 13.5)2
𝑄𝑄 = == = 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃 > 13.5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑃 + 0.8 ∗ 𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑃 + 0.8 ∗ 67.52 𝑃𝑃 + 54.02
Date P (mm) Q (mm)
July 15 60 18.96
July 16 45 10.02
July 17 12 0
July 18 20 0.57
Total 137 29.55
Total runoff volume over the catchment
Vr = 450 x 104 x 29.55/(1000)
= 132,975 m3

4.6 FLOW-DURATION CURVES

Flow-duration curves (FDCs) are vital tools in hydrological analysis, encapsulating the
variability of water flow in streams and rivers over time. Essentially, an FDC is a graphical
representation that ranks streamflow data from highest to lowest, indicating the percentage of
time during which specific flow rates are met or exceeded. A typical Flow Duration Curve is
shown in Figure 4.13.
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As a cornerstone in water resource management, FDCs offer insights into the

frequency and magnitude of flows, which are critical for designing infrastructure, managing
water supply, and assessing ecological impacts. Their role extends to diverse applications
such as predicting the availability of water for hydropower, determining the reliability of
water supply for urban and agricultural needs, and understanding the potential for dilution of
pollutants.

Figure 4.13: A typical Flow Duration Curve

Through FDCs, engineers and scientists can forecast streamflow patterns, aiding in
the strategic planning and operation of water resource projects. They bridge the gap between
the theoretical aspects of hydrology and the practical, on-the-ground decision-making
necessary for sustainable water management.
In educational settings, the study of FDCs equips students with an understanding of
both the natural variability of river systems and the human implications of flow patterns,
preparing them to tackle complex challenges in the field of water resources engineering.
4.6.1 Theoretical Foundations
The theoretical basis of flow-duration curves is rooted in the fundamental principles of
hydrology, particularly the analysis of streamflow as part of the water cycle. At the core of
FDC analysis is the concept of frequency and magnitude of streamflow, which is crucial for
understanding the behavior of watercourses over time.
Streamflow is inherently variable, influenced by meteorological, hydrological, and
geological factors. The theoretical underpinning of FDCs provides a framework for
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quantifying this variability in a meaningful way. It encompasses probability theory and

statistics, as these curves represent the cumulative probability distribution of streamflow.
The basis of an FDC is the order of daily flow measurements from highest to lowest,
which creates a correlation between flow volume and frequency of occurrence. This
frequency analysis is not concerned with the sequential order of flow events but rather with
the likelihood of occurrence of different flow magnitudes.
Furthermore, the FDC encapsulates the continuity equation of hydrology, which
states that the change in storage within a system is equal to the input minus the output. By
observing the frequency of various flows, one can infer patterns in watershed storage and
release mechanisms, which are crucial for managing water resources effectively.
4.6.2 Data Collection and Analysis
The process of constructing a flow-duration curve (FDC) begins with meticulous data
collection. Hydrologists compile extensive datasets of streamflow, typically measured daily
at gauging stations. The integrity of the FDC is contingent upon the quality of this data,
which must be both accurate and representative over a sufficiently long period to encapsulate
various hydrologic conditions. Analysis entails the statistical examination of this data, where
flows are ranked and their frequencies calculated. The FDC is then derived by plotting these
frequencies against the corresponding flow rates, revealing the percentage of time each flow
rate is equaled or exceeded. This data not only reflects the physical characteristics of the
catchment area but also embodies the climatic and weather patterns impacting the
streamflow. The resultant curve is a comprehensive synthesis of the temporal distribution of
flows within a river or stream, indispensable for effective water resource management.
4.6.3 Curve Construction
● Data Compilation: Begin by gathering a comprehensive set of streamflow data. This
typically involves daily flow measurements over several years to ensure variability in
hydrologic conditions is captured.
● Data Sorting: Rank the streamflow data from the highest to the lowest values. This
ranking does not consider the time sequence but only the magnitudes of flow.
● Frequency Analysis: For each flow magnitude, calculate the exceedance probability.
This frequency can be determined by the equation 4.14:
m
P= ×100
n +1 …………(4.14)
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where,
P = exceedance probability,
m = rank order, and
n = total number of flow events
● Plotting the Curve: Create a graph with the flow magnitudes on the y-axis (logarithmic
scale) and the exceedance probabilities on the x-axis (linear or logarithmic scale). The
plotted points should form a smooth curve that represents the flow-duration relationship.
● Curve Smoothing: Apply curve smoothing techniques if necessary, to ensure the curve
is a fair representation of the ranked data, removing outliers that might skew the analysis.

4.6.4 Interpretation of Curve Segments

● High Flow Segment: The leftmost part of the curve represents high flows that occur
infrequently. Analysis of this segment is crucial for flood risk management.
● Middle Segment: This portion reflects the flows that are exceeded between 10% to 70%
of the time and can be vital for designing water supply systems to ensure reliability.
● Low Flow Segment: The rightmost part indicates low flows, which is crucial for drought
management, environmental flow assessments, and pollution dilution analysis.
By dissecting the curve into these segments, hydrologists and engineers can draw
specific inferences about water availability, ecosystem health, and the potential for resource
development, providing a robust foundation for managing water resources efficiently and
sustainably.

4.6.5 Geological Influences on Streamflow

The geological characteristics of a watershed play a crucial role in influencing streamflow
patterns, which are reflected in the flow-duration curves. The permeability and porosity of
the underlying soil and rock determine how quickly and how much rainfall will infiltrate into
the groundwater system versus becoming surface runoff. For instance, watersheds underlain
by highly permeable geological formations, like sandstone or fractured bedrock, tend to have
higher base flows and less pronounced peak flows, as a significant portion of the water is
absorbed and slowly released into stream channels. Conversely, regions with impermeable
layers, such as clay or fractured bedrock, often experience rapid runoff and higher peak
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flows, leading to steeper curves on the high-flow end. Additionally, geological formations
influence the soil's water-holding capacity and, by extension, its drought resilience.
Understanding these geological impacts is essential for accurate water resource assessment
and the design of flood mitigation and water conservation strategies.

4.6.6 Applications in Water Resources Engineering

In water resources engineering, flow-duration curves (FDCs) are pivotal for a multitude of
applications. They are instrumental in designing and managing water supply systems,
particularly in determining the reliability and capacity of reservoirs. FDCs are also crucial in
flood risk management, aiding in the prediction and planning for extreme flow events.
Furthermore, their role in environmental flow assessments is significant, as they help in
maintaining ecological balance in riverine systems. Additionally, in the realm of hydropower,
FDCs guide the optimization of water resources for energy generation, ensuring both
efficiency and sustainability.

4.6.7 Advanced Topics in Flow-Duration Curves

Advanced topics in flow-duration curves delve into areas like climate change impact
analysis, where FDCs are used to assess how shifting climatic patterns influence streamflow
variability. There's growing interest in applying machine learning algorithms to predict and
analyze FDCs, harnessing large datasets to enhance prediction accuracy. Another emerging
area is the integration of remote sensing and GIS technologies, offering more comprehensive
watershed analysis by incorporating spatial variability and land-use changes. These advanced
methodologies are crucial for developing adaptive and resilient water resource management
strategies in an era of increasing environmental uncertainties.
Flow-duration curves (FDCs) are invaluable in water resources engineering, offering
insights into streamflow variability for effective management and planning. They facilitate
understanding of high, average, and low flow conditions, aiding in water supply design, flood
management, and ecological assessments. The application of FDCs is poised to evolve with
advancements in data analysis techniques, including machine learning and GIS, and their role
will become increasingly significant in addressing the challenges posed by climate change on
water resources.
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4.7 FLOW-MASS CURVE

The plotting of cumulative discharge (Q) against time in chronological order is represented
by the flow-mass curve (Equation 4.15). It is apparent that the flow-mass curve is an integral
curve, or summation curve, of the hydrograph as the hydrograph is a plot of Q vs. t. Rippl
(1882) was the one who first proposed the flow-mass curve, and it is often referred to as
Rippl's mass curve. A typical flow-mass curve is shown in Figure 4.14.
t
V = ∫ Qdt
t0
………(4.15)
where,
Q = Rate of discharge rate;
t0 = time at the beginning of the curve,
V = ordinate of the mass curve at any given time t.
Keeping in mind that in this picture, the abscissa represents chronological time in
months. It can also be expressed in weeks, months, or days, based on the analysis of the data.
The ordinate is expressed in million m³ of volume. Additional units used for ordinate are mm
over a catchment area, ham, and m³/day (cumec day).

Figure 4.14: A typical Flow-Mass Curve

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Any particular point slope on the mass curve indicates the current flow rate, which is
equal to dV/dt = Q. In a scenario in which a reservoir of sufficient size is readily available,
the average rate of flow that can be sustained between times t1 and t2 is represented by the
slope of a straight line connecting two points, M and N. The average discharge for the whole
duration of the depicted record is therefore represented by the slope of the line AB
connecting a mass curve's beginning and ending points.
4.7.1 Calculation of Storage Volume
Plot the mass curve of a reservoir on the stream, as demonstrated in Figure 4.14. Assuming
that the reservoir is full at the start of a dry season, that is, when the rate of inflow is lower
than the rate of withdrawal, the maximum volume of water that can be extracted from storage
equals the difference between the total volumes of supply and demand since the beginning of
dry season. As a result, the needed storage S is represented as Equation 4.16.
S = maximum of ( ∑ VD −∑ VS )
…………(4.16)
where,
VS = supplied volume; and
VD = demanded volume
S = The largest difference in the ordinate between the mass curves of supply and demand is
applied to determine the amount of storage, which is the maximum cumulative efficiency in
each dry season. The greatest of these S values during various dry seasons is the minimum
storage volume that a reservoir needs.
At a high point on a ridge, consider the line CD with slope Qd that is drawn tangential
to the mass curve. This is known as a demand line and shows a steady rate of withdrawal
(Qd) from a reservoir. From point C to E, where the slope of the flow-mass curve is smaller
than the demand line CD, the demand is greater than the supply rate if the reservoir is full at
C (at time t0). As a result, the reservoir's capacity will be decreasing, with E marking the
lowest point. The volume of water required as storage to meet the demand starting when the
reservoir was full is represented by the difference in the ordinates between the demand line
CD and a line EF drawn parallel to it and tangential to the mass curve at F, S in Figure 4.14.
The demand lines are drawn tangentially at several additional ridges (such as C'D' in Fig.
4.14), if flow data for a long time period is available. The highest amount of the storage
values obtained is determined as the minimum storage requirement for a reservoir.
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4.8 SURFACE WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA

Stream flows measured at a river's terminal site, typically near the sea, are used to evaluate a
basin's water resources. It is obvious that the length of the data series and the precision of the
discharge observations affect the assessment's accuracy. This duration is insufficient in many
cases in India, and it is unknown how accurate the observations were made; the time spans
for which data are available vary greatly throughout basins. Longer rainfall data are
commonly available in India and are often used to prolong the runoff series. The water
resources of the basin are typically identified by the average annual flow at a river's terminal
point. Keep in mind that this is referring to a 50% chance of water availability. Projects
involving water resources must be planned with reliability at other levels, such as 90% and
75%. The time series of observations is used to assess such reliability.
Worldwide, most of the basins are no longer virgin; upstream use has a major impact
on the flow at the terminal site. Add to the surface flow measured at the terminal site the net
export of surface water out of the basin; the net increase in surface water storage, additional
evapotranspiration caused by the use or storage of surface water; direct Groundwater flow
from the river basin below or along the terminal site; the net export of Groundwater out of
the basin; the net increase in Groundwater storage and soil moisture storage; and additional
evapotranspiration caused by the use or storage of Groundwater are some ways to calculate a
basin's natural runoff. This is the general water balance method, which may be used in any
basin at any time. However, the storage change would be zero or very small if averages over
a lengthy period of time were used. Additionally, a simplification is achievable if no export
or import occurs and the Groundwater flow beneath or along the terminal site is ignored. This
simplification allows the average annual natural flow to be calculated by adding the average
annual extra evaporation/evapotranspiration from the use or storage of surface water and the
average annual extra evaporation/evapotranspiration from the storage or use of Groundwater
to the average annual surface flow measured at the terminal site.
India receives 4,000 km3 of precipitation annually on average, of which 700 km3 are
instantly lost to the atmosphere, 2,150 km3 seep into the earth, and 1,150 km3 flow as surface
runoff. The projected total amount of water resources in the nation is 1,953 km3. The Ganga-
Brahmaputra-Meghna basin contains 1,202 km3, or nearly 62%, of the world's total water
resources. Of the total water resources, 751 km3 are found in the remaining 23 basins. In
terms of useable water resources, India has an annual water availability of 1,122 km3. In
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addition, by 2050, there will be an additional 123 km3 to 169 km3 of return flow available
due to increased utilization for irrigation, residential, and industrial uses. From around 3,000
m3 in 1951 to 1,100 m3 in 1998, the per capita availability of usable water is predicted to drop
to 687 m3 by 2050. Table 4.5 represents the surface water resources at a glance of India.
The four to five-month monsoon season accounts for the majority of the surface water
flow in Indian rivers. The nation's yearly surface runoff was estimated by Rao (1973) to be
1,645 km3. The Central Water Commission estimated that the nation has 1,869 km3 of
surface water resources. These are approximations derived from statistics using current river
flows. NCIWRD (1999) has also calculated the water resources of many basins. They claim
that India has 1,953 km3 of surface water resources in total. Table 4.6 provides an overview
of the average annual flow in Indian rivers across several basins.
Table 4.5: India’s water resources at a glance
S. No. Water Resource at a Glance Quantity Percentage
(km3 )
1 Annual precipitation (Including snowfall) 4000 100
2 Precipitation during monsoon 3000 75
3 Evaporation + Soil water 2131 53.3
4 Average annual potential flow in rivers 1869 46.7
5 Estimated utilizable water resources 1123 28.1
Surface water 690 17.3
Replenishable groundwater 433 10.8
Storage created of utilizable water 253.381 22.52
Storage (under construction) of utilizable 50.737 4.5
water
6 Estimated water needs in 2050 1450 129
7 Estimated deficit 327 29
Interlinking can give us 200 17.8
(Source: https://indiawris.gov.in/wiki/doku.php?id=india_s_water_wealth)
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Table 4.6 shows that while some rivers in the northern region, such as the Ganga and
Brahmaputra, have a significant quantity of water that is not utilizable, some rivers in the
southern peninsula, including the Pennar and Cauvery, are able to utilize practically all of
their capacity. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the available flow in the Pennar and east-
flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari exceeds the potential.
Table 4.6 demonstrates that the Brahmaputra, which has the largest average annual
runoff of 585 km3, gives only 4% of the utilizable flow of surface water, whereas the Ganga
basin has the maximum amount of surface water or around 50% of the average annual runoff
of 525 km3. Additionally, it demonstrates that almost half of the Sabarmati River's 3.812 km3
yearly runoff is usable flow. It is almost the same story with Subarnarekha.

Table 4.6: Surface water resources potential of river basins (km3) of India
Average
Estimated Cultivable
annual As per
S. utilizable flow, area
Name of the River Basin potential NCIWRD
N. excluding (thousands
in the (1999)
Groundwater ha)
river
1. Indus (Area in Indian Territory) 73.31 73.31 46.00 9,638
2. a) Ganga 525.02 525.02 250.00 60,161
b) Brahmaputra, Barak, and others 585.60 677.41 24.00 6,145
3. Godavari 110.54 110.54 76.30 18,931
4. Krishna 78.12 69.81 58.00 20,299
5. Cauvery 21.36 21.36 19.00 5,523
6. Pennar 6.32 6.32 6.86 3,539
7. East flowing and rivers from 22.52 22.52 13.11
Mahanadi to Godavari and
Krishna to Pennar
8. East-flowing rivers between 16.46 16.6 16.73
Pennar and Kanyakumari
9. Mahanadi 66.88 66.88 49.99 7,994
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Average
Estimated Cultivable
annual As per
S. utilizable flow, area
Name of the River Basin potential NCIWRD
N. excluding (thousands
in the (1999)
Groundwater ha)
river
10. Brahmani & Baitarani 28.48 28.48 18.30 2,360
11. Subarnarekha 12.37 12.37 6.81 1,194
12. Sabarmati 3.81 3.81 1.93 1,548
13. Mahi 11.02 11.02 3.10 2,210
14. West flowing rivers of Kutch & 15.10 15.10 14.98
Saurashtra, including Luni
15. Narmada 45.64 45.64 34.50 5,901
16. Tapi 14.88 14.88 14.50 4,292
17. West-flowing rivers from Tapi to 87.41 87.41 11.94
Tadri
18. West-flowing rivers from Tadri to 113.53 113.53 24.27
Kanyakumari
19. Area of inland drainage in ~0 ~0
Rajasthan desert
20. Minor rivers draining to Myanmar 31.00 31.00
(Burma) & Bangladesh
Total 1869.00 1952.8 690.00

4.9 ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS

The realization that rivers' survival is essential because of the ecosystem services they
provide is the concept of environmental flows or EFs. The amount, timing, and quality of
water flows required to maintain freshwater and estuarine ecosystems and the livelihoods that
depend on them are known as ecosystem functions (EFs). The concept evolved to include
broader issues like geomorphology, sediment movement, freshwater habitats, and non-fish
species requirements.
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The health and integrity of the entire ecosystem is fundamental to sustained human
well-being. Environmental flows are necessary to maintain the health and biodiversity of
water bodies, including rivers, coastal waters, wetlands (mangroves, sea grass beds,
floodplains) and estuaries. According to the Brisbane Declaration (2007), environmental
flows (EFs) are the quantity, timing, duration, frequency, and quality of flows required to
sustain freshwater, estuarine, and nearshore ecosystems and the human livelihoods and well-
being that depend on them. Note that besides the amount, one should also specify the
temporal pattern of the flows.
The environmental flow requirement of a river depends on the properties of the
aquatic ecosystem, the development stage of the area and the societal requirements. Exact
values of EFs for a project can only be established by using the detailed hydrologic data,
river cross-sections, needs of the biotic life and how it is likely to respond to the reduction in
river flow after commissioning of the project and the preferences of all stakeholders.
The current attention on EFs has emerged because some people believe that the dams
and diversions constructed to regulate rivers for societal needs have significantly and
(mostly) adversely impacted the rivers. However, besides the dams and diversions, many
other changes in the catchment affect the flow regime of a river. Since a considerable part of
the flow in a river during the lean season comes from Groundwater, large-scale Groundwater
pumping and consequent lowering of the water table will have a bearing on it. Extensive land
use changes in the catchment also affect river flows. Further, as stated in the definition, the
quality of water is an integral part of EFs. River water quality is chiefly damaged by the
disposal of untreated municipal and industrial waste in the river, and the return flows from
those agricultural areas where high quantities of chemical fertilizers and pesticides are
applied.
4.9.1 Trade-offs in Development and Conservation
● There's a balance between using water for development (e.g., agriculture, industry) and
conserving natural water bodies.
● The total benefits from natural and managed systems reach a maximum point that can be
considered optimal resource development.
4.9.2 Estimation of Environmental Flows
● EFs depend on factors like the river's physical, chemical, and biological characteristics,
its natural state, desired state, and water uses.
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● EF assessment (EFA) involves several stages, including defining the issue, scope, and
objective, deciding on estimation sites, collecting data, and analyzing it.
● Methodologies for EF estimation vary in complexity and include hydro-biology,
hydrology and hydraulics, and hydrological methods. We now briefly review the
methodologies to assess EFs.
4.9.3 Environmental Flow Assessment Methodologies
a. Hydro-biology Methodologies
These methods integrate hydrological, hydraulic, and biological data to assess environmental
flows. Key approaches include:
● Building Block Method (BBM): This method determines the flow requirements for key
ecosystem components, such as low flows, high flows, and floods. BBM considers the
river as a series of building blocks, each with specific flow requirements for different
ecological functions or species. It is a detailed approach that requires extensive ecological
and hydrological data.
● Ecological Limits of Hydrological Abstractions (ELOHA): ELOHA is a framework
that combines regional-scale ecological classification with local-scale empirical analysis.
It begins with the classification of river types based on physical and ecological
characteristics. Then, for each river type, the relationship between flow alteration and
ecological response is assessed. This method is useful for large-scale applications and
offers a balance between ecological protection and water resource development.
b. Hydrology and Hydraulics-Based Methodologies
These methodologies rely on the relationship between river flows and simple hydraulic
characteristics. They are less complex than hydro-biological methods and include:
● Flow Duration Curve (FDC) Method: This approach uses flow duration curves,
which depict the percentage of time a certain flow is equaled or exceeded. The FDC
method identifies specific flow percentiles that are crucial for maintaining ecological
health. This method is already discussed above.
● Tennant Method (Montana Method): The Tennent Method, also known as the
Tennent-Eade Method, is primarily used in hydraulic engineering, particularly for
estimating the flow discharge required to maintain a specific environmental flow
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regime in rivers or streams. Environmental flows, also known as ecological flows or

eco-hydrology, refer to the water flows necessary to sustain freshwater and estuarine
ecosystems and the services they provide. Here is an overview of how the Tennent
Method is applied to estimate environmental flows:
⮚ Characterization of the River System: Before applying the Tennent Method, it
is essential to characterize the river or stream system under consideration. This
involves gathering data on the hydrological, hydraulic, geomorphological, and
ecological characteristics of the river reach.
⮚ Determination of Environmental Flow Requirements: Based on ecological
considerations, such as the needs of aquatic habitats, riparian vegetation, and
other ecosystem components, environmental flow requirements are established.
These requirements often vary seasonally and may depend on factors such as
species diversity, life stages of aquatic organisms, and habitat types.
⮚ Calculation of Flow Components: The Tennent Method involves dividing the
total flow discharge into various flow components, including base flow, low-
flow components, and high-flow components. Base flow represents the flow
sustained by groundwater discharge and is crucial for maintaining streamflow
during dry periods. Low-flow components may include drought flows, while
high-flow components may include flood flows necessary for ecosystem health
and habitat maintenance.
⮚ Iterative Process: Estimating environmental flows using the Tennent Method
often involves an iterative process of refining flow requirements, adjusting
management strategies, and reassessing the predicted ecological outcomes. This
process may involve stakeholder engagement, ecological monitoring, and
adaptive management approaches to ensure that environmental flow objectives
are met effectively.
Overall, the Tennent Method provides a structured approach to estimating
environmental flows, helping water resource managers and environmental
practitioners balance the needs of ecosystems with human water use requirements in
river systems.
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c. Hydrological Methods: Hydrological methods play a crucial role in determining

environmental flows, ensuring that water resources are managed sustainably to support
freshwater ecosystems. By employing these hydrological methods, water resource
managers and environmental practitioners can assess the ecological implications of water
management decisions and design environmental flow regimes that sustainably meet the
needs of freshwater ecosystems. These models can help predict river flows under
different scenarios, including changes in land use, climate, and water management
practices. Hydrological models provide valuable information for estimating baseline flow
conditions and assessing the impacts of water withdrawals and infrastructure
development on river flows.
d. Rainfall-Runoff Models: Rainfall-runoff models simulate the transformation of rainfall
into streamflow through various hydrological processes such as infiltration, runoff, and
groundwater recharge. These models estimate the contribution of different hydrological
pathways to streamflow, including surface runoff, interflow, and baseflow. Rainfall-
runoff models help assess the sensitivity of streamflow to changes in precipitation
patterns, land cover, and land use practices, which is essential for understanding the
potential impacts of climate change and land management on environmental flows.
e. Flow Routing Models: Flow routing models simulate the movement of water through
river channels and reservoirs, considering channel characteristics, hydraulic properties,
and flow regulation structures. These models estimate flow attenuation, dispersion, and
timing along river reaches and can assess the effects of flow regulation on downstream
flow conditions. Flow routing models are used to design flow releases from dams and
reservoirs to maintain environmental flow requirements downstream while meeting water
supply and flood control objectives.
f. Hydrological Indices: Hydrological indices, such as baseflow index, recession constant,
and runoff coefficient, provide quantitative measures of hydrological processes and
streamflow characteristics. These indices are used to assess the hydrological regime of
river systems and identify trends and anomalies in flow patterns over time. Hydrological
indices help characterize the natural variability of streamflow and inform the
development of environmental flow targets and management strategies.
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4.9.4 Implementation of EF
Implementing environmental flow involves several steps and considerations to ensure the
sustainable management of water resources while protecting freshwater ecosystems.
Implementing EFs is challenging due to factors like coordination among different regulatory
agencies and existing water allocations. Adaptive management, involving estimating and
implementing EFs, monitoring ecosystem health, and revising decisions, is recommended.
Here is a generalized outline of how environmental flow implementation can be approached:
● Stakeholder Engagement and Collaboration
 Identify and engage stakeholders, including government agencies, water users,
indigenous communities, environmental organizations, and local communities.
 Foster collaboration and dialogue among stakeholders to understand diverse
perspectives, interests, and concerns related to water management and environmental
conservation.
● Legislative and Policy Framework
 Develop or revise relevant laws, policies, and regulations to integrate environmental
flow considerations into water management frameworks.
 Establish legal mechanisms for allocating and managing water resources to ensure
the provision of environmental flows.
● Scientific Assessment and Monitoring
 Conduct scientific assessments of hydrological, ecological, and geomorphological
conditions of river systems to determine environmental flow requirements.
 Monitor key indicators of ecosystem health, such as water quality, aquatic
biodiversity, habitat availability, and species populations, to assess the effectiveness
of environmental flow regimes.
● Flow Regime Design
 Design flow regimes that mimic natural flow patterns and meet the ecological needs
of freshwater ecosystems.
 Determine flow requirements for different seasons, flow regimes (e.g., base flows,
flood flows), and ecological zones within river systems.
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● Water Allocation and Management

 Allocate water rights or permits that include provisions for maintaining
environmental flows.
 Implement water management strategies, such as water conservation measures, water
use efficiency improvements, and water allocation prioritization, to ensure the
provision of environmental flows.
● Infrastructure and Engineering Solutions
 Design and implement infrastructure projects, such as dam operations, flow releases,
and water diversions, to regulate flow regimes and provide environmental flows.
 Incorporate environmental considerations into engineering solutions to minimize
adverse impacts on freshwater ecosystems.
● Adaptive Management and Monitoring
 Adopt adaptive management approaches to iteratively adjust environmental flow
regimes based on new information, changing conditions, and stakeholder feedback.
 Implement robust monitoring programs to assess the ecological outcomes of
environmental flow implementation and inform adaptive management decisions.
● Capacity Building and Education
 Build institutional capacity and expertise among water managers, policymakers, and
stakeholders to effectively implement environmental flow programs.
 Raise awareness and provide education and training on the importance of
environmental flows and freshwater conservation to foster community support and
engagement.
● Evaluation and Reporting
 Evaluate the effectiveness of environmental flow implementation through periodic
assessments and reporting.
 Communicate findings and lessons learned to stakeholders, policymakers, and the
public to promote transparency and accountability in water management decision-
making.
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By following these steps and considering local context and stakeholder input,
environmental flow implementation can contribute to the sustainable management of
freshwater resources and the protection of aquatic ecosystems.

4.9.5 Future Challenges

● Many rivers are already heavily utilized, and returning to historical conditions is not
feasible. The goal should be to develop feasible flow regimes.
● Environmental flows are based on equitable water sharing, but there is often a disconnect
between water management and policy-making.

4.10 UNIT HYDROGRAPH APPROACH

A unit hydrograph is a hydrological tool used to predict the runoff response of a watershed to
a given amount of rainfall over a specific duration. It is a fundamental concept in hydrology
and particularly useful for estimating the timing and magnitude of streamflow resulting from
rainfall events. A drainage basin's unit hydrograph is a hydrograph showing direct runoff
produced by one centimeter (or one inch) of effective rainfall over a given period of time that
is distributed evenly over the basin's area at a constant rate. The portion of the total storm
rainfall that enters the stream as direct runoff is known as the effective rainfall or rainfall
surplus. The time frame that is given is the amount of time that is thought to have a uniform
distribution of effective rainfall. It is believed that the effective rainfall is evenly distributed
over the drainage region, causing direct runoff to start at the commencement of the excess
rainfall. According to the unit hydrograph principle, it is stated that:
● The time base of the hydrographs showing direct runoff from effective rainfalls of similar
length is the same.
● The total amount of direct runoff shown by each hydrograph is proportionate to the
ordinates of the direct runoffs coming from effective rainfalls of equal duration but
varying intensity.
● The combined physical features of a basin are reflected in the hydrographs of direct
runoff from the basin during a specific time of effective rainfall.
The fundamental idea behind the unit hydrograph principle is that a direct runoff
hydrograph with the same time basis as the unit hydrograph but R times the unit hydrograph's
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ordinates will be produced by R inches of effective rainfall over the basin in the same unit
duration. If the idea is expanded, a sequence of overlapping hydrographs with ordinates
proportionate to the unit hydrograph, resulting from distinct periods of uniform effective rain,
can be used to construct the hydrograph of direct runoff that would arise from a series of
bursts of variable intensity from continuous effective rain of variable intensity. The ordinates
of each individual hydrograph are added to produce the hydrograph of total direct runoff. The
ordinates of direct runoff must be raised by the predicted base flow in order to obtain the total
runoff hydrograph. Here is an overview of the unit hydrograph, its method, and uses:
4.10.1 Method of Constructing a Unit Hydrograph
● Selection of a Design Storm: The first step in constructing a unit hydrograph is to select
a design storm that represents the rainfall event for which the hydrograph is to be
developed. The design storm should be representative of the rainfall characteristics of the
region or watershed under study.
● Derivation of the Hydrograph: The unit hydrograph is derived by dividing the
hydrograph of the design storm into a series of evenly spaced increments, typically
representing time intervals of one hour or less. The total area under the hydrograph curve
is normalized to one unit of runoff per unit of rainfall depth.
● Application of the S-Hydrograph Theory (Clark's Method): One of the commonly
used methods for deriving a unit hydrograph is the S-hydrograph theory, also known as
Clark's method. This method assumes that the watershed response to rainfall can be
represented by a linear reservoir system. The unit hydrograph is derived by convolving
the excess rainfall hyetograph with the unit hydrograph of the watershed.
● Adjustments and Calibration: Depending on the characteristics of the watershed and
the available data, adjustments may be made to the unit hydrograph to account for factors
such as basin size, shape, land use, soil type, and antecedent moisture conditions.
Calibration of the unit hydrograph may be necessary to match observed hydrological
responses.
4.10.2 Uses of Unit Hydrographs
Unit hydrographs are versatile tools in hydrology and water resources management,
providing insights into the watershed response to rainfall and supporting various applications
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in flood forecasting, water resources planning, and environmental management. The major
uses of unit hydrograph are described below:
● Hydrological Modeling: Unit hydrographs are commonly used in hydrological modeling
to simulate the response of watersheds to different rainfall events. They provide a
simplified representation of the runoff process, allowing hydrologists to predict
streamflow volumes and timing for various scenarios.
● Flood Forecasting: Unit hydrographs are used in flood forecasting systems to estimate
the magnitude and timing of peak flows in rivers and streams. By combining rainfall
forecasts with unit hydrographs, flood forecasters can issue timely warnings and
implement flood mitigation measures.
● Water Resources Management: Unit hydrographs are valuable tools for water resources
management, helping planners and engineers assess the impacts of land development,
land use changes, and infrastructure projects on watershed hydrology. They are used to
design stormwater management systems, reservoirs, and drainage infrastructure.
● Environmental Impact Assessment: Unit hydrographs are used in environmental
impact assessments to evaluate the potential impacts of land development and land use
changes on streamflow patterns, aquatic habitats, and water quality. They help assess the
sustainability of development projects and inform decision-making processes.
● Hydraulic Design: Unit hydrographs are used in hydraulic design to estimate peak flows
for the design of bridges, culverts, and other hydraulic structures. They provide engineers
with essential information for designing infrastructure that can safely convey runoff
during storm events.
4.10.3 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph Parameters
Deriving a unit hydrograph for the basin of interest is the initial step in the synthetic unit
hydrograph process. The hydrograph is then estimated using this unit hydrograph and the
design rainfall. Synder put out two fundamental equations to define the synthetic unit
hydrograph. The first equation (Equation 4.17) represents the basin's lag time in terms of the
time of peak (tp), which is the duration from the unit storm's centre to the unit hydrograph's
peak in the synthetic unit hydrograph procedure:
t p = Ct ( LLca )
0.3

………(4.17)
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where,
tp= duration of peak hydrograph from the midpoint of hourly rainfall
L= length in kilometers along the stream from the study point to the basin's upstream
limits,
Lca= distance in kilometers from the study point to the basin centroid,
Ct = a regional constant representing watershed slope and storage (varies between
1.35 to 1.65 as per Synder’s study). However, variations ranging from 0.3 to
6.0 have been reported.
Linsey et al. discovered a stronger correlation between the basin lag tp and the
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎
catchment parameter ; where S represents the basin slope. As a result, the following
√𝑆𝑆
amended form for tp was proposed (Equation 4.18).
n
 LL ca 
t p = Ct L  
 S  …………(4.18)
Where Ct and n are basin constants. The values of Ct L for basins in the United States were
1.03 for foothill areas, 0.5 for valley areas, and 1.715 for mountainous drainage areas. The
value of n was found to be 0.38. Synder used the typical length of tr hours of precipitation
that was provided by equation 4.19.
tp
tr =
5.5 …………(4.19)
The second equation (Equation 4.20) represents the unit hydrograph peak as:
2.78C p A
Q ps =
tp
…………(4.20)
Where:
Qps = peak discharge in m3/sec of a unit hydrograph of standard duration tr h
Cp = a regional constant
A = catchment area in km2.
This equation assumes that the peak discharge is proportional to the mean discharge
1𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚 ∗𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
of
𝐷𝐷𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
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For Synder's research regions, the coefficient Cp values vary from 0.56 to 0.69, and
this is regarded as a measure of the watershed's capacity for retention and storage. Similar to
Ct, values of Cp can differ significantly based on the features of the area; values ranging from
0.31 to 0.93 have been documented.
The magnitude of the basin lag is impacted if a non-standard rainfall duration, tr h, is
used to create a unit hydrograph in place of the standard value, tr. The adjusted basin latency
is provided by equation 4.21 as follows:
tR + tr 21 tR
t 'p = t p + = tp +
4 22 4 …………(4.21)
Hence, the peak discharge for a non-standard ER of time duration tR can be given by
equation 4. 22 as follows:
2.78C p A
Q ps =
tp
…………(4.22)
Synder gives the time base (tb) of a unit hydrograph as equation 4.23.
tp
tb = 3 +
8 days ………… (4.23)
For tiny catchments, this could result in excessively high time base values. Taylor and
Schwartz advise avoiding using tiny catchments and suggested the revised equation 4.24.
 t 
tb = 5  t p + R 
 2  hours …………(4.24)
The US Army Corps of Engineers determined the width of unit hydrographs at 50% and 75%
of the peak for US catchments when they were sketching the unit hydrograph. These widths,
which are determined by, have a relationship to the peak discharge intensity and are given by
equations 4.25 and 4.25a.
5.87
W50 =
q1.08 , and …………(4.25)
W50
W75 =
1.75 …………(4.25a)
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Since the values of the coefficients Ct and Cp differ between regions, it is best to use
established unit hydrographs of a meteorologically homogeneous catchment to identify the
values of these coefficients before applying them to the basin under investigation in practical
applications. In this manner, scaling hydrograph data from one similar catchment to another
is made possible using Synder's equations.

SUMMARY
Runoff is defined in engineering hydrology as the quantity of precipitation that emerges a
catchment area through surface drains. The intensity and length of rainfall, soil type, land
slope, vegetation cover, and other anthropogenic activities including urbanization and
changes in land use and land cover are several of the storm and catchment factors that affect
it. The current lesson covers the runoff process, the variables that influence it, and techniques
for estimating runoff volume, such as the SCS-CN strategy. Additionally, the module
explains the runoff hydrograph's components, elements that affect it, flow mass curve, flow
duration curve, etc. The curriculum also discusses India's varied surface water resources and
effective rainfall. Finally, environmental flow techniques are also described.

EXERCISE
Revision Questions
1. Give a brief overview of runoff process.
2. Describe the factors affecting the seasonal and annual runoff of a catchment.
3. Why the study of runoff process is essential in hydrology?
4. Write a short note on (i) infiltration (ii) surface runoff.
5. With the help of annual hydrographs, describe the salient features of perennial,
intermittent, and ephemeral streams.
6. Write a short note on (i) direct runoff (ii) base flow (iii) natural flow
7. What do you understand by yield?
8. Define a water balance equation.
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9. What do you understand by 75% dependable yield of a catchment? Describe the method
to estimate the same by using annual runoff volume time series.
10. Define various components of a natural hydrograph. How can we generate a hydrograph?
11. Describe various factors affecting a hydrograph.
12. Define base flow. Explain the method for generating base flow.
13. Describe the factors affecting base flow generation.
14. Write a short note on effective rainfall.
15. Explain briefly the SCS-CN method of estimation of the yield of a catchment using daily
rainfall records.
16. Explain the flow-duration curve with a neat diagram. What information can be gathered
from a study of the flow duration curve of a river at a site?
17. Explain applications of flow-duration curves (FDCs) in water resources engineering.
18. What do you understand by flow-mass curve? Explain the limitations of the flow mass
curve.
19. Describe briefly India's surface water resources.
20. Describe briefly the concept of environmental flows. Explain various methods of
obtaining environmental flow.
21. Define Unit Hydrograph. Explain the method to construct a unit hydrograph.
22. Describe the various uses of Unit Hydrograph.
23. Describe various methods to obtain synthetic unit hydrograph. Also, explain various
parameters of the synthetic unit hydrograph.

Numerical Problems
1. The observed discharge values for the year 2001 at a river gauging station are displayed
in the table given below. A barrage constructed across the river, upstream of the
gauging site, diverts 4.5 Mm3 and 2.00 Mm3 of water every month for irrigation and
industrial usage, respectively. Estimated return flows to the river upstream of the
gauging location are 0.95 Mm3 from irrigation and 0.80 Mm3 from industry. Calculate
the natural flow. Find the runoff-rainfall ratio if the catchment area is 240 km2 and the
average annual rainfall is 201 cm.
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Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Gauged Flow 2.5 1.8 1.2 1.1 2.1 9.0 18.4 23.2 13.1 10.1 7.2 3.9
(Mm3)

2. If the basin area of a watershed (A)= 950 km2, find out the time in days from the
hydrograph peak. Assume the value of coefficient (b) = 0.83.
3. Estimate the direct runoff for a storm with an average rainfall of 132.35 mm on a
watershed with good grass cover, soil type C, AMC II condition.
4. For a 550-ha watershed in Andhra Pradesh with predominantly non-black cotton soil, the
CNII has been estimated as 68. (a) If the total rainfall in the past five days is 28 cm and
the season is dormant, estimate the runoff volume due to 90 mm of rainfall in a day? (b)
What would the runoff volume be if the rainfall in the past five days was 45 mm?
5. For AMC-III, the CN value in a 522-ha watershed was determined to be 81. (Calculate
the direct runoff volume for the next four days of precipitation. On July 20, the AMC
fell into category III. Apply the standard SCS-CN equation.

Date July 20 July 21 July 22 July 23

Rainfall (mm) 58 48 11 22

6. A watershed has the following land use: (i) 450 ha of row crop with poor hydrologic
condition and (ii) 150 ha of good pasture land. The soil is of hydrologic soil group B.
Estimate the runoff volume for the watershed under antecedent moisture category III
when 2 days of consecutive rainfall of 110 mm and 95 mm occur. Use standard SCS-CN
equations.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is runoff?
A) Water that infiltrates the soil B) Water that flows over the ground surface
C) Water that evaporates from plants D) Water stored in aquifers
2. Which of the following factors influences runoff?
A) Soil type B) Vegetation cover
C) Rainfall intensity D) All of the above
217 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

3. What type of land surface typically produces the most runoff?

A) Sandy soil B) Grassy fields
C) Urban areas with concrete D) Forested land
4. Which of the following is a consequence of increased runoff?
A) Increased groundwater recharge B) Soil erosion
C) Improved water quality D) Decreased flood risk
5. How can vegetation help reduce runoff?
A) By increasing soil compaction B) By promoting evaporation
C) By enhancing soil structure and absorption D) By blocking precipitation
6. What is the term for the area where runoff collects before it flows into a body of water?
A) Watershed B) Drainage basin
C) Floodplain D) Riparian zone
7. Which of the following best describes "stormwater runoff"?
A) Water that evaporates during storms
B) Water from rainfall that flows into sewers and drains
C) Water that is absorbed by the soil during storms
D) Water that is stored in ponds after a storm
8. What practice can help manage and reduce runoff in urban areas?
A) Increasing paved surfaces B) Implementing green roofs
C) Deforestation D) Building more parking lots
9. Which of the following best describes "surface runoff"?
A) Water that infiltrates into the ground B) Water that flows over the land surface
C) Water that evaporates into the atmosphere D) Water that is stored in lakes and reservoirs
10. The volume of runoff can be influenced by which of the following factors?
A) Land use and vegetation cover B) Soil type and saturation
C) Precipitation intensity and duration D) All of the above
11. What does the rising limb of a hydrograph represent?
A) The period of base flow
B) The increase in streamflow due to runoff
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 218

C) The decrease in streamflow after a rain event

D) The total volume of runoff
12. Which type of runoff is primarily associated with precipitation falling on impervious
surfaces?
A) Infiltration runoff B) Saturation excess runoff
C) Hortonian runoff D) Groundwater runoff
13. If a watershed has an area of 500 acres and receives 2 inches of rainfall, what is the
approximate volume of runoff (in acre-feet) if the runoff coefficient is 0.5?
A) 20 acre-feet B) 25 acre-feet
C) 30 acre-feet D) 35 acre-feet
14. In a hydrograph, what does the "peak flow" indicate?
A) The minimum flow recorded B) The highest flow rate after a rainfall event
C) The total volume of water in the watershed D) The base flow level before rainfall
15. Which of the following is the primary purpose of a hydrograph?
A) To measure water temperature B) To show changes in water flow over time
C) To assess soil moisture levels D) To predict weather patterns
16. What does the base flow of a hydrograph represent?
A) Flow resulting from surface runoff B) The normal, non-storm flow of a stream
C) Flow during heavy rainfall events D) Evaporation losses from the stream
17. A steep rising limb in a hydrograph indicates:
A) Low intensity of rainfall B) Rapid runoff response to rainfall
C) High infiltration rates D) Long duration of rainfall
18. Which of the following is NOT a type of streamflow classification?
A) Perennial streams B) Intermittent streams
C) Ephemeral streams D) Oscillating streams
19. What is the significance of the lag time on a hydrograph?
A) It measures the duration of rainfall
B) It indicates the time taken for runoff to reach the stream
C) It shows the rate of evaporation
D) It determines the volume of groundwater
219 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

20. Which classification describes streams that flow continuously throughout the year?
A) Intermittent streams B) Perennial streams
C) Ephemeral streams D) Seasonal streams
21. When scaling a hydrograph, what does the area under the curve typically represent?
A) Maximum flow rate
B) Total volume of flow over a specified period
C) Average rainfall intensity
D) Depth of water in the stream
22. Base flow is primarily derived from which of the following sources?
A) Direct precipitation B) Surface runoff
C) Groundwater discharge D) Snowmelt
23. Which of the following factors can significantly influence base flow in a river?
A) Soil permeability B) Vegetation cover
C) Precipitation patterns D) All of the above
24. The duration of base flow can be affected by:
A) Rainfall intensity B) Land use changes
C) Evapotranspiration rates D) All of the above
25. Base flow primarily contributes to streamflow during which of the following conditions?
A) During heavy rainfall events B) In dry seasons
C) Immediately after snowmelt D) During flooding
26. How does urbanization typically affect base flow?
A) Increases base flow due to reduced evaporation
B) Decreases base flow by increasing impervious surfaces
C) Has no effect on base flow
D) Increases base flow due to increased vegetation
27. What does the Base Flow Index (BFI) indicate?
A) The ratio of base flow to total streamflow B) The amount of surface runoff
C) The level of groundwater recharge D) The average rainfall in a watershed
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 220

28. Base flow tends to be higher during which season?

A) Winter B) Spring
C) Summer D) Fall
29. Which of the following methods is commonly used to separate baseflow from total
streamflow?
A) Total runoff analysis B) Filter methods
C) Regression analysis D) Storm event analysis
30. What is the primary purpose of the SCS method in hydrology?
A) To calculate sediment transport B) To estimate surface runoff from rainfall
C) To assess groundwater recharge D) To measure water quality
31. The SCS method uses the Runoff Curve Number (CN) to estimate runoff. What does a
higher CN value indicate?
A) Higher infiltration rates B) Greater potential for runoff
C) More vegetation cover D) Lower soil moisture
32. Which of the following factors does NOT affect the SCS Runoff Curve Number?
A) Land use B) Soil type
C) Temperature D) Hydrologic condition
33. Which technique is often used to model baseflow generation in watersheds?
A) Rainfall-runoff modelling B) Soil moisture accounting
C) Hydrologic response modelling D) All of the above
34. The SCS method is particularly useful in which type of watershed?
A) Urbanized watersheds B) Rural agricultural watersheds
C) Forested watersheds D) Glacial watersheds
35. One common method for separating baseflow from total streamflow is:
A) The logarithmic method B) The digital filter method
C) The time series analysis D) The evaporation method
36. What does a flow duration curve (FDC) represent?
A) The average flow rate over time
B) The frequency of flow rates over a specified period
221 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

C) The total volume of flow in a watershed

D) The seasonal variations in flow
37. On a flow duration curve, the x-axis typically represents:
A) Flow rates B) Time
C) Percent of time exceeded D) Cumulative flow volume
38. What is the primary purpose of a flow mass curve?
A) To show the total discharge over time B) To illustrate seasonal flow variations
C) To calculate sediment transport D) To assess groundwater levels
39. Flow duration curves are commonly used in which of the following applications?
A) Water resource management B) Flood forecasting
C) Environmental impact assessments D) All of the above
40. In a flow mass curve, what does a steep slope indicate?
A) Low flow conditions B) High flow conditions
C) Increased consistency in flow D) Decreased variability in precipitation
41. If a flow duration curve shows that a certain flow rate is exceeded 70% of the time, this
means:
A) The flow rate is very low B) The flow rate is frequently met or exceeded
C) The flow rate is rare D) The flow rate is constant
42. Flow mass curves are particularly useful for:
A) Analysing historical flood events B) Determining water supply for reservoirs
C) Assessing evaporation rates D) Predicting land use changes
43. What is the primary goal of maintaining environmental flows in rivers?
A) To maximize agricultural irrigation
B) To support ecosystem health and biodiversity
C) To increase industrial water supply
D) To enhance recreational opportunities
44. Which river is considered one of the largest sources of surface water in India?
A) Ganges B) Yamuna
C) Brahmaputra D) Godavari
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 222

45. Which of the following is a benefit of maintaining environmental flows in rivers?

A) Improved fish migration B) Increased sedimentation
C) Enhanced urban development D) Reduced flood risk
46. What does a unit hydrograph represent?
A) The total runoff from a watershed
B) The response of a watershed to 1 inch of effective rainfall
C) The maximum discharge of a river
D) The average annual rainfall in a region
47. Unit hydrographs are primarily used for:
A) Estimating sediment transport B) Predicting river flow rates during storms
C) Designing flood control structures D) Analysing groundwater levels
48. Which of the following factors is crucial for assessing environmental flows in Indian
rivers?
A) Climatic variations B) Socio-economic factors
C) Water quality D) All of the above
49. What does the shape of a unit hydrograph indicate?
A) The average annual precipitation B) The rate of runoff response over time
C) The seasonal variation in temperature D) The sediment load in the river
50. What is a synthetic unit hydrograph?
A) A hydrograph derived from actual observed data
B) A model used to predict streamflow based on rainfall
C) A theoretical representation of runoff response for a given watershed
D) A hydrograph that only considers base flow
51. Synthetic unit hydrographs are primarily used for:
A) Estimating groundwater levels
B) Designing drainage systems and flood control measures
C) Measuring evaporation rates
D) Calculating sediment transport
52. Which of the following methods is commonly used to create synthetic unit hydrographs?
A) Rational method B) SCS (Soil Conservation Service) method
C) Modified Blaney-Criddle method D) Manning’s equation
223 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Answer: 1-B; 2-D; 3-C; 4-B; 5-C; 6-B; 7-B; 8-B; 9-B; 10-D; 11-B; 12-C; 13-B; 14-B; 15-B;
16-B; 17-B; 18-B; 19-B;20-B; 21-B; 22-C; 23-D; 24-D; 25-B; 26-D; 27-A; 28-B; 29-B; 30-
B; 31-B; 32-C; 33-D; 34-B; 35-B; 36-B; 37-C; 38-A; 39-D; 40-B; 41-B; 42-B; 43-B; 44-A;
45-A; 46-B; 47-B; 48-D; 49-B; 50-C; 51-B; 52-B.

KNOW MORE

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Asawa, G.L. (1993), “Irrigation Engineering”, Published by Willey Eastern Limited,
ISBN 81-224-0457-X.
2. Asawa, G.L. (2005), “Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering, New Age
International (P) Ltd., ISBN-13: 978-8122416732
3. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, 1964.
4. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources
of India, Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland,
ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4(HB).
5. Punmia, B.C. and Lal, Pande B.B., (1992), “Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering”, Twelfth Edition. Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
6. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
7. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India)
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN(13): 978-1-25902997-4.
 5
H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 224

Groundwater and Well

Hydrology

UNIT SPECIFICS
Groundwater has been a vital water resource throughout the ages. It is a significant water
source for many municipalities, industries, irrigation, sub-urban homes, and farms. Like other
natural resources, groundwater supplies are not unlimited. The present unit deals with the
occurrence and form of groundwater, aquifer properties, and geological formation of
aquifers. It also deals with well hydraulics, including steady-state flow in wells,
methodologies for estimating yield for wells, equilibrium equations for confined and
unconfined aquifers and aquifer tests.

RATIONALE
To learn about the groundwater and well hydrology, aquifer properties, equilibrium equations
for confined and unconfined aquifers, and various aquifer tests.

PRE-REQUISITE
Nil
UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U5-O1: Basics of groundwater and well hydrology
U5-O2: Aquifer properties, equilibrium equations for confined and unconfined aquifers
U5-O3: Various aquifer tests
Unit Expected Mapping with Course Outcomes
Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7 CO-8
U5-O1 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3
U5-O2 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 3
U5-O3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
225 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is that portion of the water beneath the surface of the earth that can be collected
with wells, tunnels, or drainage galleries or that flows naturally to the earth's surface via
seeps or springs. Groundwater has been an important water resource throughout the ages. Old
dug wells can be found along the wadis of the Middle East, the cradle of our civilization.
Some of the ancient tunnels or 'ghanats" in Iran are still in use. Today, groundwater is a
major source of water for many municipalities and industries, as well as irrigation, suburban
homes, and farms. Like other natural resources, groundwater supplies are not unlimited. They
must be wisely managed and protected against undue exploitation and contamination by
pollutants or salt water.

5.2 DEFINITION OF GROUNDWATER

Not all underground water is groundwater. If a hole is dug, moist or even saturated soil may
be encountered. As long as this water does not seep freely into the hole, it is not groundwater.
True groundwater is reached only when water begins to flow into the hole. Since the air in
the hole is at atmospheric pressure, the pressure in the groundwater must be above
atmospheric pressure if it is to flow freely into the hole. By the same token, the underground
water that did not flow into the hole must be at less than atmospheric pressure. Thus, what
distinguishes groundwater from the rest of the underground water is that its pressure is
greater than atmospheric pressure. Since such water moves freely under the force of gravity
into wells, it is also called free water or gravitational water. Groundwater depths can vary
from less than 1 m to more than 1000 m. Additionally, there are locations where groundwater
has not been at all accessed.

5.3 FORMS OF SUBSURFACE WATER

To understand the occurrence of groundwater and its vertical distribution, let us first consider
the hydrological zones present below the ground. The zone between the ground surface and
the top of the groundwater is called the vadose zone or unsaturated zone (Figure 5.1). This
zone still contains water (very little in dry climates), but the water is held to the soil particles
or other underground material by capillary forces. As a result, although the water can still
travel inside the vadose zone, it is unable to do so in penetrating wells or other locations that
experience atmospheric pressure.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 226

The term vadose zone should be preferred over unsaturated zone. This is because
portions of the vadose zone may actually be saturated, even though the pressure of the water
is below atmospheric pressure. Examples of regions in vadose zones are the capillary fringe
above groundwater, topsoil, and saturated layers of clay or other fine materials that hold
water more tightly than underlying coarser material. Thus, the zone above the groundwater
should not be called the unsaturated zone. By the same token, it is not correct to refer blankly
to the groundwater region as the saturated zone because air bubbles may remain entrapped in
this zone and prevent complete saturation. For these reasons, the terms vadose zone and
groundwater zone rather than unsaturated and saturated zone are used. Atmospheric
pressure is the dividing line between the two, with the pressure of vadose water being below
atmospheric pressure and that of groundwater above atmospheric pressure.

Figure 5.1: Classification and distribution of subsurface water.

227 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

5.4 TYPES OF SUBSURFACE FORMATION

The substance found beneath the surface is typically referred to as a subsurface deposit or
subsurface formation in subsurface hydrology. Soil and geologic formations are the two main
categories into which subsurface formations are classified. As it is widely understood, the
weathering of rocks forms soil. Geologic formations, on the other hand, are classified as
unconsolidated, semi-consolidated, or consolidated. Meanwhile, rocks with closely spaced
grains that are created by cementation, compaction, and re-crystallization are known as
consolidated geologic formations. 'Hard rocks' are a substitute for them. Igneous and
metamorphic rocks like granite, basalt, and schist, as well as indurated sedimentary rocks like
sandstone, shale, and limestone, are examples of consolidated geologic formations. Semi-
consolidated geologic formations are sedimentary rocks wherein the induration process is
incomplete, and the primary porosity (inter-granular porosity) is preserved to a varying
degree. Sandstone is the most productive of semi-consolidated sedimentary rocks because,
like sand, it has a very high primary porosity in the early stages of cementation. Conversely,
non-indurated colluvium, alluvial, Aeolian (wind-borne sediments), lacustrine, marine
(coastal), and glacial deposits make up unconsolidated geologic formations. There are
pebbles, gravel, clay, sand, and silt in these deposits. The subsurface formations are classified
as follows:
a. Aquifer
An aquifer is a formation or a geological structure which contains sufficient saturated
permeable materials to yield a significant quantity of water to a well and springs. Or the
water-bearing geologic formations or strata which yield a significant quantity of water for
economic extraction from wells. This indicates the capacity to transfer and store water.
Unconsolidated sedimentary formations like gravel and sand are typical and excellent
examples of aquifers. Fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks and carbonate rocks with
solution cavities also form good aquifers.
b. Aquiclude
It is a geological feature that essentially prohibits water from flowing through it. This
formation can only store water but cannot transmit a significant amount. It may be considered
as closed to water movement even though it may contain large amounts of water due to its
high porosity. Clay is an example of an aquiclude.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 228

c. Aquitard
It is a saturated formation but poorly permeable stratum that impedes groundwater movement
and does not yield water free to the well that may transmit appreciable water to or from the
adjacent aquifer. This formation through which only seepage is possible, and thus, the water
yield is insignificant compared to an aquifer. It is partly permeable. An aquitard is an
example of sandy clay. An aquitard with an appreciable quantity of water may leak into an
aquifer below it.
d. Aquifuge
A relative impermeable geological formation neither contains nor transmits water. It is a
formation which is neither porous nor permeable,, e.g. massive igneous, solid granite or
metamorphic rocks.

5.5 AQUIFER TYPES AND THEIR HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES

The lateral continuity and vertical boundaries are often not well defined. The aquifers may be
either localized in nature or may extend over a distance of several hundred kilometers.
Aquifers in the Ganga Basin in India; the Great Australian Artesian Basin, and the Sahara
(Nubian sandstone) have been traced over distances of several hundred kilometers. Aquifers
are generally aerially extensive and may be underlain or overlain by a confined bed which
may be defined as a relatively impermeable material strati-graphically adjacent to one or
more aquifers. Based on the hydraulic characteristics, the aquifers can be classified into the
following four types:
i. Confined Aquifers
These are also termed as artesian aquifers. A confined aquifer is overlain and underlain by a
confining layer (aquiclude or aquifuge). Water in the confined aquifers occurs under pressure
that is greater than atmospheric pressure. The piezometric surface, which is an imaginary
surface to which the water will rise in wells penetrating the confined aquifer, should lie
above the top of the aquifer, i.e. above the base of the overlying confining layer. A particular
aquifer at one place may be a confined aquifer, while at another place, it may behave as an
unconfined aquifer where the water level falls below the base of the overlying confining
layer. Similar to the above, over time, an aquifer at a specific location may transform from
confined to unconfined.
229 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

ii. Semi-confined Aquifers

In nature, truly confined aquifers are rare because the confining layers are not exactly
impervious. In semi-confined or leaky confined aquifers, the aquifer is overlain or underlain
by an aquitard or semi-pervious layer through which vertical leakage takes place due to head
difference. Generally, the permeability of the semi-confining layer is small so that any
horizontal component of flow in it can be neglected.
iii. Unconfined Aquifers
This is the topmost water-bearing stratum, having no confined impermeable cover burden
laying over it, but it has a confining layer at its bottom. It is normally partly saturated with
water, and the upper surface of saturation is termed the water table, which is under
atmospheric pressure. Water in unconfined aquifer is called unconfined or phreatic water. In
unconfined aquifer, the gravity drainage is often not instantaneous, and therefore, there is
some time lag in the lowering of the water table and the drainage of the aquifer. The delay
effect is greater in the fine-grained aquifers than in the coarse-grained aquifers.
iv. Semi Unconfined Aquifers
These aquifers exhibit characteristics between semi-confined and unconfined aquifers as the
permeability of the fine-grained overlying layers is greater than that of a semi-confined
aquifer, and the horizontal flow component in it cannot be neglected.

:
Figure 5.2: Type of Aquifers.
The distinction between different types of aquifers is sometimes difficult. The subsurface
lithology, water levels and other hydrological parameters of both the aquifers and confining
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 230

layers should be studied carefully to ascertain the nature of the aquifers. The distinction
between different types of aquifers is shown in Figure 5.2. The important hydraulic
properties of aquifers and confining layers are:
a. Porosity (n)
It is an important hydrological characteristic of a formation. It is the major criteria for the
occurrence of groundwater. The portion of rock or soil not occupied by a solid mineral matter
can be occupied by Groundwater. The porosity as shown in Figure 5.3 is the measure of the
interstices present in a formation. Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv)
to its total volume (V0) including volume of void and volume of solid and can be expressed
either as a percentage or as decimal fraction (Equation 5.1 to 5.3).
In percentage form, it is the percentage of voids present in each volume of aggregate.
It depends on the shape, packing, and degree of sorting of the component grains in each
material. Generally, ranges from 0 to 50% for most of the rock materials.

Figure 5.3: Pore space in various geologic formations.

Mathematically,
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑉𝑉𝑣𝑣)
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑛𝑛) =
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (𝑉𝑉)
231 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

𝑉𝑉𝑣𝑣
𝑛𝑛 = ∗ 100%
𝑣𝑣
𝑉𝑉−𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑉𝑉
∗ 100% ..…………(5.1)
Also, porosity can be expressed as
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 −𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌
𝑛𝑛 = = 1 − 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 ..………… (5.2)
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚

where,
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 = density of mineral particles (grain particles),
𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑 = bulk density.
The porosity of an aquifer is the sum of specific retention (Sr) and specific yield (Sy).
Mathematically:
Porosity = Specific Yield + Specific Retention.
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 + 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 ..………….(5.3)
● Specific retention: a measure of the volume of water which is retained by the aquifer
material against gravity on account of cohesive and intergranular forces.
● Specific yield: The water-yielding capacity is also termed as effective porosity. Specific
yield is expressed quantitatively as the percentage of the total volume of rock occupied
by the water, which can be drained out by gravity. Specific yield increases with an
increase in grain size and sorting, while specific retention increases with a decrease in
grain size and assortment.
b. Hydraulic conductivity (k)
Hydraulic conductivity, also known as permeability, is a measure of how easily a fluid can
traverse from a formation. It is defined as the quantity of flow per unit cross-sectional area
under the influence of a unit hydraulic gradient. It has the dimensions of velocity (LT-1) and
is usually expressed in m/day.
The hydraulic conductivity depends both upon the properties of the fluid and on the
properties of the aquifer. The specific permeability, k’, which is the permeability of the
porous medium, depends only on the property of the medium and it is independent of the
fluid properties. Specific permeability is related with hydraulic conductivity by the relation
given as in Equation 5.4:
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 232
𝛾𝛾
𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘′ 𝜇𝜇 ..………… (5.4)

where,
μ= co-efficient of viscosity; and
γ= specific weight of the fluid.
Specific permeability has the dimensions of L2 and is usually expressed in Darcy units.
The Darcy is defined as follows. A porous medium is said to have a permeability of
one Darcy if a single-phase fluid of one centipoise viscosity that completely fills the pore
space of the medium will flow through it at a rate of 1 cm3/sec per cm2 of cross-sectional area
under a pressure gradient of 1 atm. per cm.
1 Darcy = 0.987 x 10-8 cm2.
For water at 20°C, a medium of permeability of 1 Darcy would have a hydraulic
conductivity (k) of 9.613 x 10-4 cm/sec.
c. Transmissivity (T)
Transmissivity or coefficient of transmissibility is a hydraulic characteristic of the aquifer
which was first introduced in Groundwater literature by C.V. Theis in 1935. It is defined as
the rate of flow of water at the prevailing field temperature under a unit hydraulic gradient
through a vertical strip of the aquifer of unit width and extends through the complete
saturated thickness of the aquifer. It is, therefore, a product of the average permeability and
the saturated thickness of the aquifer (Equation 5.5), i.e.
𝑇𝑇 = 𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏 ..………… (5.5)
where, b is the thickness of the aquifer. Transmissivity has the dimensions of L2T-1 and is
usually expressed in m2/day. The concept of transmissivity holds good in confined aquifers
but in unconfined aquifers, as the saturated thickness of the aquifer changes with time, the T
will also change accordingly.
d. Coefficient of Storage or Storability (S)
The storage coefficient of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water that a vertical column
of the aquifer of unit cross-sectional area releases from storage or takes into storage as the
average head within this column declines or rises a unit distance. or simply can be defined as
the volume of water an aquifer would release from or take into storage per unit surface area
233 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

of the aquifer for a unit change in head. It is dimensionless. In artesian aquifers, where water
is released from or taken into storage entirely due to the compressibility of aquifer and water,
the storage co-efficient S is given in Equation 5.6 below.
S = bSs ..………… (5.6)
where,
b = thickness of the aquifer and
Ss = specific storage, which has the dimensions of L-1.
The quantity of water that an aquifer's unit volume releases from storage as an
outcome of aquifer compression and expansion under a unit decline in the average head can
be defined as specific storage.
The storage coefficient in confined aquifers has the order of magnitude of 10-3 to 10-6.
The storage coefficient Sw for a water table aquifer is given by Equation 5.7 as follows.
𝑆𝑆𝑤𝑤 = 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 + 𝑏𝑏𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 ..………….(5.7)
where, b= height of water table above the base of the free aquifer, and
Sy= specific yield of the aquifer.
Usually Sy > b Ss, thus Sw for all practical purposes be regarded as the specific yield.
The volume of water that a rock or soil will yield by gravity divided by its own volume is
known as the specific yield. Alternatively, it is a very close approximation of effective
porosity. The storage coefficient in unconfined aquifers, Sw, ranges from 0.05 to 0.30. In a
confined aquifer, the storage coefficient depends on the compressibility of the aquifer and the
expansion of water. Since an unconfined aquifer is not bounded by confining layers, the
specific yield or storage coefficient does not depend upon the compressibility of either the
aquifer or the fluid. The specific yield for all practical purposes is the same as effective
porosity or drainable porosity. Both S and Sy are important hydrological properties, and their
accurate determination is important for Groundwater balance studies.
e. Hydraulic Diffusivity (D)
Hydraulic diffusivity is defined as the ratio of transmissivity (T) and storability (S).
Diffusivity has the dimensions of L2T-l and is generally expressed in m2/day. For unconfined
conditions, the hydraulic diffusivity term is directly proportional to the transmissivity of the
aquifer, obtained as the product of the hydraulic conductivity of the water bearing material
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 234

and the average saturated thickness bav of the aquifer and is inversely proportional to the
storage coefficient. In an unconfined aquifer, transmissivity can be expressed as Equation 5.8
as follows:
T = kbav ..………….(5.8)
where, bav, = average saturated thickness of the unconfined aquifer.
f. Leakage Coefficient or Leakance (1/C)
It is the property of semi confining layer. It is the ratio of the vertical permeability of semi-
confining layer to its thickness i.e. k/b. It has dimensions of T-1.
g. Hydraulic Resistance (C)
It is a characteristic of confining layers of leaky aquifers and is also known as reciprocal
leakage coefficient or resistance against vertical flow. It is equal to b/k. It characterizes tile
resistance of the semi-pervious layer to upward or downward leakage. It has the dimensions
of time. If hydraulic resistance C = ∞, the aquifer is confined.
h. Leakage Factor (L)
The leakage factor 𝐿𝐿 = √𝑇𝑇. 𝐶𝐶 determines the distribution of the leakage into the leaky (semi
confined) aquifer. High value of L indicates a great resistance of semi-pervious strata to flow.
Factor L has length dimensions and is usually expressed in meters.
i. Delay Index (-1/α)
Is a measure of the delayed drainage of an unconfined aquifer and has the dimension of time
(T).
j. Drainage Factor (B)
The drainage factor 𝐵𝐵 = �𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏/𝛼𝛼𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 is a property of unconfined aquifer. Large values of B
indicate a fast drainage. The drainage factor has length dimensions (L) and is expressed in
meters.
k. Specific Capacity
It is a measure of both the effectiveness of a well and of the aquifer characteristics (T and S).
It is defined as the ratio of the pumping rate and the drawdown, and it is often reported in
liters per minute per meter of drawdown for a certain pumping interval.
235 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

l. Specific Capacity Index

It is a measure of the formation characteristics. It is obtained by dividing the specific capacity
by the saturated thickness of the aquifer. The specific capacity index values are of use in
determining the relative productivity of different units in a multi-unit aquifer and also in
predicting well yield from a given thickness of the aquifer. Unit area-specific capacity values
are obtained by dividing the specific capacity by the cross-sectional area of the well. The
specific capacity can also be divided by 2πrwb (where rw, is the radius of the well) to account
for variation in the well radius and depth.

5.6 DARCY’S LAW FOR GROUNDWATER VELOCITY

Darcy based on experiments through sand columns, found that discharge is directly
proportional to the head loss (∆𝐻𝐻) and area of cross-section (A) of the soil and inversely
proportional to the length of the soil sample (L) (See Equation 5.9).
∆𝐻𝐻
𝑄𝑄 ∝ 𝐿𝐿
𝐴𝐴 . ..……… (5.9)
𝑄𝑄 ∝ 𝑖𝑖𝐴𝐴
Q= KiA
𝑄𝑄
= 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 ..………… (5.9a)
𝐴𝐴
where,
K = proportionality constant, (changing with the type of soil and hence represent
a property of soil, called permeability or coefficient of permeability.
A = area of the soil medium, through which the flow is taking place.
Thus, Darcy’s law states that; velocity is directly proportional to the hydraulic
gradient. It may be noted that Darcy’s velocity is a fictitious velocity and not the actual
Groundwater flow velocity through soil medium. Since the actual flow velocity Va occurs
through the voids of cross-sectional area Vv and not through the actual area A. Therefore,
equation 5.9 can be rewritten as (Equation 5.9b) below:
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 ∗ 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝐴𝐴 ∗ 𝑉𝑉
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 ..………… (5.9b)
𝐴𝐴
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When A is large in comparison Av, we can satisfy that the ratio of the area of the
voids to the total area (A) is the same as the ratio of the voids (Vv) to the total volume V
(Equation 5.10) as;
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
≈ = 𝜂𝜂 (𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)
𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉 = = 𝜂𝜂 ∗ 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 ..………… (5.10)
𝑉𝑉

Knowing the value of v from Darcy’s equation, and dividing it by porosity η, the
actual velocity of flow 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 through the soil can be worked out.
Example 5.1: In an aquifer whose area is 100 ha, the water table has dropped by 3.0 m.
Assuming porosity and specific retention of the aquifer material to be 30% and 10%,
respectively. Determine the specific yield of the aquifer and the change in the groundwater
storage.
Solution:
Porosity = Specific Yield + Specific retention.
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 + 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟
𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 = 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟 = 30-10 =20%
Change in groundwater storage = Area × Depth fluctuation of GWT × Specific Yield
∆𝐺𝐺𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝐴𝐴 × ∆𝐻𝐻 × 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 = 100 × 104 × 3 × 0.2
=60 × 104 𝑚𝑚3
Example 5.2: In a certain place in Andhra Pradesh, the average thickness of the confined
aquifer is 30m and extends over an area of 800km2. The piezometric surface fluctuates
annually from 19m to 9m above the top of aquifer. Assuming a storage coefficient of 0.0008,
what groundwater storage can be expected annually? Assuming the average well yield of
30m3/hr. and about 200 days of pumping in a year. How many wells can be drilled in the
area?
Solution
∆𝐺𝐺𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝐴𝐴 × ∆𝐻𝐻 × 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 = 800 × 106 × (19 − 9) × 0.0008
= 6.4 × 106 m3 or 6.4 Mm3
Annual draft (V) = 30m3/hr× 200 × 24ℎ𝑟𝑟 =144×105m3 = 0.144Mm3
237 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

∆𝐺𝐺𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐷𝐷𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
6.4
= 0.144 = 44.5 say 44 wells.

5.7 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FOR ESTIMATING GROUNDWATER

VELOCITY
Before Darcy came into the picture, certain empirical formulae, based on the experimental
results, was being used to find out the velocity of the Groundwater flow. The formulae which
were in common use are given below:
a. Slichter’s formula (Equation 5.11): According to which
2
𝐷𝐷10
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝐾𝐾′𝑖𝑖 ..………… (5.11)
𝜇𝜇

where,
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = Velocity of Groundwater flow in m/day
K ' = A constant whose value is about 400
i = The slope of the hydraulic gradient line.
D10 = The effective size of the particles in mm (i.e., the hypothetical size which is
larger than 10% of the particles in the sample, i.e., only 10% of the particles will pass
through this size).
μ = Viscosity of water depending on temperature
b. Hazen’s formula. Formula (Equation 5.12) in M.K.S. system is
2
𝐷𝐷10
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝐾𝐾′′𝑖𝑖 × (1.8T + 42) ..………… (5.12)
60

where,
𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 =velocity of Groundwater flow in 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

T = Temperature in 0 C
𝐾𝐾′′=A constant whose value is about 1000
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 238

Example 5.3: Find out the velocities of the Groundwater flow with the following data using
Slichter’s and Hazen’s constants as 400 and 800, respectively; viscosity coefficient of water
at Groundwater temperature of 100C=1; Effective size of the particles in the aquifer = 0.1
mm; Hydraulic gradient= 1 in 80.
Solution
a. Using Slichter’s formula
2
𝐷𝐷10
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝐾𝐾 ′ 𝑖𝑖 𝜇𝜇

1 0.12
= 400 × (80) 1
𝑚𝑚
= 0.05 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

b. Using Hazen’s formula

2
𝐷𝐷10
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝐾𝐾′′𝑖𝑖 × (1.8T + 42)
60
1 0.12
= 800 × (80) × (1.8×10 + 42)
60
0.1 𝑚𝑚
= 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

5.7.1 Field Measurement of the Velocity of Groundwater

The actual flow velocity of Groundwater ( va ) can be computed by using above methods, or it
can be measured in the field by using chemical tracers or electrical resistivity methods. The
known time ( t ) taken by a chemical tracer, such as dye, to a given known distance ( S)
between the two observation wells will directly indicate the ground flow velocity as equal to
𝑆𝑆
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝑡𝑡 Such a test, in which a chemical tracer is introduced into one observation well, and its
entry into the second observation well is observed, will also help to compute K, since 𝑉𝑉 =
𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿
𝐾𝐾 𝑆𝑆

where,
HL= Difference of water levels in the two observation wells and
S = Distance between two observation wells.
239 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 and
𝑆𝑆
𝑆𝑆
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻 ..………… (5.13)
𝐿𝐿

Example 5.4: In a field test, a time of 6 hours was required for a tracer to travel through an
aquifer from one well to another. The observation wells were 42 m apart and the difference in
their water levels was found to be 0.42 m. Compute (i) the discharge velocity (ii) the
coefficient of permeability (K). Given the porosity of the soil medium as 20% (iii) Also
compute the value of the coefficient of intrinsic permeability for the aquifer in Darcy’s if the
viscosity of water v = cm2/sec.
Solution:
𝑆𝑆 42 𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚
Velocity of Groundwater 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝑡𝑡 = 6ℎ 𝑠𝑠
4200 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚
= 6∗60∗60 𝑠𝑠
=0.196 𝑠𝑠
𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚 0.0388 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚
Discharge velocity 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑛𝑛𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 0.2 ∗ 0.194 𝑠𝑠
= 𝑠𝑠
𝐻𝐻𝐿𝐿 0.42 𝑚𝑚 1
Hydraulic gradient between the wells 𝑖𝑖 = == = 100
𝑆𝑆 42 𝑚𝑚
1
Using 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 = 𝐾𝐾 100
𝐾𝐾
0.0388 =
100
𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚
𝐾𝐾 = 3.88
𝑠𝑠
Intrinsic permeability coefficient
𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚2
𝐾𝐾𝑉𝑉 3.88 ×0.01
𝐾𝐾𝑂𝑂 = = 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
981 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑔𝑔
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒2

3.96×10−5 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚
= 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 2

Since 9. 87 × 10−9 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚2 = 1 𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, we have

3.96∗10−5
K0 In Darcy = Darcy’s = 4007 Darcy’s
9.87∗10−10
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 240

5.8 GROUNDWATER HYDRAULICS

5.8.1 Analytical methods for estimation of Yield from wells and tube wells

a. Thiem’s Equilibrium formulas for unconfined aquifer under steady-state conditions

Various assumptions made in its derivations are:
i. The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, and of infinite and areal extent so its
coefficient of transmissivity or permeability is constant everywhere.
ii. The well has been sunk through the full depth of the aquifer, and it receives water
from the entire thickness of the aquifer.
iii. Pumping has continued for a sufficient time at a uniform rate so that the equilibrium
stage or steady flow conditions have been reached.
iv. Flow lines are radial and horizontal, and flow is laminar.
v. The inclination of the water surface is small, so its tangent can be used in place of the
sine for the hydraulic gradient in Darcy’s equation.
The following figure (Figure 5.4) describes the unconfined aquifers. Also, assuming
that the inclination of the water surface is small, so that the tangent can be used in place of
sine for the hydraulic gradient in Darcy’s law, one has
241 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Figure 5.4: Unconfined aquifer case for derivation of Thiem’s formula.

The area of flow (A) is equal to 2πrh, assuming that water flows through the full
height of the aquifer, and that the flow is radial and horizontal.
𝒅𝒅𝒉𝒉
𝑸𝑸 = 𝑲𝑲𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝑲𝑲 𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉
𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒓 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉
=
𝒓𝒓 𝑸𝑸
where,
Q = constant when steady conditions have reached.
K = soil permeability

Integrating between the limits r1 to r2 , and h 1 to h 2 , we get:

𝑟𝑟2 ℎ1
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
� =� ℎ𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟 ℎ1 𝑄𝑄
𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ℎ2 2 −ℎ1 2
Therefore: 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 �𝑟𝑟2 � = 𝑄𝑄
� �
1 2
𝑟𝑟
𝑄𝑄𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 �𝑟𝑟2 � = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 )
1
𝑟𝑟
𝑄𝑄𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 � 2 � 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 2 −ℎ1 2 ) 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 2 −ℎ1 2 )
𝑟𝑟1
𝐾𝐾 = 2 𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟
𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 −ℎ1 2 ) 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 � 2 � 2.3𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � 2 �
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1

This is important Thiem’s formula which can be further simplified, if required, as follows
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 242

(ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 ) = (ℎ2 + ℎ1 )(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = (𝑆𝑆1 − 𝑆𝑆2 )
If the amount of drawdown is small compared to the saturated thickness of the water
bearing material, then h1 and h2 are nearly equal and each is approximately equal to this
saturated thickness say d. Therefore,
(ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) ≈ (𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑) = 2𝑑𝑑
ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 ≈ (𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 )2𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑑𝑑(𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 )
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑(𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 )
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛, 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑟𝑟
2.3𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟2 �
1

Introducing the coefficient of transmissivity T in place of k, i.e. 𝑇𝑇 = 𝐾𝐾𝑑𝑑, then

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑆𝑆2 − 𝑆𝑆1 )
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑟𝑟 ..………….(5.14)
2.3𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � 2 �
𝑟𝑟1

Equation 5.14 is the form of Thiem’s formula for unconfined aquifers.

b. Thiem’s Equation for Confined Aquifers:
In a confined aquifer, the flow is actually radial and horizontal and, therefore, it has not to be
assumed as such, as was done in the unconfined case. Rest of the assumptions remain the
same and hold good in this case also. The following figure (Figure 5.5) represents the
drawdown curve in a confined aquifer. In this case, the discharge equation is
𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐾𝐾
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟
As water is drawn from the cylinder of radius r and height H, where H = height of the
confined aquifer. Therefore,
𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑄𝑄 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟
𝑂𝑂𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻
= 𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄

Integrating between the limits of r1 and r2 for r, and h1 to h2 for h.

243 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

𝑟𝑟2
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ℎ2
� = � 𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄 ℎ1
𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻
It gives; 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 �𝑟𝑟2 � = 𝑄𝑄
(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
1
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(ℎ2 −ℎ1 ) 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(ℎ2 −ℎ1 )
Or 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 � 2 � 2.3𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � 2 �
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1

But (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = (𝑆𝑆1 − 𝑆𝑆2 )

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝑆𝑆1 −𝑆𝑆2 ) 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑆𝑆1 −𝑆𝑆2 )
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟: 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑟𝑟 𝑂𝑂𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑟𝑟 ..…… (5.15)
2.3𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � 2 � 2.3𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � 2 �
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟1

Figure 5.5: Drawdown curve in a confined aquifer.

Limitation of Thiem’s formulae: Various assumptions have been made in the derivation of
Thiem’s formulae above. But, in actual practice, none of these conditions may not be
satisfied. Further, it is very difficult to assess the effect of these assumptions. Despite the
various limiting assumptions, Thiem’s formulae are widely used in Groundwater problems,
and many of its assumptions are taken care by appropriate adjustments.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 244

5.8.2 Dupuit’s formulae for estimating well yield under steady state condition
In Dupuit’s formulae, no observation wells are required. The main well is pumped out so as
to get sufficient drawdown, and then the rate of pumping is so adjusted as to establish
equilibrium conditions.
All the assumptions that have been made in Thiem’s formulae also hold good in Dupuit’s
formulae. The only difference is that the integration was carried out between the limits of r1
and r2 is now carried out between the limits rw and R, where rw is the radius of the pumped
well and R is the radius of influence. The radius of influence is the distance up to the point
where drawdown is zero or is inappreciable. The derivation of Dupuit’s formulae for an
unconfined and confined aquifer is shown below in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6: Unconfined aquifer cases for derivation of Dupuit's formula.

a. Dupuit’s formula for unconfined aquifers:
As per Darcy’s law; 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐾𝐾 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋ℎ
𝑂𝑂𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
= ℎ𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄
Integrating between the limits 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 and R for r and hw and d for h, we get

𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑
� = � ℎ𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄 ℎ𝑤𝑤
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𝑅𝑅 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 � � = �(𝑑𝑑2 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )�
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑄𝑄
𝑅𝑅 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
� �= �(𝑑𝑑2 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )�
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑄𝑄
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑 2 −ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )
𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑅𝑅 ..………… (5.16)
2.3031 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

Since the value of R is not easily assessable, various arbitrary values have been
assigned to R by various investigators. Slitcher assumed it as 150 m, and Tolman assumed it
as 300 m. But a more realistic picture is obtained, when R is taken as
𝑅𝑅 ∝ 𝑄𝑄 or 𝑅𝑅 = 𝐶𝐶𝑄𝑄; where C is a constant.
Putting 𝑅𝑅 = 𝐶𝐶𝑄𝑄 in above equation (5.15), we get
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑2 −ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝑄𝑄 ..………… (5.16a)
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

Q can be determined by Hit and Trial method.

Figure 5.7: Confined aquifer case for derivation of Dupuit's formula.

b. Dupuit’s formula for confined aquifers: (refer figure (5.7))
Integrating between the limits rw and R, hw and D for h we get
𝑅𝑅
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷
� = � 𝑑𝑑ℎ
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄 ℎ𝑤𝑤

𝑅𝑅 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 � � = [(𝐷𝐷 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 )]
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑄𝑄
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 246

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝐷𝐷 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 ) 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝐷𝐷 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 )

𝑄𝑄 = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 � � 2.303𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑅𝑅 ..………… (5.17)
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑒𝑒 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

where,
H = Total height of confined aquifer.
h w = Artesian pressure in the well
rw = Radius of the well

D= Initial artesian pressure at the bottom of the aquifer or the initial height of the
piezometric surface from the bottom of the well
S= Drawdown = (D- hw)

5.9 PARTIAL PENETRATION OF AN AQUIFER BY A WELL: FROM

EQUATION
Equation (5.18); for unconfined or gravity wells
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑2 −ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑅𝑅 ..………… (5.18)
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

Equation (5.18a); for confined wells

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝐷𝐷−ℎ𝑤𝑤 )
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑅𝑅 ..………… (5.18a)
2.303𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

Equations 5.18 and 5.18a have been derived for gravity and artesian wells, respectively. But,
if a well does not penetrate up to the bottom of the aquifer, these formulas will not be
applicable, as the nature of the flow will become three-dimensional. It will not only be radial
but will also have an upward component, as shown in Figure 5.8.
The measured drawdown in the zone influenced by the upward vertical flow component will
be more in the case of a partially penetrating well than in a fully penetrating well for the
same discharge. The discharge obtained by the fully penetrating well will of course be more
than a partially penetrating well.
247 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Figure 5.8: Flow lines in a well fully and partially penetrating the aquifer.
Kozeny has given a correction factor. According to him, the discharge Qp through
such a well is given as follows:
Whereas in the case of a simple radial flow in a fully penetrating artesian well, the
discharge is given by the equation 5.19 as given below:
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝑑𝑑 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 )
𝑄𝑄 =
𝑅𝑅
2.303𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
𝑤𝑤
𝑅𝑅
𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 (𝐷𝐷 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 ) 2.303𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
𝑤𝑤
= =
𝑄𝑄 𝐻𝐻
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝑑𝑑 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 )
� 𝑅𝑅 �
2.303𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
𝑤𝑤
𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅
= 2.303 � 𝐻𝐻𝑤𝑤 � 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 � ..………… (5.19)
𝑄𝑄 𝑤𝑤

For example, if
rw = 10cm = 0.1m and R = 3000 m, then
𝑅𝑅
= 30000. 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙,
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
H = Thickness of the confined aquifer = 20m (say), Then
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 248

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 0.1 1
= 2.303 � 20 � 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 (30000) = 0.05 ≈ 20
𝑄𝑄

This shows that the yield in a spherical flow is much less than that in a radial flow.
Hence, the spherical flow (Figure 5.9) is much less efficient than the radial flow.

5.9.1 Interference among wells

Interference occurs when two or more wells are built in a way that puts them close to one
another and causes their cones of depression to intersect. Such mutual interference of wells
decreases the discharges of the interfering wells. Muskat has proposed the following
formulas for the computation of discharges from such interfering wells. These formulas have
been found to yield reliable results.

Figure 5.9: Spherical flow in a well.

a. For confined aquifers (i.e. Artesian wells)
For two artesian identical wells at a distance B apart,
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝑑𝑑−ℎ𝑤𝑤 )
𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑅𝑅2
..……(5.20)
2.303𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵

b. Using three identical artesian wells spaced B apart in an equilateral triangle

configuration,
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝑑𝑑−ℎ𝑤𝑤 )
𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑄𝑄3 = ..… (5.21)
𝑅𝑅3
2.303𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟
𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵2
249 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

c. Using three identical artesian wells, spaced B apart in a straight line,

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻 𝐵𝐵
(𝑑𝑑−ℎ𝑤𝑤 )𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄3 = 𝑅𝑅
2.303
𝐵𝐵
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
𝐵𝐵 𝑅𝑅 .……… (5.21a)
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �+ 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 2𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

and.
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻 𝐵𝐵
(𝑑𝑑−ℎ𝑤𝑤 )𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑅𝑅
2.303
𝐵𝐵
2𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
𝐵𝐵 𝑅𝑅 ………… (5.21b)
2𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �+ 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 2𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

where Q1 and Q3 are the discharges of the outer wells, and Q2 is the discharge of the
middle well.

Total discharge = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ..………… (5.21c)

d. For unconfined aquifers (i.e. Gravity wells)
All the three above formulas can be applied to unconfined aquifers by replacing H D by
𝑑𝑑 2 ℎ𝑤𝑤 2
, 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝐻𝐻, ℎ𝑤𝑤 𝑏𝑏𝑦𝑦
2 2
● For two identical gravity wells at a distance B apart, formula would therefore, become
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻 𝑑𝑑2 ℎ𝑤𝑤 2
( − )
𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = 2.303 2 2
𝑅𝑅2 ..………… (5.22)
2.303𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵

𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑2 −ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )
𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑅𝑅2
..………… (5.22a)
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵

● For three identical gravity wells at distances B apart, in a pattern of equilateral triangle,
formula would be;
𝑑𝑑2 ℎ𝑤𝑤 2
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻( − )
𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑄𝑄3 = 2 2
𝑅𝑅3
..………… (5.23)
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵2

𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑2 −ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )
𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑄𝑄3 = 𝑅𝑅3
..………… (5.23a)
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵2

● For three identical gravity wells at distances B apart in a straight line, the formulas would
become;
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 250
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝐵𝐵
(𝑑𝑑2 −ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄3 = 𝑅𝑅
2.303
𝐵𝐵
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
𝐵𝐵 𝑅𝑅 ..………… (5.24)
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �+ 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 2𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

and
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝐵𝐵
(𝑑𝑑2 −ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑅𝑅
2.303
𝐵𝐵
2𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
𝐵𝐵 𝑅𝑅 ..…… (5.24a)
2𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �+ 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝐵𝐵 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 2𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

Example 5.5: In a constrained aquifer, three wells, each with a diameter of 10 cm, are
positioned at the points of an equilateral triangle 12 meters apart. Each well has a 400 m
radius of influence and a 20 m/day coefficient of permeability K. There is a 2 m drawdown in
every well. The confined aquifer is 15 meters thick. Determine each well's discharge as well
as the portion of the discharge that has decreased due to well interference.
Solution
rw=10/2cm = 5cm = 0.05 m
B = 12 m, R = 400 m
𝑚𝑚
H = 15 m, 𝐾𝐾 = 20 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Drawdown in well: 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐷𝐷 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 2 𝑚𝑚

2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 )
𝑈𝑈𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑄𝑄3 =
𝑅𝑅 3
2.3 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 𝐵𝐵 2
2𝜋𝜋 ∗ 20 ∗ 15 ∗ 2 𝑚𝑚3
𝑈𝑈𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐸𝐸𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = 𝑄𝑄3 = = 235.76
4003 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
2.3 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
0.05 ∗ 122
The discharge of each such well without interference is given by equation
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻(𝐷𝐷 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 ) 2𝜋𝜋 ∗ 20 ∗ 15 ∗ 2 𝑚𝑚3
𝑄𝑄 = = = 419.73
𝑅𝑅 400 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 � 2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑤𝑤 0.05
Hence, reduction in discharge due to interference
419.73 − 235.76
=� � ∗ 100% = 43.83%
419.73
251 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

5.10 WELL LOSS AND SPECIFIC CAPACITY OF WELLS

a. Well loss: When water is being pumped out of an artesian well, the drawdown caused
includes not only the drawdown which is given by logarithmic drawdown curve equation;
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑅𝑅 ..…………(5.25)
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤

But also includes a certain drawdown caused by the flow of water through the well
screen and its axial movement within the well up to the pump intake.
The drawdown caused by the flow through the screen and axial movement within the
well brings the water level in the well from AB to CD Figure 5.10. This vertical drawdown
AC or BD is known as well loss. The magnitude of this well loss may be taken as equal
to 𝐶𝐶2 𝑄𝑄 2, since the flow in the vicinity of the well face is turbulent. The value of C can be
obtained from Figure 5.11.
The total drawdown can then be obtained by adding the two drawdowns
The first drawdown is obtained from equation
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑄𝑄 =
𝑅𝑅
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
𝑤𝑤

According to which
𝑅𝑅
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � �
𝑠𝑠 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻
𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤
= 𝐶𝐶2 𝑄𝑄 2 ..………… (5.26)
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟,
𝑅𝑅
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
𝑤𝑤
𝐶𝐶1 =
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐻𝐻
The total drawdown is then given by C1Q +C2Q2
Where,
C2Q2 = well loss and
C1Q = aquifer loss.
C1 and C 2
= coefficients determined by pump test data of drawdown at various
discharges. The magnitude of the well loss has an important bearing on the pump efficiency.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 252

Abnormally high value of the well loss indicates clogging and encrustation. The well screens,
needing immediate remedial action.
b. Specific capacity:
The well yield per unit of drawdown can be defined as well's specific capacity. Hence, the
𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝐷𝐷𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑄𝑄 1
= 2
=
𝐶𝐶1 𝑄𝑄 + 𝐶𝐶2 𝑄𝑄 𝐶𝐶1 + 𝐶𝐶2 𝑄𝑄
1
∴ 𝑠𝑠𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = (𝐶𝐶1 +𝐶𝐶2 𝑄𝑄 )
..………… (5.27)

The above equation (5.27) clearly shows that the specific capacity of the well is not
constant but decreases as the discharge increases.

Figure 5.10: Well loss

Figure 5.11: Giving values of C.

253 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

c. Efficiency of a well:
The discharge from a well is approximately proportional to the drawdown (s); whereas
s = C1 Q , neglecting well loss. The discharge per unit of drawdown was called specific
capacity of the well. This specific capacity will be different for different well designs. A well
can be operated under various drawdown settings to find the optimal drawdown discharge
conditions, and a graph between drawdown and discharge may be generated, as in Figure
5.12. The curve obtained is a straight line up to a certain stage of drawdown, beyond which
the drawdown increases disproportionately to yield. This place an optimum and efficient
limit to the drawdown which may be allowed to be created in a well. This is generally found
to be 70% of the maximum drawdown which can be created in a well.

Figure 5.12: Yield-drawdown curve.

Example 5.6: A pumping test was conducted in a medium-sized sand and gravel area down
to a clay bed's depth of 15 meters. The normal Groundwater level was at surface.
Observation holes were located at distances of 3m and 7.5 m from the pumping well. At a
discharge of 3.6 liters/sec. from the pumping well, a steady state was attained in about 24 hrs.
The drawdown at 3 m was 1.65 m and at 7.5 m was 0.36 m. compute the coefficient of
permeability of the soil.
Solution:
𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑄𝑄 = 3.6
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑟𝑟1 = 3𝑚𝑚; 𝑆𝑆1 = 1.65𝑚𝑚; ℎ1 = 15 − 1.65 = 13.35 𝑚𝑚
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 254

𝑟𝑟2 = 7.5𝑚𝑚; 𝑆𝑆2 = 0.36 𝑚𝑚; ℎ2 = 15 − 0.36 = 14.64 𝑚𝑚

Using equation
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 )
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑟𝑟
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟2 �
1
𝑟𝑟 7.5 3.6
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟2 � ∗ 𝑄𝑄 2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 � � ∗
𝐾𝐾 = 1
= 3 1000
𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 ) 𝜋𝜋(14.642 − 13.352 )
𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚
𝐾𝐾 = 2.91 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 100
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚
𝐾𝐾 = 0.00219
𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
Example 5.7: The following measurements were taken simultaneously in a nearby test well
with a 60 cm diameter well that is being pumped at a rate of 1360 liters per second. At a
distance of 6 m from the well being pumped, the drawdown was 6 m, and at 15 m, the
drawdown was 1.5 m. The well's bottom is 90 meters below the ground's water table. (a) Find
out the coefficient of permeability. (b) If all the observation points were on Dupuit’s curve,
what was the drawdown in the well during pumping? (c) What is the specific capacity of a
well? (d) What is the maximum rate at which water can be drawn from this well?
Solution
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 )
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑟𝑟
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟2 �
1

𝑟𝑟1 = 6𝑚𝑚; 𝑆𝑆1 = 6.0𝑚𝑚; ℎ1 = 90 − 6 = 84 𝑚𝑚

𝑟𝑟2 = 15𝑚𝑚; 𝑆𝑆2 = 15 𝑚𝑚; ℎ2 = 90 − 15 = 88.5 𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑 = 90𝑚𝑚, 𝑄𝑄 = 1360
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛
15
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑔𝑔10 � 6 � × 1.36 𝑚𝑚
𝑎𝑎. 𝐾𝐾 =
𝜋𝜋(88.52 − 842 ) 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚
𝐾𝐾 = 0.511 × 10−3
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
255 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

𝑏𝑏. 𝑟𝑟𝑤𝑤 = 0.3𝑚𝑚; 𝑟𝑟2 = 15 𝑚𝑚; ℎ2 = 88.5 𝑚𝑚; ℎ𝑤𝑤 = ?

𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 2 − ℎ1 2 )
𝑈𝑈𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞: 𝑄𝑄 =
𝑅𝑅
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
𝑤𝑤

𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(ℎ2 2 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )
𝑄𝑄 =
𝑅𝑅
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
𝑤𝑤
𝑅𝑅
2.303𝑄𝑄 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 = ℎ2 2 − 𝑤𝑤
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
15
2.303 × 1.36 × 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �0.3�
= 88.52 −
𝜋𝜋 × 0.511 × 10−3
ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 = 88.52 − 3321.23
ℎ𝑤𝑤 = 67.2 𝑚𝑚
Drawdown in the pumped well
𝑠𝑠𝑤𝑤 = 90 − 67.2 𝑚𝑚 = 22.8 𝑚𝑚
c. Specific capacity of the well. It is the discharge for a unit drawdown in the pumped
well.
Let us first find out the value of R
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑2 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 )
𝑄𝑄 =
𝑅𝑅
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 �
𝑤𝑤
𝜋𝜋 × 0.51 × 10−3 (902 − 67.22 )
1.36 =
𝑅𝑅
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �0.3�
𝑅𝑅
𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �0.3� =1.8335
𝑅𝑅 = 20 m
𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐷𝐷𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝑚𝑚3
𝑄𝑄 = 1.36 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 , 𝑆𝑆 = 22.8𝑚𝑚
1.36 𝑙𝑙
𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝐶𝐶𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 22.8 = 59.65 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
,
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 256

d. Maximum discharge will occur when hw = 0

𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋(𝑑𝑑 2 − ℎ𝑤𝑤 2 ) 𝜋𝜋 ∗ 0.511 ∗ 10−3 (902 − 02 )
𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = =
𝑅𝑅 20
2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �𝑟𝑟 � 2.303 𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜10 �0.3�
𝑤𝑤

𝑚𝑚3
𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 3.09
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
Hence the maximum discharge = 3090 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

5.11 AQUIFER TEST

Determining the yield of ground-water systems and evaluating the movement and fate of
ground-water pollutants require, among other information, knowledge of:
a. The position and thickness of aquifers and confining beds.
b. The transmissivity and storage coefficient of the aquifers.
c. The hydraulic characteristics of the confining beds.
d. The position and nature of the aquifer boundaries.
e. The location and amounts of ground-water withdrawals.
f. The locations, kinds, and amounts of pollutants and pollutant practices.
Investigations into hydrology and geology are necessary for acquiring knowledge
about these aspects. One of the most important hydrologic studies involves analyzing the
change, with time, in water levels (or total heads) in an aquifer caused by withdrawals
through wells. This kind of research is called an aquifer test and typically involves pumping a
well continuously for a few hours to several days while monitoring the water level changes in
observation wells spaced at various intervals from the pumped well (Figure 5.13).
Successful aquifer tests require, among other things:
a. Determination of the pre-pumping water-level trend (that is, the regional trend).
b. A carefully controlled constant pumping rate.
c. Accurate water-level measurements were made at precisely known times during both the
drawdown and the recovery periods.
257 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Figure 5.13: Map of the aquifer test site.

Drawdown is the difference between the water level at any time during the test and the
position at which the water level would have been if withdrawals had not started. Drawdown
is very rapid at first. As pumping continues and the cone of depression expands, the rate of
drawdown decreases (Figure 5.14).
The recovery of the water level under ideal conditions is a mirror image of the
drawdown. When a recharge well starts replenishing water at the same point and at the same
rate as the pump cut-off, the change in water level throughout the recovery period is the same
as if withdrawals from the pumped well had continued at the same rate. Therefore, the
recovery of the water level is the difference between the actual measured level and the
projected pumping level (Figure 5.14).
In addition to the constant-rate test mentioned above, analytical methods have also
been developed for several other types of aquifer tests. These techniques include experiments
where the rate of withdrawal is varied and tests where water is leaked into restricted aquifers
by use of confining beds. The analytical methods available also permit analysis of tests
conducted on both vertical wells and horizontal wells or drains.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 258

Figure 5.14: Change of water level in Well B.

The topic of "Analysis of Aquifer-Test Data" will address the most widely used
technique for analyzing aquifer-test data for a vertical well pumped at a constant rate from an
aquifer unaffected by lateral borders or vertical leaks. A type curve based on the values of
W(u) and 1/u given in Table 5.1 is necessary for the analysis procedure. The discussion that
follows covers how to prepare and use the type curve.
Table 5.1: Selected values of W(u) for the given value of 1/u
1/u 10 7.69 5.88 5.0 4.0 3.33 2.86 2.5 2.22 2.0 1.67 1.43 1.25 1.11
10 -1
0.219 0.135 0.075 0.049 0.025 0.013 0.007 0.004 0.002 0.001 0 0 0 0
1 1.82 1.59 1.36 1.22 1.04 0.91 0.79 0.70 0.63 0.56 0.45 0.37 0.31 0.26
10 4.04 3.78 3.51 3.35 3.14 2.96 2.81 2.68 2.57 2.47 2.30 2.15 2.03 1.92
10 2
6.33 6.07 5.80 5.64 5.42 5.23 5.08 4.95 4.83 4.73 4.54 4.39 4.26 4.14
10 3
8.63 8.37 8.10 7.94 7.72 7.53 7.38 7.25 7.13 7.02 6.84 6.69 6.55 6.44
10 4
10.94 10.67 10.41 10.24 10.02 9.84 9.68 9.55 9.43 9.33 9.14 8.99 8.86 8.74
10 5
13.24 12.98 12.71 12.55 12.32 12.14 11.99 11.85 11.73 11.63 11.45 11.29 11.16 11.04
10 6
15.54 15.28 15.01 1485 14.62 14.44 14.29 14.15 14.04 13.93 13.75 13.60 13.46 13.34
107 17.84 17.58 17.31 17.15 16.93 16.74 16.59 16.46 16.34 16.23 16.05 15.90 15.76 15.65
108 20.15 19.88 19.62 19.45 19.23 19.05 18.89 18.76 18.64 18.54 18.35 18.20 18.07 17.95
10 9
22.45 22.19 21.92 21.76 21.53 21.35 21.20 21.06 20.94 20.84 20.66 20.50 20.37 20.25
10 10
24.75 24.49 24.22 24.06 23.83 23.65 23.50 23.36 23.25 23.14 22.96 22.81 22.67 22.55
10 11
27.05 26.79 26.52 26.36 26.14 25.96 25.80 25.67 25.55 25.44 25.26 25.11 24.97 24.86
10 12
29.36 20.09 28.83 28.66 28.44 28.26 28.10 27.97 27.85 27.75 27.56 27.41 27.28 27.16
259 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

1013 31.66 31.40 31.13 30.97 30.74 30.56 30.41 30.27 30.15 30.05 29.87 29.71 29.58 29.46
10 14
33.96 33.70 33.43 33.27 33.05 32.86 32.71 32.58 32.46 32.35 32.17 32.02 31.88 31.76

5.11.1 Analysis of Aquifer Test Data

C. V. Theis of the U.S. Geological Survey's New Mexico Water Resources District created
the first equation in 1935 that included pumping time as a variable that could be used to
assess the impact of well withdrawals. Thus, the Theis equation permitted, for the first time,
the determination of the hydraulic characteristics of an aquifer before the development of
new steady-state conditions resulting from pumping. The importance of this capability may
be realized from the fact that, under most conditions, a new steady state cannot be developed
or that, if it can, many months or years may be required. Theis assumed in the development
of the equation that:
● The transmissivity of the aquifer tapped by the pumping well is constant during the test to
the limits of the cone of depression.
● The water withdrawn from the aquifer is derived entirely from storage and is discharged
instantaneously with the decline in head.
● The discharging well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer, and its diameter is
small in comparison with the pumping rate, so that storage in the well is negligible.
These assumptions are most nearly met by confined aquifers at sites remote from
their boundaries. Nevertheless, the equation can also be applied to the analysis of testing of
unconfined aquifers, provided that appropriate safety measures are taken. The forms of the
Theis equation (Equation 5.28 and 5.29) used to determine the transmissivity and storage
coefficient are:
QW ( u )
T=
4π S ..………… (5.28)
4Ttu
S=
r2 ..………… (5.29)
where,
T = transmissivity,
S = storage coefficient,
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Q = pumping rate,
s = drawdown,
t = time,
r = distance from the pumping well to the observation well,
W(u) = well function of u =
u2 u3 u4
−0.577216 − log e u + u − + − + .....
2 × 2! 3 × 3! 4 × 4! ,
and
r 2S
u=
4Tt

The form of the Theis equation is such that it cannot be solved directly. To overcome
this problem, Theis devised a convenient graphic method of solution that involves the use of
a type curve (Figure 5.15). To apply this method, a data plot of drawdown versus time (or
drawdown versus t/r2) is matched to the type curve of W(u) versus 1/u. Values for s, t (or
t/r2), W(u), and 1/u are written at a convenient location on the overlapping portion of the
sheets containing the data plot and type curve (Figure 5.16). These values are then substituted
in equations 5.22 and 5.23, which are solved for T and S, respectively.

Figure 5.15: Theis type curve.

A Theis-type curve of W(u) versus 1/u can be prepared from the values given in the
table contained in the preceding section, “Aquifer Tests.” Plotting the data points is done on
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graph paper with logarithmic divisions in both the x and y directions, or logarithmic graph
paper.

Figure 5.16: Matching of type curve.

The dimensional units of transmissivity (T) are L2T-1, where L is length and T is time
in days. Thus, if Q in equation 16 is in cubic meters per day and s is in meters, T will be in
square meters per day. Similarly, if, in equation 17, T is in square meters per day, t is in days,
and r is in meters, S will be dimensionless.
Plotting the test data and the type curve on logarithmic graph paper is a necessary
step in applying the Theis equation to analyze aquifer test results. If the aquifer and the
conditions of the test satisfy Theis’s assumptions, the type curve has the same shape as the
cone of depression along any line radiating away from the pumping well and the drawdown
graph at any point in the cone of depression.
Use of the Theis equation for unconfined aquifers involves two considerations. First,
if the aquifer is relatively fine-grained, water is released slowly over a period of hours or
days, not instantaneously with the decline in head. As a result, the value of S that is obtained
from a short-period test can be too low.
Second, if the pumping rate is large and the observation well is near the pumping
well, dewatering of the aquifer may be significant, and the assumption that the transmissivity
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 262

of the aquifer is constant is not satisfied. The effect of dewatering of the aquifer can be
eliminated with the following equation:
 s2 
s′ = s −  
 2b  ..………… (5.30)
where,
s = observed drawdown in the unconfined aquifer,
b = aquifer thickness, and
s' = drawdown that would have occurred if the aquifer had been confined (that is, if
no dewatering had occurred).
To determine the transmissivity and storage coefficient of an unconfined aquifer, a
data plot consisting of s' versus t (or t/r2) is matched with the Theis type curve of W(u) versus
1/u. Both s and b in equation (5.30) must be in the same units, either feet or meters.
As noted above, Theis assumed in the development of his equation that the
discharging well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer. Nevertheless, most discharge
wells are only exposed to a portion of the aquifer they draw from, since it is not always
possible or desirable to design a well that thoroughly penetrates the aquifer under
development.
Such partial penetration creates vertical flow in the vicinity of the discharging well
that may affect drawdowns in observation wells located relatively close to the discharging
well. When observation wells approach the same zone as the discharging well but are at the
same distance from it, the drawdowns in those wells will be higher compared to those in the
other wells. The possible effect of partial penetration on drawdowns must be considered in
the analysis of aquifer-test data. If aquifer-boundary and other conditions permit, the problem
can be avoided by locating observation wells beyond the zone in which vertical flow exists.

5.12 TIME DRAWDOWN ANALYSIS

A variety of techniques has been generated for the analysis of aquifer-test results, the Theis
equation being just one of them (See “Analysis of Aquifer-Test Data”). Another method, and
one that is somewhat more convenient to use, was developed by C. E. Jacob from the Theis
equation. The Jacob technique is more convenient because it uses semi-logarithmic graph
263 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

paper rather than the logarithmic paper used in the Theis method. It is also more convenient
since, in ideal circumstances, the data plot along a straight line rather than a curve.
However, it is essential to note that, whereas the Theis equation always applies and
places (if the assumptions are met), Jacob’s method applies only under certain additional
conditions. To get trustworthy responses, these requirements must also be met.
To understand the limitations of Jacob’s method, we must consider the changes that
occur in the cone of depression during an aquifer test. The changes that are of concern
involve both the shape of the cone and the rate of drawdown. As the cone of depression
migrates outward from a pumping well, its shape (and, therefore, the hydraulic gradient at
different points in the cone) changes. We can refer to this condition as an unsteady shape. At
the start of withdrawals, the entire cone of depression has an unsteady shape (Figure 5.17).
After a test has been underway for some time, the cone of depression begins to assume a
relatively steady shape, first at the pumping well and then gradually to greater and greater
distances (Figure 5.18). Drawdowns stop, and the cone of depression is considered to be in a
constant state if withdrawals continue long enough for increases in recharge and/or decreases
in discharge to balance the rate of withdrawal (Figure 5.19).

Figure 5.17: Depression cone during pumping from a confined aquifer.

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Figure 5.18: Steady and unsteady state of depression cone during pumping from a confined
aquifer.
The Jacob approach can be applied to the entire cone only when steady-state
conditions occur or strictly to the zone where steady-shape conditions are predominant. For
practical purposes, this condition is met when u = (r2S)/(4Tt) is equal to or less than about
0.05. Substituting this value in the equation for u and solving for t, we can determine the time
at which steady-shape conditions develop at the outermost observation well. Thus,
7200r 2 S
tc =
T ..………… (5.31)
where,
tc= time, (in minutes), at which steady-shape conditions develop,
r = distance from the pumping well, in feet (or meters),
S= estimated storage coefficient (dimensionless), and
T = estimated transmissivity in square feet per day (or square meters per day).

Figure 5.19: Steady state condition during pumping from a confined aquifer.
265 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

On semilogarithmic graph paper, the drawdowns at an observation well begin to

decrease in a straight line after steady-shape conditions are established. Before that time, the
drawdowns plot below the extension of the straight line. Plotting drawdowns on the vertical
(arithmetic) axis against time on the horizontal (logarithmic) axis resulting in a time-
drawdown graph.
The transmission and pumping rate have a direct relationship with the slope of the
straight line. Jacob derived the following equations (Equation 5.32 and 5.33) for
determination of transmissivity and storage coefficient from the time-drawdown graphs
(Figure 5.20):
2.3Q
T =
4π∆s ..………… (5.32)
2.25Tt0
S=
r2 .………… (5.33)
where,
Q = pumping rate,
Δs=drawdown across one log cycle,
t0= time at the point where the straight line intersects the zero-drawdown line, and
r = distance from the pumping well to the observation well.

Figure 5.20: Time drawdown graph.

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Equations 5.32 and 5.33 are in consistent units. Thus, if Q is in cubic meters per day and s is
in meters, T is in square meters per day. S is dimensionless, so that, in equation 5.33, if T is
in square meters per day, then r must be in meters and t0 must be in days.

5.13 DISTANCE DRAWDOWN ANALYSIS

It is desirable in aquifer tests to have at least three observation wells located at
different distances from the pumping well (Figure 5.21). The aquifer transmissivity and
storage coefficient can be ascertained by utilizing the Theis equation and type curve to
examine simultaneous drawdowns in these wells.
After the test has been underway long enough, drawdowns in the wells can also be
analyzed by the Jacob method, either through the use of a time-drawdown graph using data
from individual wells or through the use of a distance-drawdown graph using “simultaneous”
measurements in all of the wells. To determine when sufficient time has elapsed, see “Time-
Drawdown Analysis.”

Figure 5.21: Cluster of pumping and observation wells in a confined aquifer.

Plotting drawdowns on the vertical (arithmetic) axis against distance on the horizontal
(logarithmic) axis is the method known as the Jacob distance-drawdown method (Figure
5.22). If the aquifer and test conditions satisfy the Theis assumptions and the limitation of the
Jacob method, the drawdowns measured at the same time in different wells should plot along
a straight line (Figure 5.22).
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Figure 5.22: Distance-drawdown graph.

The slope of the straight line is proportional to the pumping rate and to the
transmissivity. Jacob derived the following equations (Equation 5.34 and 5.35) for the
determination of the transmissivity and storage coefficient from distance drawdown graphs:
2.3Q
T =
4π∆s ..………… (5.34)
2.25Tt
T=
r02 ..………… (5.35)
where,
Q = pumping rate, ∆S is the drawdown across one log cycle,
t = time at which the drawdowns were measured and
r0 = distance from the pumping well to the point where the straight line intersects the
zero-drawdown line.
The distance r0 does not indicate the outer limit of the cone of depression. Because
non-steady shape conditions exist in the outer part of the cone, before the development of
steady-state conditions, the Jacob method does not apply to that part. If the Theis equation
were used to calculate drawdowns in the outer part of the cone, it would be found that they
would plot below the straight line. In other words, the measurable limit of the cone of
depression is beyond the distance r0.
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The drawdown observed at that moment is the drawdown in the aquifer outside of the
well, if the distance-drawdown graph's straight line is extended inward to the pumping well's
radius. In the event that the well's internal drawdown exceeds its external drawdown, well
loss is responsible for the discrepancy.
As noted in the section on "Hydraulic Conductivity," the hydraulic conductivities and,
therefore, the transmissivities of aquifers may be different in different directions. These
variations may result in different drawdowns detected simultaneously in observation wells
located at the same distances apart but facing different directions from the discharge well.
Where this condition exists, the distance-drawdown method may yield satisfactory results
only where three or more observation wells are located in the same direction but at different
distances from the discharging well.

5.14 SINGLE WELL TEST

The most useful aquifer tests are those that include water-level measurements in observation
wells. These tests are frequently referred to as multiple-well tests. It is also possible to obtain
useful data from production wells, even where observation wells are not available. Such tests
are referred to as single-well tests and may consist of pumping a well at a single constant
rate, or at two or more different but constant rates (see "Well-Acceptance Tests and Well
Efficiency") or, if the well is not equipped with a pump, by "instantaneously" introducing a
known volume of water into the well. This discussion will be limited to tests involving a
single constant rate.
To analyze the data, it is necessary to understand the nature of the drawdown in a
pumping well. The total drawdown (st) in most, if not all, pumping wells consists of two
components (Figure 5.23). There are two types of drawdowns in an aquifer: the drawdown in
the aquifer (sa) and the drawdown in the well bore (sw) that happens when water travels from
the aquifer to the pump intake. Thus, the drawdown in most pumping wells is greater than the
drawdown in the aquifer at the radius of the pumping well.
The total drawdown (st) in a pumping well can be expressed in the form of the
following equations:
st = sa + sw ..………… (5.36)
st = BQ + CQ 2 ..………… (5.36a)
where,
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sₐ = drawdown in the aquifer at the effective radius of the pumping well,

sw = well loss,
Q = pumping rate,
B = factor related to the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer and the length of the
pumping period, and
C = factor related to the characteristics of the well.
The factor C in equation 5.36a is normally considered to be constant so that, in a
constant rate test, CQ² is also constant. Consequently, the well loss (sw) raises the pumping
well's overall drawdown but has no effect on how quickly the drawdown changes over time.
It is, therefore, possible to analyze drawdowns in the pumping well with the Jacob time-
drawdown method using semi-logarithmic graph paper. (See "Time-Drawdown Analysis.").
Drawdowns are plotted on the arithmetic scale versus time on the logarithmic scale (Figure
5.24), and transmissivity is determined from the slope of the straight line through the use of
the following equation (5.37):
2.3Q
T =
4π∆s ..………… (5.37)

Figure 5.23: Schematic diagram of pumping test of a confined aquifer.

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It is not possible to calculate the storage coefficient by extending the straight line to
the line of zero drawdown when well loss exists in the pumping well. Even where well loss is
not present, the determination of the storage coefficient from drawdowns in a pumping well
likely will be subject to large error because the effective radius of the well may differ
significantly from the “nominal” radius.

Figure 5.24: Time Drawdown curve.

In equation 5.36, the drawdown in the pumping well is proportional to the pumping
rate. As long as water is drawn from the aquifer's storage, factor B in the aquifer-loss term
(BQ) increases with pumping time. Factor C in the well-loss term (CQ²) is a constant if the
characteristics of the well remain unchanged, but because the pumping rate in the well-loss
term is squared, drawdown due to well loss increases rapidly as the pumping rate is
increased. The relation between pumping rates and drawdown in a pumping well, if the well
was pumped for the same length of time at each rate, is shown in Figure 5.25. The effect of
well loss on drawdown in the pumping well is important both in the analysis of data from
pumping wells and in the design of supply wells.
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Figure 5.25: Pumping rate and drawdown relationship.

SUMMARY
Throughout history, groundwater has been a significant source of water. Numerous towns,
enterprises, irrigation systems, suburban residences, and farms depends significantly on it for
their water needs. Groundwater supplies are limited, just as other natural resources. The
current module covers the characteristics of aquifers, their geological formation, and the
occurrence and form of groundwater. Aquifer testing, equilibrium equations for confined and
unconfined aquifers, methods for estimating well yield, and steady state flow in wells are
among the topics covered under well hydraulics.

EXERCISE
Revision Questions
1. Define the term Groundwater. Describe the various forms of Sub-surface water.
2. Classify the various sub-surface formations.
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3. What do you understand by an aquifer? Describe the types of aquifers with a neat sketch
and describe their hydraulic properties.
4. Write a short note on (i) Aquifer, (ii) Aquiclude, (iii) Aquitard and (iv)Aquifuge.
5. Write a short note on (i) a Confined aquifer, (ii) a Semi-Confined aquifer, (iii) an
unconfined aquifer, and (iv) a Semi-unconfined aquifer.
6. Define the following terms in brief.
a. Porosity,
b. Hydraulic conductivity
c. Coefficient of storage or storability (S)
d. Transmissivity,
e. Hydraulic Diffusivity (D)
7. Define (i) Slichter’s and (ii) Hazen’s empirical formulas to obtain groundwater velocity.
8. Explain methods used in the field to obtain groundwater velocity.
9. Give a brief definition of each term used in groundwater flow studies.
a. Porosity.
b. Specific yield,
c. Specific retention,
d. Specific capacity,
e. storage coefficient
f. Barometric efficiency
10. What do you understand by groundwater velocity? Define Darcy’s Law to obtain
groundwater velocity?
11. Distinguish between
a. Aquifer and aquitard,
b. Unconfined aquifer and a leaky aquifer,
c. Influent and effluent streams,
d. Water table and piezometric surface
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12. Write a short note of Thiem’s Equilibrium formula for unconfined aquifers under steady-
state conditions.
13. Write a short note of Thiem’s Equilibrium formula for confined aquifer. Describe the
assumptions and limitations of Thiem’s Equilibrium formula.
14. Explain Dupuit’s equilibrium formulae for estimating the yield of wells under steady-
state conditions for (i) confined aquifers, (ii) unconfined aquifers.
15. With the help of a neat sketch, explain fully and partially penetration of an aquifer by a
well.
16. Explain the following:
a. Well loss
b. Recharge
17. Why it is essential to make an aquifer test? How we can analyze the aquifer test data?
18. Explain various techniques for the analysis of aquifer-test results in brief.
Numerical Problems
1. Draw a schematic vertical cross-section from the mountains to the ocean, illustrating the
hydrologic cycle. Include the following features:
⮚ Mountain, coastal plain, ocean, and underlying aquifers
⮚ Exchanges between atmospheric water, surface water, and groundwater
Illustrate the hydrologic cycle starting with mountain rainfall, following the flow of rivers
and groundwater to the ocean, and ending with ocean evaporation and precipitation returning
to land.
2. In an area of 120.0 ha, the water table dropped by 5.0 m. If the porosity is 28.0% and
specific retention is 9.0%, determine the specific yield of the aquifer and change in
groundwater storage.
3. A phreatic aquifer extends over an area of 12.0 km². The water table was initially at 20.0
m below the ground level. After irrigation with a depth of 30.0 cm of water, the water
table rose to a depth of 19.2 m below ground level. When 8 × 10⁶ m³ of water was
pumped out, the groundwater table (g.w.t.) dropped to 21.5 m below ground level.
Determine the specific yield of the aquifer and the deficit in soil moisture before
irrigation.
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4. A phreatic aquifer, extending over an area of 220.0 km², has a storability of 0.15.
Estimate the amount of water lost from storage if the water level falls 0.16 m during a
drought.
5. Calculate the discharge and the seepage velocities for water flowing through a pipe filled
with sand with a hydraulic conductivity of 1.5 × 10⁻⁶ m/s and an effective porosity of 0.2.
The hydraulic gradient is 0.01 and the cross-sectional area of the pipe is 150.0 cm².
6. A well is penetrating an aquifer with a hydraulic conductivity of 12.0 m/day and
storability of 0.00735. The aquifer is 28.0 m thick and is pumped at a rate of 2800.0
m³/day. Estimate the drawdown after 1 week of pumping at a distance 16.0 m from the
well.
7. A fully penetrating well is pumped at a rate of 1500 m³/day from an aquifer whose Sc and
T values are 4×10−4 and 208.8 m²/day, respectively. Find the drawdown at a distance 3.0
m from the production well after 1 hour of pumping and at a distance 495.0 m after 2
days of pumping.
8. Find the approximate values of the radius of influence in the above problem (Problem 7)
after 1 hour and 2 days of continuous pumping.
9. A well penetrating a confined aquifer is pumped at a uniform rate of 2,718.42 m³/day. An
observation well is located 60.96 m away. Drawdowns measured in the observation well
during the period of pumping (t) are given in Table 5.2 below. Compute the values of Sc
and T using the Theis method.
Table 5.2: Drawdown of the water level in an observation well (r = 60.96 m)
Time from start of Observed
r²/t (m²/day)
pumping, t (min) drawdown, s (m)
1 0.2 5.35 × 10⁶
1.5 0.27 3.57 × 10⁶
2 0.3 2.67 × 10⁶
2.5 0.34 2.14 × 10⁶
3 0.37 1.78 × 10⁶
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Time from start of Observed

r²/t (m²/day)
pumping, t (min) drawdown, s (m)
4 0.41 1.34 × 10⁶
5 0.45 1.07 × 10⁶
6 0.48 8.97 × 10⁵
8 0.53 6.73 × 10⁵
10 0.57 5.38 × 10⁵
12 0.6 4.48 × 10⁵
14 0.63 3.83 × 10⁵
18 0.67 2.99 × 10⁵
24 0.72 2.24 × 10⁵
30 0.76 1.79 × 10⁵
40 0.81 1.34 × 10⁵
50 0.85 1.07 × 10⁵
60 0.88 8.97 × 10⁴
80 0.93 6.73 × 10⁴
100 0.96 5.38 × 10⁴
120 1 4.48 × 10⁴
150 1.04 3.57 × 10⁴
180 1.07 2.99 × 10⁴
210 1.1 2.55 × 10⁴
240 1.12 2.24 × 10⁴

10. A farm has two wells A and B located 1000 meters apart. Both wells fully penetrate a
saturated thickness of 25 meters. The hydraulic conductivity is 0.001 m/s and the storage
coefficient is 0.25. If well A is pumped at the rate of 0.20 m³/s for a period of 120 days,
how much decline will it cause to the water table of well B?
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Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is groundwater?
A) Water found in oceans
B) Water that fills the spaces between soil particles and rocks underground
C) Water vapor in the atmosphere
D) Water that flows in rivers and lakes
2. Which of the following is a primary source of groundwater recharge?
A) Evaporation B) Precipitation
C) Surface water runoff D) All of the above
3. What is an aquifer?
A) A body of surface water
B) A geological formation that can store and transmit groundwater
C) A type of groundwater contamination
D) An area where groundwater evaporates
4. What term describes the upper surface of the saturated zone in an aquifer?
A) Water table B) Groundwater level
C) Saturation point D) Aquiclude
5. Which of the following human activities can lead to groundwater contamination?
A) Agricultural runoff B) Industrial discharges
C) Landfills D) All of the above
6. How is groundwater typically accessed for human use?
A) Through wells B) By evaporation
C) By capturing rainfall D) By creating artificial lakes
7. What is the process of groundwater moving from high to low pressure called?
A) Percolation B) Recharge
C) Flow D) Transpiration
8. Which of the following factors can affect the rate of groundwater recharge?
A) Soil type B) Vegetation cover
C) Land use practices D) All of the above
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9. Which of the following describes an alluvial formation?

A) Formed from volcanic activity B) Deposited by rivers and streams
C) Created by glacial action D) Comprised mainly of limestone
10. What type of subsurface formation is typically characterized by layered sedimentary
rocks?
A) Igneous formation B) Metamorphic formation
C) Stratified formation D) Unconsolidated formation
11. Which formation is primarily made up of compacted clay and is known for its low
permeability?
A) Gravel formation B) Silt formation
C) Shale formation D) Sandstone formation
12. What type of subsurface formation is known for its high porosity and is often a reservoir
for groundwater?
A) Basalt formation B) Limestone formation
C) Granite formation D) Sand formation
13. Which type of subsurface formation is typically associated with volcanic regions?
A) Sedimentary formation B) Igneous formation
C) Metamorphic formation D) Alluvial formation
14. What is the primary characteristic of a confined aquifer?
A) It is not saturated with water.
B) It is overlain by a layer of impermeable rock or clay.
C) It is always under atmospheric pressure.
D) It is easily contaminated.
15. Which type of aquifer is typically more productive?
A) Unconfined aquifer B) Confined aquifer
C) Semi-confined aquifer D) Perched aquifer
16. What hydraulic property measures the ability of an aquifer to transmit water?
A) Specific yield B) Hydraulic conductivity
C) Storage coefficient D) Porosity
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17. What is the term for the volume of water that an aquifer can release per unit area of
aquifer per unit decline in hydraulic head?
A) Specific yield B) Storage coefficient
C) Porosity D) Transmissivity
18. Which type of aquifer is characterized by having its water table at the ground surface?
A) Confined aquifer B) Unconfined aquifer
C) Semi-confined aquifer D) Perched aquifer
19. What is a confined aquifer?
A) An aquifer with a layer of impermeable rock above it
B) An aquifer that is open to the atmosphere
C) An aquifer located near the surface
D) An aquifer that only receives surface water
20. Which of the following describes an unconfined aquifer?
A) It is capped by an impermeable layer B) It is directly recharged by surface water
C) It is always under pressure D) It cannot be accessed by wells
21. How does water pressure differ between confined and unconfined aquifers?
A) Confined aquifers have no pressure
B) Unconfined aquifers have higher pressure
C) Confined aquifers are under greater pressure
D) There is no difference in pressure
22. Which type of aquifer is typically more susceptible to contamination from surface
activities?
A) Confined aquifer B) Unconfined aquifer
C) Both types equally D) Neither type
23. What is the recharge area for a confined aquifer?
A) The area above the aquifer B) A designated zone far from the aquifer
C) The area where surface water infiltrates D) The area beneath an impermeable layer
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24. Which of the following statements about well water in confined aquifers is true?
A) Water in the well flows freely without pumping
B) Water must always be pumped to access it
C) The water level in the well is always at the water table
D) Wells can only be drilled into unconfined aquifers
25. Which of the following best describes the pressure situation in an unconfined aquifer?
A) It is under constant pressure B) It is subject to atmospheric pressure
C) It is isolated from atmospheric pressure D) It has negative pressure
26. In which type of aquifer is artesian flow most found?
A) Unconfined aquifer B) Confined aquifer
C) Both types equally D) Neither type
27. What is the primary purpose of conducting an aquifer test?
A) To determine the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer
B) To measure the water quality of the aquifer
C) To assess the total water storage capacity of the aquifer
D) To evaluate the age of the groundwater
Answer: 1-B; 2-D; 3-B; 4-A; 5-D; 6-A; 7-C; 8-D; 9-B; 10-C; 11-C; 12-B; 13-B; 14-B; 15-A;
16-B; 17-B; 18-B; 19-A;20-B; 21-C; 22-B; 23-C; 24-A; 25-B; 26-B; 27-A.

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 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 280

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bouwer, H. (1978) Groundwater Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book, New York, 480.
2. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, 1964.
3. Heath, R. C. (1987). Basic ground-water hydrology (Vol. 2220). US Department of
the Interior, US Geological Survey.
4. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources
of India, Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland,
ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4(HB).
5. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
6. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India)
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN(13): 978-1-25902997-4.
7. Todd, D.K. and L. Mays (2004), Groundwater Hydrology, 3rd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-
471-05937-0, 656 Pages, Wiley.
 6 Water Withdrawals
and Uses

UNIT SPECIFICS
Water withdrawals and uses refer to an essential process of extracting water from its various
sources, such as rivers, lakes, and underground aquifers, to fulfil the demands of various
sectors such as agriculture, domestic uses, hydropower generation, and irrigation. These
withdrawals are essential to water management and play a crucial role in sustaining human
activities and ecosystems. This unit describes water demand for domestic use, agriculture,
water requirements for India's crops and crop seasons, energy production, and other uses.
Further, surface and Groundwater supply analysis, including duty and delta, irrigation water
supply, soil-water relationship, root zone soil water, infiltration, and consumptive use, has
also been discussed. In addition, a description of irrigation requirements, their frequency, and
various irrigation methods, such as surface, sub-surface, sprinkler, and trickle/drip irrigation,
have been discussed.

RATIONALE
To learn about water usage methods, such as water for energy production, agriculture, flood
control, and water supply. Also, to know about the water requirements for crops, quality of
irrigation water, soil-water relationship, and the methods of irrigation.

PRE-REQUISITE
Nil

UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U6-O1: Water usage such as water supply, agriculture, energy production, and flood control
U6-O2: Water requirements for crops
U6-O3: Irrigation water quality and soil-water relationship
U6-O4: Irrigation methods
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 282

Unit Expected Mapping with Course Outcomes

Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7 CO-8
U6-O1 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3
U6-O2 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 3
U6-O3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
U6-O4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

6.1 WATER DEMAND

The demand for water is the volume of water required to be supplied for a specific use. As an
illustration, the demand in agriculture includes crop consumptive requirements, canal
seepage, evaporation, and percolation losses. Fulfilling various demands, such as demand for
agriculture, domestic uses, hydropower generation, irrigation, etc., as well as water
withdrawals and uses, is an important process in hydrology. Water withdrawals and uses
refer to the process of extracting water from its source (such as rivers, lakes, or underground
aquifers) for various purposes. These withdrawals are an essential aspect of water
management and play a crucial role in sustaining human activities and ecosystems. It is
necessary to consider prevailing practices as well as management policies, technology
availability, and other resources. Emerging technologies and techniques that are anticipated
to be used in the future socioeconomic environment must be considered when projecting
future demand. Water withdrawals can be categorized into various sectors, such as
agriculture/irrigation, domestic water supply, hydropower generation, industrial use,
recreational uses, environmental flow, aquaculture, mining etc, based on their usage. Some
important sectors of water withdrawals and their uses are described in the following section.

6.1.1 Domestic Water Supply

Community water supply is the most significant water requirement, accounting for around
5% of overall water use. The volume of water being utilized for domestic needs such as
drinking, cooking, bathing, and sanitation as well as businesses, offices, and other
commercial uses are significantly less than that used for irrigated agriculture. Estimates show
that about 7 km3 surface water and 18 km3 of Groundwater is being used for water supply in
283 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

urban and rural areas. In India, several water supply and sanitation programs have been
launched in recent years under the Ministry of Jal Shakti. The government of India pledged
to provide adequate drinking water and sanitation facilities to the population.
The country's population determines the amount of water available per person, and in
India, the population is expanding more quickly than the quantity of water available per
person. The average annual per capita water availability was estimated to be 1816 cubic
meters in 2001 and 1545 cubic meters in 2011, respectively. In 2021 and 2031, this amount is
expected to drop to 1486 cubic meters and 1367 cubic meters, respectively.
The core needs of domestic use of water are for drinking, cooking, washing, and
bathing. Non-core needs are for toilet flushing, sewer flushing, washing clothes, water for
lawns, etc. As per the Working Group (WG, 1999), the demands for domestic uses are given
in Table 6.1. Additionally, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs suggests that the
standard for urban water supply be 135 liters per capita per day (lpcd). Under the Jal Jeevan
Mission, a minimum service delivery of 55 lpcd has been set for rural regions; governments
may choose to augment this to a greater level.
Table 6.1: Basic water requirements for human needs
Purpose Per capita Per capita
requirement in requirement in
rural areas urban areas
(lpcd) (lpcd)
Drinking water 3 5
Cooking 5 5
Ablution 10 -
Bathing 15 55
Washing of utensils, clothes & household 22 40
Flushing of toilets/sewer - 30
Total basic water requirement (BWR) 55 135
Source: WG (1999), Jal Jeevan Mission
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 284

6.1.2 Water for Agriculture

Agriculture is the most fundamental form of human activity. The Latin words "Agri"
(meaning soil) and "culture," which mean cultivation, are the origins of the English word
"agriculture." It is stated that irrigation supports agriculture, and agriculture supports society.
Water is a crucial resource in agriculture, playing a vital role in the growth and development
of crops. Adequate water supply is essential for ensuring high agricultural productivity. For
farming sustainably and productively, water management in agriculture requires a variety of
methodologies, including effective irrigation, understanding of crop water requirements,
conservation of soil moisture, water quality monitoring, and use of modern technology.
Rainfed agriculture refers to farming practices where irrigation facilities are unavailable and
the crops are entirely dependent on rainfall.
Irrigation is a crucial practice in agriculture to provide water to crops when natural
rainfall is insufficient. There are several types of irrigation methods, each with its advantages
and disadvantages. The choice of irrigation method depends on factors such as the type of
crop, soil characteristics, water availability, and the climate of the region. Various methods of
irrigation to fulfil the requirement of water for agriculture such as surface irrigation, drip
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and sub-surface irrigation, are employed based on the type of
crops, soil conditions, and water availability.

6.1.3 Water for Hydropower

Hydropower, also known as hydroelectric power, mainly generated by harnessing the energy
of flowing water to produce electricity. Hydropower plants are often built on rivers or
streams where there is a consistent flow of water. The process typically involves the
construction of dams or other structures to create reservoirs, which store water at a higher
elevation. In the concept of Hydropower generation, water falls under gravity turns the blades
of a turbine which is connected to a rotating generator. The rotating generator uses the kinetic
energy of the flowing water to generate electricity. The height of the dam determines the
potential energy available for electricity generation. When this stored water is released, it
flows downhill and drives the turbines connected to the generators, causing them to spin,
converting the kinetic energy of the moving water, from mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
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Types of Hydropower
There are several types of hydropower systems, each with its own characteristics and
applications. Some common types of hydropower systems are described in the following
sections.
a. Conventional Hydropower: This is the most common type of hydropower, involving
the construction of dams and reservoirs to store water. The stored water is released from
the reservoir, and the flow is used to turn turbines connected to generators, producing
electricity. Examples include large hydroelectric dams like the Tehri Hydropower Project
(Figure 6.1), Bhakra Nangal Project etc.

Figure 6.1: (a) Tehri Dam; (b) Powerhouse of Tehri Hydropower Project
b. Run-of-River Hydropower: Unlike conventional hydropower, run-of-river systems do
not require large reservoirs. Instead, they use the natural flow of rivers to generate
electricity. A portion of the river flow is diverted through a channel or penstock, and the
water passes through turbines to generate electricity. An example includes Chilla
Hydropower project in Uttarakhand.
c. Pumped Storage Hydropower: Pumped storage involves two reservoirs positioned at
different elevations. During periods of low electricity demand, excess electricity is used
to pump water from the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. During periods of high
demand, water is released from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir, passing through
turbines to generate electricity.
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Advantages of Hydropower Generation

Hydropower generation has several unique benefits:
a. Since water is a renewable energy source, there are no fuel costs associated with it;
b. Hydro plants are well-suited to provide peak energy during the day, saving significant
sums of money on installation and operating costs associated with alternative thermal
capacity;
c. Compared to 2.5% (excluding the cost of fuel) in the case of coal-based thermal plants,
operation and maintenance expenses are extremely low, often around 1% of the capital
cost;
d. Compared to coal-based thermal plants, which require 8–10% of the total energy
produced, auxiliary usage is just 0.5% to 1%;
e. Hydro units are perfect for handling peak demands because they can be started and shut
down within a matter of minutes;
f. There are no issues with air or surface pollution caused by hydro plants;
g. The average cost of generation, depending on the kind of scheme (run-of-the-river or
storage-based), is reasonably inexpensive, ranging from Rs 0.50 to Rs 1.00 per kWh;

6.1.4 Water for Electric Production

Water plays a crucial role in various forms of energy production, both directly and indirectly
other than hydropower generation. It is important to note that while water is essential for
energy production, there are environmental considerations related to water use, such as the
impact on aquatic ecosystems, water availability, and potential conflicts between energy and
water needs. Sustainable water management practices and the development of water-efficient
technologies are critical for addressing these challenges. Additionally, the growing demand
for water and energy highlights the importance of integrated water and energy planning to
ensure the efficient and responsible use of resources. Some key ways in which water is
involved in energy generation other than hydropower are given in the following sections.:
a. Thermal Power Plants: Many power plants, especially fossil fuel and nuclear plants, use
water for cooling purposes. Water is circulated through the plant to absorb heat produced
during the generation of electricity. In this method, Water is drawn from a source,
generally used to cool the plant, and then discharged back into a body of water.
287 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

b. Geothermal Power: Geothermal power plants use the heat from the Earth's interior to
generate electricity. In some cases, water is injected into geothermal reservoirs to
enhance heat extraction. Steam from underground reservoirs is used to turn turbines and
generate electricity.
c. Biomass Power: Biomass power generation, which involves burning organic materials
for energy, may require water for processing feedstocks and cooling systems. Water is
also used in the growth and cultivation of biomass crops.
d. Nuclear Power: Nuclear power plants use water for cooling purposes. Water is circulated
through the reactor core to absorb heat generated during nuclear fission. The heated water
is then used to produce steam, which drives turbines connected to generators.
e. Solar Power: Certain types of solar power systems, such as concentrating solar power
(CSP), use water for cooling purposes. Water can be used as a heat-transfer fluid in CSP
systems to absorb and transfer heat from the solar collectors to a power cycle.
f. Fuel Extraction and Processing: Water is used in the extraction and processing of fossil
fuels (such as oil and natural gas) and in the production of biofuels.

6.2 FLOOD AND ITS MANAGEMENT

Floods are natural disasters characterized by the inundation of normally dry land, often
caused by heavy rainfall, storm surges, melting snow, or the overflow of rivers and other
bodies of water. A flood is characterized as a major water flow, especially a body of water
that rises, swells, and overflows land that is not typically covered: a deluge, a freshet, and an
inundation. It is commonly understood to be a phenomenon linked to an exceptionally high
stage or flow covering land or coastal area, with extremely negative consequences. Floods
can have severe and widespread impacts on communities, ecosystems, and infrastructure.
There are various types of flooding mentioned below:

6.2.1 Types of Floods

a. Riverine Floods: Result from the overflow of rivers or streams due to heavy rainfall or
snowmelt.
b. Flash Floods: Rapid and sudden floods occur within a short period, often in urban or
mountainous areas.
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c. Coastal Floods: Caused by storm surges or high tides, leading to the inundation of
coastal areas.
d. Urban Flooding: Resulting from poor drainage systems, impermeable surfaces, and
intense rainfall in urban areas.
e. Pluvial Flooding: This is caused by excessive rainfall that overwhelms drainage systems,
leading to surface water flooding.
f. Floods due to Failure of Dams: A high flood generated due to heavy precipitation could
cause a dam failure. This results in a surge of water that travels at a tremendous speed,
destroying property and loss of life.

6.2.2 Causes of Floods

The reasons for flooding are the same in all the major river systems. The following is a
description of flood causes.
a. Heavy Rainfall: Intense and prolonged rainfall can lead to an excess of water that
exceeds the capacity of rivers and drainage systems, causing them to overflow.
b. Storm Surges: Coastal areas may experience flooding due to storm surges, which are
elevated water levels driven by strong winds associated with tropical storms or
hurricanes.
c. Snowmelt: Rapid melting of snow, especially during warmer periods, can contribute to
increased river flow and potential flooding.
d. Flash Flooding: Sudden and intense rainfall, often in mountainous or urban areas, can
result in flash floods with rapid water accumulation.
e. Ice Jams: In colder climates, ice jams occur when river ice blocks the natural flow,
causing water to back up and flood the surrounding areas.
f. Dam or Levee Failures: The failure of dams or levees due to structural issues, excessive
rainfall, or other factors can lead to downstream flooding.

6.2.3 Impacts of Floods

Since the intangible element of flood losses is a determining factor, it is challenging to offer
a quantitative estimate of the losses. Typically, the predicted annual damages are calculated
using a probabilistic approach. On average, a few hundred lives are lost, and several million
289 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

individuals are harmed annually. In addition, the loss of livestock results in significant losses.
After all, property valued at several hundred crores is lost; this amount does not include the
damages and hardships caused by communications failure, the interruption of vital services,
environmental degradation, etc. The main impacts of floods are described in the following
sections.
a. Infrastructure Damage: Floods can damage roads, bridges, buildings, and other critical
infrastructure.
b. Loss of Lives and Property: Floods pose a significant risk to human life that can result
in the loss of homes, businesses, and personal belongings.
c. Economic Impact: The costs associated with rebuilding and recovery, as well as
disruptions to businesses, can have a substantial economic impact.
d. Displacement of Communities: Floods can force people to evacuate their homes and
seek temporary shelter, leading to the displacement of communities.
e. Environmental Consequences: Floods can cause soil erosion, disrupt ecosystems, and
lead to contamination of water sources.
f. Health Risks: Floodwaters may be contaminated with pollutants, posing health risks
through waterborne diseases and infections.

6.2.4 Flood Management Measures

There are two types of flood management strategies: (i) short-term and (ii) long-term. The type
and extent of flood damage, in addition to regional factors, dictate the appropriate course of
action. However, long-term interventions are necessary for short-term efforts to be effective.
a. Short-term measures
• Construction of embankments along the low-lying banks in areas prone to periodic
flooding.
• Construction of an elevated platform to serve as a temporary shelter during floods.
• Pumping out of water from flooded towns when gravity discharge of floodwater is
impractical.
• Constructions of floodwalls near populated regions in towns, cities, and industrial
areas.
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b. Long-term measures
• Storage reservoirs will be constructed to control floods downstream by reducing the
flow peak.
• In the catchment of the hilly area, integrated watershed management provides a
decrease in surface runoff and erosion and an increase in infiltration capacity, all of
which lessen the impact of flooding.
• Flood forecasting and warning systems, which can be issued with some advance
notice, are based on hydro-geomorphological research that helps to minimize property
loss and human casualties by moving people to safer areas.

6.2.5 Flood Control Strategies

The following is a summary of the strategy that can be used to reduce flood-related losses:
a. Flood Control by Structural Methods: Building dams, dikes, levees, channel alteration,
high flow diversion, and land treatment are the tactics to be used under structural
measures of flood control. The main objective is to keep people away from the flood
zone.
b. Flood Forecasting: Flood forecasting measures are classified as non-structural
approaches. Here, the probable damage points are given as a flood forecast. During the
possibility of flood damage, the human population, along with animals and moveable
assets, relocates to a safer location. Preventing people from the flooded region is the main
goal here.
c. Modify Susceptibility to Flood Damage: To help people prepare for survival and
recovery from floods, individual or group actions are implemented. These actions include
flood education and awareness campaigns, flood insurance, taxation, relief efforts, and
more.
The Flood control strategies in details are described as follows:
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I. Structural Flood Control Measures:

a. Levees: Levees (Figure 6.2) can be described as earthen embankments built along
riverbanks to prevent river overflow and protect adjacent areas.

Figure 6.2: Levees

b. Dams and Reservoirs: Dams (Figure 6.3) regulate water flow, store excess water during
heavy rainfall, and release it gradually to prevent downstream flooding.

Figure 6.3: Dam & reservoir

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c. Floodwalls: Vertical barriers made of concrete or other materials constructed along

riverbanks or in urban areas to contain floodwaters (Figure 6.4).

Figure 6.4: Flood wall

d. Channelization: Modifying the natural course of rivers by straightening, deepening, or
widening channels to improve water flow and reduce the risk of flooding.
e. Retention Basins: Constructing basins to temporarily hold excess water during heavy
rainfall, preventing downstream flooding.
f. Flood Barriers: Temporary structures like sandbags, inflatable dams, or deployable
barriers erected to protect specific areas during flood events.

II. Non-Structural Flood Control Measures

a. Land-Use Planning and Zoning: Implementing regulations to restrict development in
flood-prone areas and promote responsible land use.
b. Afforestation and Reforestation: Planting trees and vegetation to stabilize soil, reduce
erosion, and absorb excess water.
c. Stormwater Management: Designing systems that control the flow of rainwater,
incorporating permeable pavements, green roofs, and retention ponds.
d. Elevated Structures: Constructing buildings and infrastructure above potential flood
levels to prevent damage.
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III. Early Warning Systems and Preparedness

a. Flood Forecasting and Monitoring: Advanced systems to monitor weather conditions,
river levels, and potential flood risks.
b. Emergency Preparedness: Developing and practicing emergency response plans,
including evacuation procedures and coordination among agencies.
c. Community Education: Raising awareness about flood risks, promoting insurance
coverage, and educating residents on evacuation procedures.

IV. Natural Flood Control Measures

a. Wetland Restoration: Preserving or restoring wetlands, which act as natural buffers and
absorb excess water.
b. Riverbank Stabilization: Implementing measures to prevent erosion and maintain the
stability of riverbanks.
c. Floodplain Management (Figure 6.5): Allowing floodplains to function naturally by
restricting certain types of development and activities.

Figure 6.5: Typical sketch of floodplain, levees, and channel

V. International Cooperation
1. Transboundary Cooperation: Collaborative efforts between countries to manage and
control rivers that cross borders.
2. Knowledge Sharing: Sharing expertise, technology, and best practices globally to
enhance flood control measures.
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The flood control techniques listed above can be applied separately or in combination. The
summary of various flood management components and approaches as proposed by the
National Commission on Floods (1980) are shown in Figure 6.6.

6.3 ANALYSIS ON SURFACE WATER SUPPLY

Analyzing surface water supply involves a comprehensive assessment of the quantity,
quality, and sustainability of water from various surface sources such as rivers, lakes,
reservoirs, and ponds. Details of the key aspects involved in the analysis of surface water
supply are described below:

6.3.1 Quantity Analysis

a. Flow Rates: Measure and monitor the flow rates of surface water sources to understand
the volume of water available.
b. Seasonal Variations: Assessing how surface water availability changes throughout the
year, considering factors like rainfall, snowmelt, and dry seasons.
c. Water Budgeting: Calculating the inflow, outflow, and storage of water in surface water
bodies to determine the overall water balance.
d. Drought Analysis: Evaluating the vulnerability of surface water supply to drought
conditions and developing strategies to mitigate potential impacts.

6.3.2 Quality Analysis

a. Water Quality Testing: Conduct regular tests for various water quality parameters such
as pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, nutrients, heavy metals, and pathogens.
b. Seasonal Variations: Assessing how surface water availability changes throughout the
year, considering factors like rainfall, snowmelt, and dry seasons.
c. Water Budgeting: Calculating the inflow, outflow, and storage of water in surface water
bodies to determine the overall water balance.
d. Drought Analysis: Evaluating the vulnerability of surface water supply to drought
conditions and developing strategies to mitigate potential impacts.
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Figure 6.6: Flood management components and approaches

(National Commission on Floods, 1980)
e. Pollution Sources: Identifying and monitoring potential sources of pollution, including
industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and urban runoff.
f. Compliance with Standards: Comparing water quality data with regulatory standards to
ensure that the water meets health and environmental requirements.
g. Water Treatment Needs: Assess the level of treatment required to meet drinking water
standards and identify appropriate treatment technologies.

6.3.3 Sustainability and Management

a. Aquifer Recharge: Evaluating natural or artificial methods to recharge aquifers and
maintain sustainable water levels.
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b. Erosion Control: Implementing measures to prevent soil erosion in catchment areas,

which can affect the quality of surface water.
c. Land-Use Impact: Analyzing the impact of land-use changes on surface water supply,
including deforestation, urbanization, and agricultural expansion.
d. Climate Change Adaptation: Considering the potential impacts of climate change on
surface water availability and developing adaptive strategies.

6.3.4 Infrastructure Analysis

a. Reservoir Storage Capacity: Assessing the storage capacity of reservoirs and optimizing
their operation for water supply.
b. Dam Safety: Monitoring the safety of dams and ensuring that they meet engineering
standards to prevent potential failures.
c. Water Conveyance Systems: Evaluating the efficiency of water conveyance systems,
including canals and pipelines, to minimize losses.
d. Infrastructure Maintenance: Ensuring regular maintenance of water supply
infrastructure to prevent leaks, contamination, and other issues.

6.3.5 Community and Stakeholder Engagement

a. Water Demand Analysis: Analyzing current and future water demand to ensure that
supply meets the needs of the community.
b. Public Awareness: Collaboration with the community is needed to disseminate awareness
regarding sustainable water usage, pollution avoidance, and water conservation.
c. Stakeholder Collaboration: Collaborating with government agencies, local communities,
and other stakeholders to develop and implement effective water management strategies.

6.3.6 Regulatory Compliance

a. Permitting and Reporting: Ensuring compliance with water abstraction permits and
reporting requirements set by regulatory authorities.
b. Environmental Impact Assessment: Conducting assessments to understand the potential
environmental impacts of water abstraction and storage.
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6.4 WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS

The water requirement of crops, often referred to as crop water demand or irrigation needs, is
a critical factor in agricultural management. Every place where irrigation is used has a direct
impact on agricultural water requirements. Arid locations, defined as those with an annual
rainfall of less than 250–375 mm, are difficult and nearly impossible to produce crops
without irrigation; For the production of crops like rice, sugarcane, tobacco, vegetables, and
other water-loving plants, irrigation is optional but essential in semi-arid regions (regions
with annual rainfall between 375 and 750 mm); in humid regions (regions with annual
rainfall above 750 mm), irrigation serves as a buffer against rainfall failure or insufficiency
during the crop-growing season However, for optimum crop yield, irrigation is necessary
everywhere.
Over a wide area, crops have varying needs for water. Rainfall, crop type, climate,
soil properties, growth stage, and local environmental conditions are some of the variables
that affect it. Rainfall varies greatly throughout India; in Western Rajasthan, it is only 250
mm, whereas in North Eastern India, it exceeds 5000 mm. In many regions of India, there are
also significant differences in soil classifications. Owing to significant variances in rainfall,
soil properties, climate, and other factors, a given crop's water needs may fluctuate
significantly across the nation.
Optimum use of water: The amount of water needed by a crop to reach its highest yield
during growth is known as its optimal requirement. Both irrigation and precipitation-fed
water supply contribute to the optimum amount of water.
6.4.1 Factors Affecting Water Requirements of Crops
Here are key considerations related to the water requirement of crops:
a. Crop Types: Different crops have varying water needs. For example, water-intensive
crops like rice and sugarcane generally require more water than less thirsty crops such as
wheat or millet.
b. Climate: The local climate, including temperature, humidity, and evaporation rates,
influences the water requirements of crops. Hot and arid regions often require more irrigation
to compensate for higher evaporation rates.
c. Soil Characteristics: Soil type affects water retention and drainage. Sandy soils may
require more frequent irrigation, while clayey soils may retain water for longer periods.
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d. Growth Stage: The water needs of crops vary during different growth stages. For
example, crops often need more water during the flowering and fruiting stages.
e. Irrigation Efficiency: The efficiency of irrigation systems influences the amount of water
needed. Efficient systems, such as drip or sprinkler irrigation, can reduce water wastage
compared to less efficient methods.
f. Crop Rotation and Intercropping: Crop rotation and intercropping can influence the
overall water requirements of a farming system. Some crop combinations may enhance water
use efficiency.
g. Topography: Topography is also an important factor which influences the quantity of
water required for crops.
h. Rainfall and Natural Water Sources: Regions with ample rainfall may rely less on
irrigation, while arid regions may require extensive irrigation. The availability of natural
water sources like rivers and lakes also plays an important role in the water requirements for
crops.
i. Water Stress Tolerance: Some crops are more tolerant of water stress than others.
Drought-resistant varieties may require less water than those sensitive to water shortages.
j. Water Management Practices: Efficient water management practices, such as irrigation
scheduling based on crop needs and soil moisture levels, can optimize water use.
k. Socio-Economic Factors: The economic use of water is also influenced by socio-
economic considerations. In a particular area, to estimate the optimal amount of water
required for various crops, these criteria must be satisfied to the extent possible.

6.5 CROPPING PATTERN

Cropping pattern refers to the distribution of various crops grown in an agricultural area over
a specific period. It involves the selection of crops based on factors such as climate, soil type,
water availability, market demand, and the region's overall agricultural strategy. The
cropping pattern in an area can vary seasonally, annually, or over a more extended period.
Here are some key aspects of cropping patterns:
a. Seasonal Cropping Patterns
• Kharif Season: Kharif is the monsoon season that starts in June or early July and
lasts for a few months. The crops are harvested in September and October, when the
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southwest monsoon winds blow after being sowed in June or July. This is the main
planting season for crops. During the Kharif season, the main crops planted are rice,
sorghum, maize, pulses (tur, urad, moong), millets (bajra, jowar), Cotton, jute, and
groundnuts, tea, rubber, coffee, oilseeds etc.
• Rabi Season: Rabi is the winter season when crops are sown following the monsoon
rains and after the kharif season. The crops are seeded in November and harvested in
April or May. In the rabi season, crop yield is primarily contingent upon subsurface
moisture levels. The major crops grown in rabi season are wheat, Barley, gram and
oilseeds like mustard and rapeseed. Pulses are also grown during this season.
• Zaid Season: In addition to the two main seasons of Rabi and Kharif, farmers in
irrigated areas can plant a third crop between May and July between the Rabi and
Kharif seasons. This is a brief season that usually occurs in the summer, referred as
Jayad (hot weather season). The principal crops of this season are pulses like urad
and moong. In addition, during the Jayad season, cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon,
and vegetables like tomato and brinjal are also grown.
b. Multiple Cropping: Some regions practice multiple cropping, where more than one crop
is cultivated on the same piece of land within a single agricultural year.
c. Crop Rotation: Farmers may adopt crop rotation, changing the type of crop grown in
successive seasons to enhance soil fertility and prevent pest and disease build-up.
d. Cash Crops vs. Food Crops: The choice of crops may be influenced by whether they are
primarily grown for sale (cash crops) or for local consumption (food crops).
e. Specialization: Certain regions may specialize in the cultivation of specific crops based on
agro-climatic conditions. For example, regions with suitable conditions for sugarcane may
specialize in sugar production.
f. Government Policies: Government policies, subsidies, and support can influence cropping
patterns. For instance, incentives for certain crops may lead to changes in what farmers
choose to cultivate.
g. Climate-Resilient Crops: With changing climate patterns, there is a growing emphasis on
cultivating crops that are more resilient to climate extremes, such as drought-tolerant
varieties.
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h. Market Demand: The demand for certain crops in local, national, or international markets
can influence cropping decisions. Farmers may choose crops with higher market prices.
i. Crop Diversification: Farmers may diversify their crops to reduce risks associated with
dependency on a single crop. This practice also helps in managing soil health and pest control.
6.5.1 Crop and Crop Season in India
India has diverse agro-climatic zones, allowing for the cultivation of a wide variety of crops
throughout the year. India's agriculture is characterized by its diversity, and farmers adopt a
mix of traditional and modern farming practices. The choice of crops is influenced by factors
such as water availability, temperature, and soil fertility. Crop patterns may also vary based
on government policies and market demand. The country experiences three main crop
seasons: Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid. The main crops and the seasons in which they are usually
grown are summarized in section 6.5. In addition to the above-mentioned three main crop
seasons, some other non-food crops and their seasons have been described below:
a. Other Non-food crops
• Sugarcane: Grown in various states throughout the year, with a longer growing
season.
• Cotton: Primarily grown during the Kharif season in states like Gujarat, Maharashtra,
and Andhra Pradesh.
• Tea and Coffee: Plantations in states like Assam, West Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka,
and Tamil Nadu.
b. Regional Variations
Different states in India have their own specific crops based on agro-climatic conditions, soil
types, and water availability. For example:
• Punjab and Haryana: Known as the "Granary of India" for wheat and rice cultivation
during the Rabi and Kharif seasons.
• Andhra Pradesh and Telangana: Major producers of rice, pulses, and cotton.
• Maharashtra: Known for the cultivation of sugarcane, grapes, and oranges.
6.5.2 Duty and Delta
In the context of water resources management, "duty" and "delta" are terms related to the
allocation and utilization of water in irrigation systems. These terms are described below in
detail:
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Duty of water: Duty in irrigation refers to the quantity of water applied to a unit of land over
a specific period. It is expressed as the volume of water per unit area of crop or depth of
water applied over the cropped area (hectares or acres). Duty of water (D) is expressed as
Equation 6.1. Duty is a crucial parameter in irrigation planning and management. It helps to
determine the efficiency of water use and ensures that the right amount of water is supplied
to crops for optimal growth.
Duty D (mm) = Volume of water applied (m3) / Irrigated area (hectares) ……(6.1)
a. Factors Influencing Duty
The main factors influencing duty are described below:
• Crop type: Different crops have varying water requirements.
• Climate: Evapotranspiration rates depend on climate conditions.
• Soil Type: Soil characteristics influence water retention and drainage.
• Stage of Crop Growth: Water needs vary during different growth stages.
Delta in Irrigation: In the context of irrigation, the term "delta" refers to the change in duty
between two points along a water conveyance system (such as a canal). Delta (Δ) is
expressed as Equation 6.2. Delta is used to assess the changes in water availability or
distribution efficiency along the conveyance network. It helps to identify areas where
adjustments or improvements may be needed.
Delta Δ = Duty at Point 2 (downstream point) - Duty at Point 1(upstream point)
......(6.2)
a. Factors Influencing Delta
The main factors influencing delta are described below:
• Canal Seepage and Conveyance Losses: Water losses along the canal system can
result in variations in duty.
• Water Flow Control: Uneven water flow or control issues in the canal may lead to
differences in duty.
• Topography: Changes in elevation or terrain can affect water distribution.
Example 6.1: If 1000 cubic meters of water is applied to irrigate a 1-hectare field, the duty
would be 1000 mm (assuming uniform distribution). Now, if we move along the canal
system and find that at a different point, only 900 cubic meters of water is reaching a 1-
hectare field, the Delta would be:
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Delta = Duty at Point 2 – Duty at Point 1

Delta=900mm-1000mmv= −100mm
This negative delta indicates a reduction in duty, suggesting that adjustments or
improvements in water distribution may be needed.
In summary, "duty" quantifies the amount of water applied per unit area in irrigation,
while "delta" assesses the changes in duty along a water conveyance system. Both terms are
vital in optimizing water use efficiency and ensuring effective irrigation practices.

6.6 QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

The quality of irrigation water is a critical factor in agricultural productivity and soil health.
The composition of irrigation water can impact plant growth, soil structure, and the
efficiency of water use. Key parameters used to assess the quality of irrigation water include
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Many countries and organizations have
established water quality standards and guidelines for irrigation water to ensure safe and
sustainable agricultural practices. Here are some factors and parameters commonly
considered when evaluating the quality of irrigation water.

6.6.1 Physical Characteristics

a. Salinity: Salinity can be defined as the concentration of dissolved salts in water. High
salinity can lead to soil salinization, affecting plant growth and reducing water uptake.
b. Sediment Load: Sediment load is known as the amount of suspended particles
(sediments) in water. Excessive sediment can clog irrigation systems and affect water
infiltration into the soil.
c. Temperature: Extreme water temperatures can influence plant growth and microbial
activity in the soil.

6.6.2 Chemical Characteristics

a. pH value: The pH scale indicates the acidity or alkalinity of water. The range is 0 to 14,
whereas 7 is the neutral value. Acidity is indicated by a pH of less than 7, and Alkalinity/
baseness is indicated by a pH of greater than 7. The relative concentration of free
hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in water is measured by pH. pH value influences nutrient
availability. High alkalinity can affect nutrient availability and soil structure.
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b. Hardness: The hardness of water is due to the presence of soluble bicarbonates,

chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. Hard water is defined as water that
does not lather when soap is added. Excessive hardness can affect soil permeability.
c. Nutrient Content: Nutrient concentrations in water impact plant growth. Excessive
nutrient Contents i.e., Nitrates, Phosphates, Potassium, etc., may lead to water pollution.
d. Trace Elements: Excessive levels of trace elements, such as iron, manganese, zinc, etc.,
in water, can be harmful to plants and stunt their growth.

6.6.3 Biological Characteristics

a. Microbial Contamination: Microbial Contamination is defined as contamination of
water due to the presence of bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms. Microbial
contamination can pose risks to human health and affect crop safety.

6.6.4 Other Considerations

a. Heavy Metals: Accumulation of heavy metals i.e. Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, etc.in soil
and crops can have long-term health implications.
b. Pesticide Residues: A pesticide is a substance or a mixture of substances used for
killing pests: organisms dangerous to cultivated plants or to animals. The term applies to
various pesticides such as insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. Pesticide Residues
from agricultural chemicals can affect water quality and ecosystem health.

6.6.5 Water Quality Management Strategies

a. Water Treatment: On the basis of raw water quality, several treatment processes, like
filtration, sedimentation, and chemical treatment, may be adopted.
b. Precision Irrigation: Optimizing irrigation practices based on the specific water needs
of crops and soil conditions.
c. Crop Selection: Choosing crops that are more tolerant to the quality of available
irrigation water.
d. Monitoring and Testing: Regular testing and monitoring of water quality to detect
changes and adjust management practices accordingly.
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It is important to note that the suitability of water for irrigation depends not only on
individual parameters but also on the interactions between various factors. Sustainable water
management practices are crucial for maintaining the quality of irrigation water and ensuring
long-term agricultural productivity.

6.7 SOIL-WATER RELATIONSHIP

Particles of varying sizes, both organic and inorganic, make up the porous material known as
soil. Compared to fine-textured soil, medium-textured soil with medium-sized particle
composition has wider pores, making it a better soil for crop production. For crop growth,
soil can serve as a reservoir for storing water that provides moisture to the soil. The water
that a plant stores in its root zone can be used to meet its daily needs for water for the crop to
grow and develop properly. The soil-water relationship is a critical aspect of agriculture and
environmental science, influencing plant growth, nutrient availability, and overall ecosystem
health. This relationship is dynamic and involves the interactions between soil and water,
affecting the movement, retention, and availability of water in the soil. Here are key aspects
of the soil-water relationship.
6.7.1 Soil Properties
a. Soil Texture: Soils can be categorized as sand, silt, or clay based on the results of the
grain size study. The size of soil particles, water infiltration, drainage, and water-holding
capacity are all influenced by the retention percentage of sand, silt, and clay. The United
States Department of Agriculture's Triangular Texture Diagram (Figure 6.7) can be used
to classify soils based on the percentage of sand, silt, and clay sizes. The flow of soil
water, air circulation, and the rate of chemical transformation—all crucial processes for
plant life—are significantly impacted by a soil's texture.
b. Soil Structure: The arrangement of the soil particles is referred to as the soil structure. It
is dependent on the nature and characteristics of the soil water, including its ionic
composition, the shape and orientation of the soil particles in relation to one another, their
electrical and mineralogical composition, and the forces that interact between the soil
water and the soil particles. All aspects of plant growth, including water availability,
aeration, nutrient availability, microbial activity, and other critical elements like porosity,
permeability, and water retention, are influenced by the structure of the soil.
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Figure 6.7: Triangular texture diagram

c. Soil Structure: The arrangement of the soil particles is referred to as the "soil structure."
It is dependent on the nature and characteristics of the soil water, including its ionic
composition, the shape and orientation of the soil particles in relation to one another, their
electrical and mineralogical composition, and the forces that interact between the soil
water and the soil particles. All aspects of plant growth, including water availability,
aeration, nutrient availability, microbial activity, and other critical elements like porosity,
permeability, and water retention, are influenced by the structure of the soil.
d. Soil Porosity: Soil porosity (Equation 6.3) can be referred to as the amount of pores, or
open space, between soil particles. The movement of worms, insects, and roots, the
dissolving of the parent material of the soil, and/or the expansion of gasses trapped in
these spaces by groundwater can all result in the formation of pore spaces. Soil porosity
can also be influenced by soil texture. The amount and arrangement of pore spaces in the
soil influence water movement and storage.
Porosity (%) = (Volume of Voids / Total Volume) x 100 ...…(6.3)
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e. Permeability: Soil permeability is a measure of how quickly water passes through the
soil. The ability of the soil to permit water to permeate is known as its permeability. The
coefficient of permeability (k), which is the rate of water flow per unit area of soil under
a unit hydraulic gradient, is typically used to describe the permeability of soil.
Darcy's Law: In 1856, a French engineer, Darcy (Equation 6.4) proposed that when the flow
through soils is laminar, the discharge velocity (v) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient
(i). Thus, according to Darcy’s law:
v ∝ i or v = k i … ………(6.4)
where,
k = constant, known as the coefficient of permeability
Since i is dimensionless, k has the unit of velocity (m/s)

6.7.2 Root Zone Soil Water

The root zone refers to the area of soil around plant roots where they actively absorb water
and nutrients. The process by which plants absorb water from the soil through their root
systems is called osmosis. It is a critical region for plant growth and development. Soil water
within the root zone plays a crucial role in providing the necessary hydration for plants and
facilitating the uptake of essential nutrients. Understanding and managing root zone soil
water is crucial for sustainable agriculture, landscaping, and overall ecosystem health. It
involves considerations of soil type, climate, plant species, and water management practices.
Efficient use of water resources in the root zone contributes to the conservation of water and
promotes healthier and more productive plant growth. The available moisture capacity of the
soil may be calculated as Equation 6.5.
𝛄𝛄𝛄𝛄
𝐀𝐀𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 (𝐅𝐅𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐜𝐜𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 − 𝐏𝐏𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐖𝐖𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐩𝐩𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨) …………(6.5)
where,
γ = Soil density (gm/cm3)
d = Root zone depth (cm)
Example 6.2: Determine the available moisture capacity of sandy loam soil whose
percentage moisture content based of dry weight of soil at field capacity is 12% and at a
permanent wilting point is 5%. The bulk density of soil is 1.25 gm/cm3. The effective depth
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of root zone of the crop is 0.8 m. If optimal soil moisture is 9% and the water requirement of
the crop (consumptive use) is 5 mm/day, compute the theoretical quantity and frequency of
irrigation also.
Solution
γd
AMC = (Field capacity − Permanent Wilting point)
100
1.25 X 80
= 100
(12 − 5)
= 7 cm
γd
Depth of irrigation required = (Field capacity − Optimum soil moisture)
100
1.25 X 80
Depth of irrigation required = (12 − 9)
100
= 3 cm
Water available for consumption by crop = 3 cm
Water requirement of crop per day = 5 mm/day
3𝑥𝑥10
Number of days or frequency of irrigation =
5
= 6 days
a. Factors affecting root zone soil water
Here are some key points related to root zone soil water:
a. Water Holding Capacity: The ability of soil to retain water is known as water holding
capacity. Different types of soils have varying water-holding capacities. Sandy soils
typically drain quickly, while clayey soils retain water for longer periods.
b. Root Uptake: Plant roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil through a process
called root uptake. This is a vital physiological process that sustains plant growth,
photosynthesis, and overall plant health.
c. Irrigation: Managing soil water content in the root zone is essential for crop production.
In agriculture, irrigation is often used to supplement natural rainfall and ensure that plants
receive an adequate and consistent water supply.
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d. Soil Moisture Monitoring: Farmers and gardeners use various methods to monitor soil
moisture levels in the root zone. This includes visual inspection, soil moisture sensors,
and technology-driven irrigation systems.
e. Aeration: Adequate soil water content is necessary for proper aeration in the root zone.
Soil that is too dry can lead to poor aeration, while waterlogged soil can deprive roots of
oxygen.
f. Root Zone Management: Effective management of the root zone involves balancing
water availability with the needs of the plants. Overwatering or underwatering can have
negative effects on plant health and productivity.
g. Drought Stress: Insufficient soil water in the root zone can lead to drought stress in
plants, affecting their growth, yield, and overall vitality. Drought-tolerant plants are
adapted to thrive in environments with limited water availability.

6.7.3 Infiltration
Infiltration refers to of the movement of water from the surface into soil or the process by
which water on the ground surface enters the soil. It is a crucial component of the water cycle
and plays a significant role in groundwater recharge. Infiltration rate can be defined as soil
characteristics determining the maximum rate at which water infiltrates soil under specific
conditions. The rate at which water infiltrates into the soil depends on various factors,
including soil type, vegetation cover, slope, and the presence of impervious surfaces etc.
Understanding infiltration is important for various applications, including water resource
management, agriculture, and environmental conservation. It helps to assess the vulnerability
of an area to flooding, contributes to groundwater recharge, and informs decisions related to
land use planning and water conservation strategies. The factors affecting the Infiltration are
described in the following sections.
a. Soil Characteristics: The texture and structure of the soil influence its permeability and,
consequently, the rate of infiltration. Sandy soils generally have high infiltration rates
because they have larger pores, allowing water to move through more easily. Clayey soils
with smaller pores tend to have lower infiltration rates.
b. Vegetation Cover: Plants and their root systems affect infiltration. Vegetation can
enhance infiltration by reducing surface runoff, promoting water absorption, and
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improving soil structure. Plant roots create channels in the soil, facilitating the movement
of water into deeper layers.
c. Land Use and Land Cover: Urbanization and the presence of impervious surfaces, such
as roads and buildings, can reduce infiltration. Paved surfaces prevent water from
entering the soil, leading to increased surface runoff, and potentially contributing to
issues like urban flooding.
d. Slope: The slope of the land surface influences the rate of infiltration. On steeper slopes,
water may run off more quickly, reducing the time available for infiltration. Gentle slopes
generally allow for better infiltration.
e. Rainfall Intensity: The intensity and duration of rainfall events impact infiltration.
Intense rainfall can lead to surface runoff, especially if the soil cannot absorb water
quickly enough. Lighter, steady rainfall often allows for more effective infiltration.
f. Soil Moisture Content: The existing moisture content in the soil also affects infiltration.
Dry soils can initially absorb more water, while saturated soils may experience reduced
infiltration rates.
g. Infiltration Capacity: This is the maximum rate at which soil can absorb water. It is
determined by soil properties and is often depicted graphically as an infiltration curve,
showing how the rate of infiltration changes over time during a rainfall event.
h. Percolation: The downward movement of water within the soil profile can be described
as percolation. Percolation can be affected by gravity, soil texture, and the presence of
macrospores.
i. Capillary Action: The movement of water in an upward direction through small soil
pores can be described as Capillary action. It can be influenced by soil texture and
moisture content.
j. Field Capacity: The maximum amount of water the soil can hold against gravity after
excess water has drained away can be described as field capacity or water retention
capacity of the soil. It may be influenced by soil texture and structure.
k. Wilting Point: The moisture content at which plants can no longer extract water from the
soil is known as the wilting point. It is determined by soil texture and plant species.
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l. Available Water: The range of soil moisture between field capacity and the wilting point
is the volume of available water in the soil. It represents the water available for plant
uptake.

6.8 CONSUMPTIVE USE

Consumptive use refers to the portion of water withdrawn or diverted from its source that is
consumed or lost in a process and does not return to the original water source. In other
words, it is the amount of water that is removed from a water body or aquifer and is not
returned, either because it is evaporated, transpired by plants, incorporated into products, or
otherwise not available for immediate use. Understanding consumptive use is crucial in water
resource management, especially in regions where water scarcity is a concern. It helps assess
the sustainability of water use practices and make informed decisions regarding water
allocation, conservation measures, and long-term planning. Efforts to reduce consumptive
water use often involve improving water use efficiency, implementing water-saving
technologies, and promoting sustainable practices in agriculture, industry, and other sectors.
There are three main components of consumptive use:
a. Evaporation: Water exposed to the atmosphere can be evaporated, particularly from
open water surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. This water is essentially lost to
the original source.
b. Transpiration: Plants absorb water through their roots and release it into the atmosphere
through a process known as transpiration. This water, once transpired by plants, is
considered as consumed and does not return to the original water source.
c. Incorporation into Products: When water is used in industrial processes, agriculture, or
other activities and becomes part of a product or is otherwise not returned to the water
source, it is considered for consumptive use.
The term evapotranspiration or consumptive use expresses the entire amount of water
returned to the atmosphere by the combined processes of transpiration and evaporation
throughout the growth of the plant. The evapotranspiration or consumptive use can be
expressed as hectare cm. Therefore, the consumptive use is defined as the total amount of
water supplied to the field by irrigation and rainfall minus the amount of water removed as
surface runoff and plus or minus the amount of water absorbed by the soil moisture in the
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root zone, neglecting of course deep percolation losses. The term evapotranspiration or
consumptive use can be expressed as equation 6.6.
𝐔𝐔 = 𝐖𝐖𝐭𝐭 + 𝐖𝐖𝐫𝐫 − 𝐖𝐖𝐞𝐞 + 𝐖𝐖𝐦𝐦 …………(6.6)
where,
U = Total Consumptive use
Wt = Irrigation Water Supply
Wr = Rainfall
We = Surface Runoff
Wm= Difference in soil moisture content at the root zone at the beginning and end of
plant growth.

6.9 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT

Irrigation requirement refers to the amount of water that needs to be applied to a particular
area of land to supplement natural rainfall and meet the water needs of crops or plants. The
irrigation requirement is influenced by various factors, and determining it accurately is
crucial for efficient water management in agriculture and landscaping. Accurately assessing
irrigation requirements helps to prevent over-irrigation, which can lead to water wastage,
environmental issues, and increased production costs. Conversely, under-irrigation can result
in reduced crop yields and overall plant health. By considering these factors, farmers and
land managers can develop effective irrigation plans that balance water conservation with the
needs of crops or plants.

6.9.1 Factors Affecting Irrigation Requirement

The key factors that affect irrigation requirements are described below:
a. Climate: The local climate, including temperature, humidity, wind, and solar radiation,
plays a significant role in determining the water needs of plants. Hot and arid regions
typically require more irrigation compared to cooler and humid areas.
b. Crop Type: Different crops have varying water requirements at different growth stages.
For example, some crops are more drought-tolerant than others, and the type of crop
being cultivated influences the irrigation schedule and water needs.
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c. Soil Type: Soil characteristics, such as texture, structure, and water-holding capacity,
affect how water moves through the soil and how much it can be retained for plant use.
Ex. Sandy soils may require more frequent irrigation than clayey soils.
d. Plant Growth Stage: The water needs of plants vary throughout their growth cycle. For
instance, during germination and early growth, plants often require more frequent
irrigation, while mature plants may have different water needs.
e. Irrigation System Efficiency: The type of irrigation system used, such as drip irrigation,
sprinklers, or flood irrigation, affects how efficiently water is delivered to the plants.
Modern and efficient irrigation systems can help to reduce water wastage.
f. Local Water Availability: The availability of water resources in a specific region,
including surface water and groundwater, influences irrigation practices. Water scarcity
may require more careful water management and conservation measures.
g. Weather Patterns: Seasonal variations and weather patterns, such as droughts or
unusually wet periods, can impact irrigation requirements. Adjustments to irrigation
schedules may be needed in response to changing weather conditions.
h. Management Practices: The practices employed by farmers or land managers, including
scheduling, monitoring, and optimizing irrigation, can impact the overall irrigation
requirement.
Accurately assessing irrigation requirements helps to prevent over-irrigation, which can
lead to water wastage, environmental issues, and increased production costs. Conversely,
under-irrigation can result in reduced crop yields and overall plant health. By considering
these factors, farmers and land managers can develop effective irrigation plans that balance
water conservation with the needs of crops or plants.

6.9.2 Frequency of Irrigation

The frequency of irrigation, or the schedule at which water is applied to plants or crops, is a
critical aspect of efficient water management in agriculture and landscaping. The ideal
irrigation frequency depends on various factors, and finding the right balance is essential for
promoting plant health while avoiding water wastage. Farmers and land managers often use a
combination of these factors to develop irrigation schedules that maximize water use
efficiency and promote optimal plant growth. It is important to strike a balance between
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providing enough water to meet plant needs and avoiding over-irrigation, which can lead to
water wastage and other environmental concerns.
The frequency of irrigation is calculated by dividing the potential quantity of soil
moisture loss by the daily consumptive consumption. The following relation (Equation 6.7)
can be used to calculate the depth of watering at each irrigation to raise the moisture content
in a soil of depth d to the field capacity wfc. The irrigation efficiency can be taken as Ea.
�(𝒘𝒘𝒇𝒇𝒄𝒄 −𝒘𝒘)×𝒅𝒅�
𝐃𝐃𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐨𝐟𝐟 𝐰𝐰𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐨 𝐛𝐛𝐞𝐞 𝐚𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 = …………(6.7)
𝑬𝑬𝒂𝒂

Example 6.3: A crop's consumptive water use at a given stage of growth is 2.6 mm/day.
When the amount of water in the soil is 30% of the maximum depth of water available in the
root zone, which is 75 mm, calculate the number of days between irrigations and the depth of
water to be administered. Assume that 70% of irrigation is efficient.
Solution
potential quantity of soil moisture loss
Frequency of irrigation =
daily consumptive consumption
((1 − 0.30) × 75)
Frequency of irrigation =
2.6
= 20.19 days
= 20 days (say)
�(𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 −𝑤𝑤)×𝑑𝑑�
Depth of water to be applied =
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎

((1 − 0.30) × 75)

Depth of water to be applied =
0.70
= 75 mm
a. Factors affecting frequency of irrigation: The key factors that influence the
frequency of irrigation are described below.
a. Soil Type: Different soil types have varying water-holding capacities. Sandy soils drain
water more quickly and may require more frequent irrigation, while clayey soils retain
water for longer periods. Understanding the soil type helps to determine the appropriate
irrigation frequency.
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b. Plant Water Needs: Different plants have varying water requirements at different stages
of growth. The growth phase, maturity, and specific water needs of the crops or plants
being cultivated influence how often irrigation is needed.
c. Climate: Local climate conditions, including temperature, humidity, wind, and sunlight,
affect the rate of evaporation and transpiration. Hot and dry climates typically require
more frequent irrigation, while cooler and more humid conditions may necessitate less
frequent watering.
d. Weather Conditions: Seasonal variations, weather patterns, and precipitation levels
impact irrigation frequency. Adjustments to the irrigation schedule may be necessary in
response to changes in weather conditions, such as droughts or unusually wet periods.
e. Irrigation System Efficiency: The type of irrigation system used influences how water
is delivered to plants. Drip irrigation and sprinkler systems are more efficient than
traditional flood irrigation, and their design can impact the frequency of irrigation
needed.
f. Water Availability: The availability of water resources, including surface water and
groundwater, in a specific region influences irrigation practices. Water scarcity may
necessitate more careful water management and potentially lead to less frequent
irrigation.
g. Root Depth: Understanding the depth of the plant roots helps determine how deep water
needs to penetrate into the soil. Tailoring the irrigation frequency to match root depth
ensures that water reaches the active root zone.
h. Cultural Practices: Farming or landscaping practices, such as mulching and soil
amendments, can affect the moisture retention of the soil and, consequently, the
frequency of irrigation required.
i. Monitoring and Technology: Regular monitoring of soil moisture levels, weather
forecasts, and advancements in irrigation technology, such as soil moisture sensors, can
help to optimize irrigation scheduling.
6.9.3 Methods of Irrigation
There are several methods for applying water to the fields in agriculture, and the choice of
method depends on factors such as water availability, cost, energy requirements, crop type,
soil characteristics, local climate conditions, and available resources. Efficient irrigation
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practices aim to deliver water to crops in a way that maximizes water use efficiency,
minimizes water waste, and promotes optimal plant growth. Advances in technology, such as
soil moisture sensors and automated irrigation systems, have further improved the precision
and efficiency of water application in agriculture. Some common methods of irrigation to
fulfil the requirement of water for agriculture are surface irrigation, drip irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation, and sub-surface irrigation. These methods are described in the following sections.
I. Surface Irrigation
Surface irrigation (Figure 6.8) is a method of applying water to crops or plants by allowing it
to flow over the soil surface. This method relies on the force of gravity to distribute water
across the field. There are several types of surface irrigation methods such as the Furrow
Irrigation method, the Basin Irrigation method, and the Border Irrigation method. Each
method, with its own characteristics, is described below.

Figure 6.8: Surface irrigation

a. Furrow Irrigation: In furrow irrigation, water is diverted along with small channels or
furrows between rows of crops. Water is allowed to flow down these furrows, and it
infiltrates into the soil to reach the root zone. This method is suitable for row crops and is
widely used in various agricultural settings.
b. Basin Irrigation: In this method, water is applied to a defined basin or depression
around the individual plants or groups of plants. Water is applied directly into these
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basins, allowing it to infiltrate the soil around the plants. This method is commonly used
for tree and vine crops.
c. Border Irrigation: In border irrigation, water is applied to long, narrow strips of land
with a slight slope, bordered by levees or ridges. Water is released at the upper end of the
strip, and it flows slowly across the field, irrigating the entire strip. This method is
suitable for crops with uniform water requirements.
• Advantages of Surface irrigation methods: Surface irrigation methods have following
advantages:
 Simplicity: Surface irrigation methods are relatively simple to implement and
require minimal equipment.
 Low infrastructure cost: Compared to some other irrigation methods, surface
irrigation systems often have lower upfront costs.
 Suitable for various crops: Surface irrigation can be adapted for a wide range of
crops and field configurations.
• Challenges of Surface irrigation methods:
 Water distribution unevenness: Achieving uniform water distribution across the
field can be challenging, leading to overwatering in some areas and underwatering
in others.
 Water loss: Evaporation and runoff can result in water loss, reducing the overall
efficiency of surface irrigation.
 Soil erosion: The movement of water across the soil surface can contribute to soil
erosion, particularly on sloping terrain.
Efficient water management practices, proper field design, and appropriate scheduling
can help address some of the challenges associated with surface irrigation. Additionally,
advancements in technology, such as precision land levelling and automated irrigation
systems, have improved the efficiency and effectiveness of surface irrigation methods.
II. Drip or Trickle Irrigation
Drip irrigation or Trickle irrigation (Figure 6.9) is a method of applying water directly to the
root zone of plants in a controlled and efficient manner. The term "trickle irrigation" is less
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common than "drip irrigation," but the two are essentially synonymous and describe the same
water-efficient irrigation practice. This irrigation technique involves the slow, precise
delivery of water through a network of tubes, pipes, valves, and emitters. Drip irrigation is
known for its water efficiency, as it minimizes water wastage, reduces evaporation, and
allows for targeted water application. Drip irrigation is widely used in agriculture,
horticulture, and landscaping. It offers a sustainable and efficient solution for water
management, particularly in regions facing water scarcity or where conservation is a priority.
The key components and features of drip/ trickle irrigation are described as follows:
a. Components of Drip or Trickle Irrigation
• Drip Tubing or Pipes: Drip tubing, often made of flexible polyethene, is used to
transport water from the water source to the plants. The tubing can be laid on the soil
surface, buried below the ground, or suspended above the plants, depending on the
specific application.
• Emitters: Emitters are devices attached to the drip tubing that release water in
controlled amounts directly to the root zone of plants. Common types of emitters
include drip emitters, micro-sprinklers, and soaker hoses.
• Filters: Filters are installed in the drip system to prevent clogging of emitters by
removing particles and debris from the water. Screen or disc filters are commonly used
in drip irrigation systems.
• Pressure Regulators: Pressure regulators ensure a consistent and optimal pressure
level within the drip system, preventing damage to emitters and ensuring uniform
water distribution.
• Valves: Valves control the flow of water through the drip system. They are used to
start and stop irrigation and can be manually or automatically operated.
• Backflow Preventers: Backflow preventers are installed to ensure that water from the
irrigation system does not flow back into the main water supply, preventing
contamination.
• Mainline and Sub-main: The mainline is the primary pipe that delivers water from
the water source to the different sections of the irrigation system. Sub-main lines
branch off the mainline and distribute water to specific zones or areas within the field.
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Figure 6.9: Drip/Trickle irrigation

b. Advantages of Drip Irrigation:
• Water Efficiency: Drip irrigation is highly efficient, delivering water directly to the root
zone, minimizing evaporation and reducing water wastage.
• Precision Irrigation: The ability to precisely control the amount of water delivered to
each plant allows for tailored irrigation based on plant needs.
• Weed Control: By delivering water only to the root zone, drip irrigation helps minimize
moisture on the soil surface, reducing weed growth.
• Nutrient Application (Fertigation): Drip systems can be integrated with fertigation,
allowing for the simultaneous application of water and fertilizers.
c. Challenges and Considerations:
• Initial Cost: The upfront cost of installing a drip irrigation system can be higher
compared to some other irrigation methods.
• Clogging Risk: Drip emitters are susceptible to clogging, and regular maintenance is
required to prevent issues.
• Suitability for Different Crops: Drip irrigation is suitable for a wide range of crops, but
some crops may have specific requirements or may not be well-suited for this method.
III. Sprinkler Irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying water to crops or plants in a controlled manner
by distributing it in the form of droplets or fine spray through a network of pipes, pumps, and
sprinklers. This irrigation technique is widely used in agriculture, landscaping, and sports
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field maintenance. Sprinkler systems can be fixed or mobile and are suitable for a variety of
crops. Sprinkler irrigation is versatile and can be adapted to various crops, including field
crops, orchards, and vegetable gardens. The choice of sprinkler system type depends on
factors such as field size, crop type, and local climate conditions. Efficient water
management practices, proper system design, and regular maintenance are essential for
maximizing the benefits of sprinkler irrigation.
Originally, sprinkler irrigation (Figure 6.10) was mostly used in hills for plantation
crops in the North Eastern States and the Western Ghats, such as tea, coffee, and other crops.
Following the emergence of widespread issues related to salinity, waterlogging, and lack of
water in certain areas, the government encouraged farmers to switch to sprinkler irrigation,
frequently by offering subsidies. Nowadays, sprinkler systems with spinning heads and
perforated pipes are both in use in India. Indian farmers are also starting to use rain gun
sprinkler systems. States like Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Haryana use sprinklers a lot.
Apart from rice, these work incredibly well with all closely spaced crops, including cereals,
oil seeds, pulses, and other income crops. The key components and features of sprinkler
irrigation are given below:

Figure 6.10: Sprinkler irrigation

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a. Components of Sprinkler System

• Pipes and Pumping System: Water is transported from its source (such as a well or
reservoir) to the field through a system of pipes. A pump is often used to pressurize
the water for efficient distribution.
• Sprinklers: These are devices attached to the pipes that release water in the form of
droplets or spray. Sprinklers are available in various types, including impact, rotary,
stationary, and oscillating, each suitable for different applications.
b. Types of Sprinkler Systems
• Fixed or Stationary Sprinklers: These are mounted in a fixed position and irrigate a
specific area without moving. They are often used in smaller-scale applications.
• Rotary Sprinklers: These rotate in a circular or semi-circular pattern, covering a
larger area. Rotary sprinklers are suitable for larger fields or lawns.
• Oscillating Sprinklers: These move back and forth, creating a fan-shaped pattern.
Oscillating sprinklers are often used for lawns and gardens.
• Impact Sprinklers: These have a rotating arm that generates a pulsating spray
pattern. Impact sprinklers are commonly used in agriculture for larger crop areas.
c. Advantages of Sprinkler Irrigation
• Uniform Water Distribution: Sprinkler systems can provide even water coverage
across the field, promoting uniform plant growth.
• Flexibility: Sprinkler systems can be adjusted for different crops and field shapes.
• Reduced Soil Erosion: By delivering water in a controlled manner, sprinklers can
help minimize soil erosion compared to certain surface irrigation methods.
d. Challenges and Considerations
• Evaporation and Wind Drift: Wind and high temperatures can lead to water loss
through evaporation and wind drift, affecting the efficiency of sprinkler systems.
• Initial Cost: The installation of a sprinkler system can involve higher upfront costs
compared to some other irrigation methods.
• Maintenance: Regular maintenance is necessary to ensure the proper functioning of
sprinklers, including cleaning nozzles and checking for clogs.
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e. Center Pivot Irrigation

• A specialized form of sprinkler irrigation, centre pivot systems involve a rotating
sprinkler system mounted on wheeled towers that move in a circular pattern. Centre
pivot systems are commonly used for large-scale agriculture, providing efficient
coverage for circular or square fields.
IV. Sub-surface Irrigation
• Sub-surface irrigation is a method of delivering water directly to the root zone of
plants below the soil surface. This method helps to reduce evaporation losses and is
suitable for certain crops. Unlike surface irrigation methods, where water is applied to
the soil surface and allowed to flow over the ground, subsurface irrigation aims to
minimize water loss through evaporation and reduce surface runoff. This method is
particularly useful in areas where water conservation and efficiency are top priorities.
• The method is similar to drip irrigation; however, in this method, similar to traditional
drip irrigation, subsurface drip irrigation involves burying the drip tubing or pipes
below the soil surface. This system is typically installed at a shallow depth to ensure
that water reaches the root zone effectively. This method is suitable for row crops,
orchards, and vineyards.
• In some cases, subsurface irrigation may involve flooding the soil below the surface
through buried pipes or tubes. This method is less common and may be used in
specific agricultural applications.
• Subsurface irrigation can be a valuable tool in promoting efficient water use,
especially in regions where water resources are limited. Proper design, installation,
and maintenance are crucial for maximizing the benefits of subsurface irrigation
systems.
a. Advantages of Subsurface Irrigation
• Water Conservation: Subsurface irrigation minimizes water loss due to evaporation
and surface runoff, making it a more water-efficient method.
• Reduced Weed Growth: By delivering water directly to the root zone, subsurface
irrigation can help reduce weed growth since surface moisture is minimized.
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• Improved Nutrient Management: Subsurface irrigation systems can be combined

with fertigation (the application of fertilizers through the irrigation system) for
efficient nutrient delivery to plants.
b. Challenges and Considerations
• Initial Cost: The installation of subsurface irrigation systems can have higher upfront
costs compared to some surface irrigation methods.
• Maintenance: Proper maintenance is essential to prevent clogging of emitters or
tubes and ensure the efficient operation of the system.
• Suitability for Different Crops: While subsurface irrigation is effective for many
crops, the suitability may vary depending on the type of crop and soil conditions.
V. Flood Irrigation
Water is applied by allowing it to flow over the entire field. Flood irrigation is often used in
flat or gently sloping areas.

SUMMARY
The term "water withdrawals and uses" refers to the crucial process of drawing water from its
many sources, including rivers, lakes, subterranean aquifers, etc., for the purpose to meet the
needs of many industries, including irrigation, hydropower production, home usage, and
agriculture. The maintenance of ecosystems and human activity depends on these
withdrawals, which are a vital component of water management. This unit describes the
demand for water for household consumption, agriculture, particularly the amount needed for
Indian crops and crop seasons, energy production, and other applications. Additionally, there
has been discussion of the examination of surface and groundwater supplies, including duty
and delta, irrigation water supply, soil-water interaction, root zone soil water, infiltration, and
consumptive usage. Furthermore, an explanation of irrigation needs, how often they occur,
and different irrigation techniques, such as surface, sub-surface, sprinkler, and trickle/drip
irrigation, have been discussed.
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EXERCISE
Revision Questions
1. What do you understand by the demand for water?
2. Describe the process of water withdrawals and uses?
3. Categorize various sectors for the withdrawal of water?
4. What do you understand by irrigation? Explain different types of irrigation.
5. Explain Hydropower. How is the water converted in Electrical energy?
6. Explain the advantages of Hydropower Generation.
7. Why are floods called natural disasters?
8. Explain the different types of floods.
9. Explain different causes of flood.
10. What are the impacts of floods on life and property?
11. Explain short-term and long-term flood management measures.
12. Explain in brief the different strategies that is used for flood control as well as to reduce
flood-related losses.
13. Describe Structural and Non-structural strategies for flood control.
14. Describe key aspects involved in the analysis of surface water supply.
15. What do you understand about the optimum use of water?
16. What are the key factors that affect the Water Requirements of Crops?
17. What do you understand by Cropping Pattern? Describe some key aspects of cropping
patterns.
18. What do you understand by multiple cropping?
19. Explain the main crops and crop seasons in India.
20. Define the duty of water. What are the main factors influencing the duty of water?
21. Define the delta of water. What are the main factors influencing the delta of water?
22. What is the relation between duty and delta?
23. Explain key parameters to maintain the quality of irrigation water and to ensure long-term
agricultural productivity.
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24. Explain the soil-water relationship. Define key aspects of the soil-water relationship.
25. Draw the United States Department of Agriculture's Triangular Texture Diagram. Also,
classify the soils based on the percentage of sand, silt, and clay sizes?
26. Explain the characteristics of porosity and permeability of soil.
27. Explain osmosis. How can the available moisture capacity of the soil be calculated?
28. Explain root zone soil water. Define factors affecting root zone soil water.
29. What do you understand by infiltration? Describe several factors affecting the Infiltration.
30. Describe the consumptive use of water. Describe the main components of the
consumptive use of water.
31. What do you understand by irrigation requirement? Describe key factors that affect
irrigation requirements.
32. Describe the frequency of irrigation. Explain the key factors that affect the frequency of
irrigation.
33. Describe several methods of Irrigation.
34. Explain surface irrigation. What are the advantages and challenges of surface irrigation?
35. Explain drip irrigation. What are the components of drip irrigation?
36. Describe the advantages of drip irrigation.
37. What are the components of sprinkler irrigation? Explain the advantages & challenges of
sprinkler irrigation.
38. What do you understand by subsurface irrigation? Explain the advantages and challenges
of subsurface irrigation.
39. What do you understand by flood irrigation?
Numerical Problems
1. If 5000 cubic meters of water is applied to irrigate a 5-hectare field, what will be the duty
of water assuming uniform distribution? Now, if we move along the canal system and
find that at a different point, only 3500 cubic meters of water is reaching at a 5-hectare
field, what will be the delta?
2. Determine the available moisture capacity of sandy loam soil whose percentage moisture
content based of the dry weight of soil at field capacity is 11% and at a permanent wilting
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point is 6%. The bulk density of soil is 1.35 gm/cm3. The effective depth of the root zone
of the crop is 0.9 m. If optimal soil moisture is 9% and the water requirement of the crop
(consumptive use) is 6 mm/day, compute the theoretical quantity and frequency of
irrigation also.
3. A crop's consumptive water use at a given stage of growth is 2.8 mm/day. When the
amount of water in the soil is 35% of the maximum depth of water available in the root
zone, which is 85 mm, calculate the number of days between irrigations and the depth of
water to be administered. Assume that 75% of irrigation is efficient.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is the largest global use of freshwater?
A) Industrial B) Agricultural
C) Domestic D) Recreational
2. Which of the following is a primary use of water in households?
A) Irrigation B) Cooling industrial processes
C) Drinking and sanitation D) Hydroelectric power generation
3. What percentage of freshwater is typically used for industrial purposes?
A) 10% B) 20%
C) 30% D) 50%
4. Which sector is the fastest-growing consumer of water globally?
A) Domestic B) Agricultural
C) Industrial D) Energy production
5. What is one of the main uses of water in agriculture?
A) To generate electricity B) To create recreational lakes
C) To irrigate crops D) To cool power plants
6. What is an example of recreational use of water?
A) Drinking water supply B) Fishing and boating
C) Industrial cooling D) Crop irrigation
7. How is water primarily used in energy production?
A) As a cleaning agent
B) For irrigation
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C) In hydropower plants to generate electricity

D) For drinking water supply
8. What is the main use of water in the textile industry?
A) Irrigation B) Cooling processes
C) Dyeing and finishing fabrics D) Drinking water supply
9. What is the primary purpose of irrigation?
A) To improve soil fertility B) To provide water to crops
C) To control pests D) To enhance biodiversity
10. Which type of irrigation delivers water directly to the root zone of plants?
A) Surface irrigation B) Drip irrigation
C) Flood irrigation D) Sprinkler irrigation
11. What is a key characteristic of surface irrigation?
A) Water is applied under pressure
B) Water flows over the soil surface to reach plants
C) Water is distributed through a network of pipes
D) Water is applied directly to the leaves
12. Which irrigation method is most water-efficient?
A) Flood irrigation B) Drip irrigation
C) Furrow irrigation D) Sprinkler irrigation
13. What is the main advantage of sprinkler irrigation?
A) It requires less labour B) It can be used on uneven terrain
C) It minimizes water evaporation D) It is less expensive to install
14. What is flood irrigation?
A) Water is sprayed over crops
B) Water is applied to furrows between rows of crops
C) Water is allowed to flow freely over the field
D) Water is distributed through a network of underground pipes
15. Which type of irrigation is best suited for orchards and vineyards?
A) Flood irrigation B) Surface irrigation
C) Drip irrigation D) Sprinkler irrigation
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16. What is a common disadvantage of flood irrigation?

A) High installation cost B) Risk of waterlogging and soil erosion
C) Inefficiency in water usage D) Difficulty in maintenance
17. What is a flood?
A) An excess of water in a river or stream
B) A temporary overflow of water onto normally dry land
C) A tsunami
D) A drought condition
18. Which of the following is NOT a type of flood?
A) Flash Flood B) River Flood
C) Coastal Flood D) Solar Flood
19. What primarily causes flash floods?
A) Heavy rainfall over a long period B) Sudden, intense rainfall in a short time
C) Snowmelt D) Tidal waves
20. Which of the following can contribute to flooding?
A) Deforestation B) Urbanization
C) Poor drainage systems D) All of the above
21. What is a common method of flood management?
A) Ignoring the problem B) Constructing levees and floodwalls
C) Planting more trees without planning D) Building houses in flood-prone areas
22. Which type of flood is most likely to occur after heavy rainfall on already saturated
ground?
A) River Flood B) Coastal Flood
C) Flash Flood D) Tidal Flood
23. Which of the following is a long-term flood management strategy?
A) Emergency response plans B) River channelization
C) Evacuation routes D) Sandbagging
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24. What role do wetlands play in flood management?

A) They exacerbate flooding
B) They provide recreational areas only
C) They absorb excess water and reduce runoff
D) They have no impact on flooding
25. Which of the following technologies is often used to predict floods?
A) Satellite imagery B) Radio communication
C) Social media D) Printed newspapers
26. What is the primary purpose of floodplain zoning?
A) To encourage development in flood-prone areas
B) To restrict development in areas susceptible to flooding
C) To allow unrestricted access to rivers
D) To promote tourism
27. What is one major social impact of flooding?
A) Increased employment opportunities B) Displacement of communities
C) Improved public health D) Enhanced educational access
28. Which of the following is an economic consequence of floods?
A) Rise in property values B) Decrease in agricultural productivity
C) Boost in tourism D) Increase in job creation
29. What type of flood control strategy involves altering the physical landscape to manage
water flow?
A) Legislative measures B) Structural measures
C) Community education D) Emergency response planning
30. Which flood control method involves building barriers along riverbanks?
A) Floodplain zoning B) Levees
C) Flood forecasting D) Wetland restoration
31. What is a common environmental impact of flooding?
A) Decrease in biodiversity B) Improvement of air quality
C) Restoration of habitats D) Increased soil fertility
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32. Which of the following is NOT a flood control strategy?

A) Constructing reservoirs B) Deforestation
C) Building floodwalls D) Implementing early warning systems
33. What is the goal of floodplain zoning?
A) To develop flood-prone areas for housing
B) To restrict certain activities in flood-prone areas
C) To promote industrial growth
D) To enhance recreational activities
34. Which flood control strategy focuses on community preparedness and education?
A) River channelization B) Public awareness campaigns
C) Flood insurance policies D) Building dams
35. What is one psychological impact of flooding on affected communities?
A) Increased community cohesion B) Higher rates of anxiety and depression
C) Enhanced trust in government D) Improved mental health services
36. Which of the following is a non-structural flood management approach?
A) Building levees B) Creating wetlands
C) Constructing dams D) Installing flood barriers
37. What is meant by "crop water requirement"?
A) The amount of water needed for crop growth and development
B) The amount of rainfall received during the growing season
C) The total water available in the soil
D) The water needed for pest control
38. What does the term "delta" refer to in irrigation?
A) The area of land cultivated
B) The depth of water applied over a specific area
C) The rate of evaporation from the soil
D) The nutrient content of the soil
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39. Which of the following factors does NOT affect crop water requirements?
A) Soil type B) Crop type
C) Economic conditions D) Weather conditions
40. What is the "duty" of water in irrigation?
A) The total volume of water used in a season
B) The area irrigated per unit of water supplied
C) The amount of water needed to grow one crop
D) The cost of irrigation per hectare
41. If a crop has a duty of 1.5 hectares per cubic meter per season, how many hectares can be
irrigated with 1000 cubic meters of water?
A) 150 hectares B) 100 hectares
C) 75 hectares D) 50 hectares
42. Which of the following crops generally requires the highest water input?
A) Wheat B) Barley
C) Rice D) Sorghum
43. What is a primary method for calculating crop water requirements?
A) Soil texture analysis B) Evapotranspiration estimation
C) Crop rotation planning D) Fertilizer application rates
44. How can water use efficiency be improved in irrigation?
A) Using more water B) Implementing drip irrigation systems
C) Delaying planting D) Increasing crop density
45. In irrigation terminology, what does a higher delta indicate?
A) Increased crop yield B) More water loss
C) Greater depth of water applied D) Improved soil fertility
46. Which of the following statements is true regarding crop water requirements?
A) They remain constant throughout the growing season.
B) They vary based on growth stage and climate.
C) They are only influenced by soil type.
D) They are irrelevant in drought conditions.
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47. What is infiltration in the context of soil and water?

A) The process of water evaporating from soil
B) The movement of water into the soil surface
C) The collection of water in surface runoff
D) The retention of water in plant roots
48. Which factor does NOT affect the rate of infiltration?
A) Soil texture B) Soil structure
C) Air temperature D) Vegetation cover
49. What is the term for the water held in the soil that is available for plant use?
A) Gravitational water B) Capillary water
C) Hygroscopic water D) Runoff water
50. How does soil texture influence water retention?
A) Coarse soils retain more water
B) Fine soils retain less water
C) Coarse soils drain quickly and retain less water
D) All soils retain water equally
51. Which soil property is most important for determining infiltration rates?
A) Soil colour B) Soil pH
C) Soil texture D) Soil organic matter
52. What is the "field capacity" of soil?
A) The maximum amount of water the soil can hold
B) The amount of water that drains from the soil
C) The water content after excess water has drained
D) The amount of water available to plants
53. In the root zone, which type of water is most crucial for plant uptake?
A) Gravitational water B) Capillary water
C) Hygroscopic water D) Groundwater
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 332

54. Which of the following conditions can lead to reduced infiltration?

A) Compacted soil B) Sandy soil
C) Mulched surfaces D) Well-structured soil
55. What is the primary function of the root zone in relation to soil water?
A) To store excess water for runoff B) To facilitate drainage and prevent flooding
C) To supply water and nutrients to plants D) To hold water for evaporation

Answer: 1-B; 2-C; 3-B; 4-C; 5-C; 6-B; 7-C; 8-C; 9-B; 10-B; 11-B; 12-B; 13-B; 14-C; 15-C;
16-B; 17-B; 18-D; 19-B;20-D; 21-B; 22-C; 23-B; 24-C; 25-A; 26-B; 27-B; 28-B; 29-B; 30-
B; 31-A; 32-B; 33-B; 34-B; 35-B; 36-B; 37-A; 38-B; 39-C; 40-B; 41-A; 42-C; 43-B; 44-B;
45C; 46-B; 47-B; 48-C; 49-B; 50-C; 51-C; 52-C;53-B;54-A;55-C.

KNOW MORE
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Asawa, G.L. (1993), “Irrigation Engineering”, Published by Willey Eastern Limited,
ISBN 81-224-0457-X.
2. Asawa, G.L. (2005), “Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering, New Age
International (P) Ltd., ISBN-13: 978-8122416732
3. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, 1964.
4. Ghosh, S.N. (2014), “Flood control and drainage engineering”, Published by CRC
Press/Balkema, The Netherlands, ISBN: 978-1-138-02627-8.
333 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

5. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources
of India, Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland,
ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4(HB).
6. Punmia, B.C. and Lal, Pande B.B., (1992), “Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering”, Twelfth Edition. Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
7. RBA (1980), “Report of National Commission of Flood, Govt. of India.
8. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
9. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India)
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN(13): 978-1-25902997-4.
10. Working Group (1999), The national Commission for Integrated Water Resources
Development, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India.
 7
H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 334

Distribution Systems

UNIT SPECIFICS
Water distribution through canals is essential to manage water resources and support human
activities. Usually, it refers to a system of artificial water channels intended for various
purposes, including drainage, flood control, transit, irrigation, and water supply. Constructing
and maintaining canals is necessary to transport water from a reservoir or river to farms and
crops. Today's canal distribution systems use technology to increase productivity and save
water. This could entail the application of sensors, automated control systems, and targeted
irrigation techniques. Canals are lined with vegetation or materials like concrete. This unit
describes the canal distribution system and its alignment. It further discusses the types of
channels such as rigid boundary and alluvial channels. Furthermore, channel design
methodologies such as Kennedy's and Lacey's theory, canal water losses, and its design
discharge are described. In addition, different types of canal outlets and types of canal lining
are discussed. Finally, methods of irrigated land drainage and causes, effects, and remedial
measures for waterlogging are also discussed.

RATIONALE
To learn about the canals as a system of water distribution, theories of regime channels, canal
design, outlets, water logging and remedial measures.

PRE-REQUISITE
Nil

UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U7-O1: Canals as a system for water distribution, canal alignment and losses
U7-O2: Canal design and theories of regime channels
U7-O3: Canal outlets, water logging, irrigated land drainage and canal lining
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Unit Expected Mapping with Course Outcomes

Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7 CO-8
U7-O1 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3
U7-O2 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 3
U7-O3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Any network intended to provide a particular good or service to multiple end users from a
central source is referred to as a distribution system. A network of canals created specifically
to move water from a primary source to multiple locations is known as a canal distribution
system in the context of water management. These destinations typically include controlled
irrigation of agricultural fields, managing and rerouting excess water to prevent flooding, and
delivering water to urban areas for domestic or other designated uses. A canal distribution
system improves local economies by promoting farming and associated industries, controls
surplus water flow to mitigate flooding, and guarantees a steady supply of water for
agriculture. Regular maintenance of canals is important to address erosion, obstructions, and
structural deterioration since seepage and evaporation can diminish the efficiency of a canal
distribution system. Utilizing canal water effectively is also crucial for management.
Waterlogging, a situation when the soil becomes so saturated with water that it is unable to
retain any more moisture, is caused by the overuse of canal water. This usually happens in
places where water collects more quickly than it can be removed. The environment,
infrastructure, and agriculture may be significantly impacted by waterlogging.

7.2 CANAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

A "canal distribution systems" typically refers to a network of artificial water channels
designed for various purposes, such as irrigation, transportation, water supply, drainage, or
flood control. This system involves the construction and management of canals to deliver
water from a water source, such as a river or reservoir, to fields and crops. Canal distribution
systems have been used for centuries and play a significant role in managing water resources
and supporting human activities in many parts of the world. Canal distribution systems have
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been essential for supporting agriculture in many regions, enabling farmers to cultivate crops
by providing a reliable and controlled water supply. However, challenges related to water
scarcity, sustainability, and the need for modernization are prompting ongoing efforts to
improve the efficiency and effectiveness of canal irrigation systems.
Modern canal distribution systems often incorporate technologies to enhance
efficiency and conserve water. This may include the use of automated control systems,
sensors, and precise irrigation methods. Canals may be lined with materials like concrete or
lined with vegetation to prevent water seepage. Canal distribution systems can face
challenges such as water loss through seepage, evaporation, and inefficient water use.
Regular proper maintenance and modernization are essential to ensure the proper functioning
of the canal distribution system to address these challenges. In some cases, canal distribution
systems are managed and maintained by local communities or water user associations,
emphasizing community involvement in water resource management.
7.2.1 Classification of Canals
The system begins with a water source, which could be a river, lake, reservoir, or another
water body. A dam, barrage, or weir is built across a river in a river system to direct the water
into the main canal. A head regulator manages supplies in the main canal. Depending on the
grade and amount of silt, silt exclusion devices typically consist of a sediment ejector,
excluder, or both that have been installed within the main canal in the river. The main canal
feeds water to the field through a canal system that includes branch canals, distributaries, and
minors. Water is eventually supplied to the field through irrigation outlets by distributors or
minors. For convenience, various branches, distributaries, and minors are categorized based
on their discharge capabilities. Figure 7.1 shows the schematic layout of a typical canal
system. Some essential characteristics and elements of canal distribution systems are given
below:
a. Main Canal: The main canal is a primary water channel that diverts water from the
water source. It is designed to transport a significant volume of water over long distances.
It does not provide any irrigation directly.
b. Branch Canals: Branch canals are smaller channels that take off from the main canal.
They distribute water to specific regions or agricultural fields. The head capacity of
branch canal may not be less than 30 cumec.
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c. Distributary Channels: Distributary channels, also known as furrows, are the channels
that take off from a main canal or a branch canal or from another distributary having head
capacity under 30 cumec and above 2.5 cumec.
d. Minors: Small Distributary channels, having head capacity under 2.5 cumec are known
as minors. These channels take off from a branch canal or from other main distributaries.
e. Field Channels: Field channels are the smallest channels that deliver water directly to
individual fields, generally constructed by cultivator themselves. They are designed to
distribute water evenly across the cultivated area from the outlet provided in distributary
channel or minors.
f. Regulation Structures: To control the flow of water and manage its distribution,
regulation structures such as gates, weirs, outlets, and sluices are often installed at key
points along the canals.

Figure 7.1: A Schematic layout of a typical canal system

7.2.2 Categorisation of Canal Systems

Canals can be categorized in different categories based on their uses, such as irrigation,
navigation, flood control, recreation, etc. Canal systems vary widely in scale, design, and
function, and their development is influenced by geographical, climatic, and socio-economic
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factors. Proper management and maintenance are crucial for the efficient and sustainable
operation of canal systems. Some common categories of canals based on their uses are
described below:
a. Irrigation Canals: These canals are used to supply water to agricultural fields for
irrigation. The main components of these canals include main canals, branch canals,
distributaries, minors, and field channels. For example, Upper Ganga Canal, Middle
Ganga Canal, Lower Ganga Canal, The Indus Valley Canal System etc.
b. Navigation Canals: These canals are used to facilitate the transportation of goods and
people by boats or ships. These canals have locks and gates to regulate water levels. For
example: The Suez Canal, Panama Canal, Erie Canal etc.
c. Water Supply Canals: These canals are used to transport water from a source to areas
for domestic, industrial, or municipal use. The components of these canals have main
conduits and distribution networks.
d. Drainage Canals: These canals are used to remove excess water from low-lying areas to
prevent waterlogging and improve soil drainage. The major components of these canals
include drainage canals and pumping stations. These canal systems have designed to
manage excess water in agricultural and urban areas.
e. Flood Control Canals: These canals are used to divert or contain excess water during
periods of heavy rainfall or flooding. Channels and levees are the main components to
control water flow. For examples: Flood control systems in river basins.
f. Hydroelectric Canals: In these canals water is diverted to generate hydroelectric power.
The Canals provide water to turbines in hydroelectric power plants.
g. Recreational Canals: These canals are used for recreational activities i.e. boating,
fishing, and other recreational activities. These canals are designed for leisure and
aesthetics. For example; Venice Canals, San Antonio River Walk.
h. Urban Storm-water Canals: Canals and drainage systems are made to manage storm-
water runoff in urban areas to prevent flooding. Urban storm-water management systems
are examples of these canals.
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7.3 COMMAND AREA

The term "command area" typically refers to the area of land that is irrigated by a particular
water management system, such as a canal or irrigation project by gravity. The command
area is the land that gets benefit from the water resources supplied by the system. Gathering
data about the command area is the initial stage in project planning when irrigation is
extended to a new area.
7.3.1 Gross Command Area (GCA)
The term "Gross Command Area" typically refers to the total geographical area that is
intended to be served or irrigated by a water management project, such as a canal or
irrigation system by gravity. It represents the overall extent of land that is supposed to get
benefit from the water resources supplied by the project. Gross Commanded Area (Equation
7.1) is the entire area over which a canal system's water can flow gravitationally. The
boundaries of a vast command are typically delineated by drainages on both sides, wherein
carrying the canal to the subsequent "doab" may not be financially feasible if the intervening
drain is sizable.
7.3.2 Cultivable Command Area (CCA)
The cultivable command area includes every piece of land, which can be used for cultivation.
Therefore, to get the cultivable command area, pastures and underdeveloped fallow lands are
included, but Abadi areas, ponds, usar land, and reserve woods are excluded.
Gross Command Area (GCA) = Cultivable Command Area (CCA) + Uncultivable area
..…………(7.1)
The process of creating land use maps with a minimum scale of 1: 15000 yields the
area statistics. Sharja sheets that are available at the Tehsil headquarters are particularly
helpful for this purpose, and they are used extensively. The sheets typically depict field cover
area, fallow land, highways, drainage lines, settlement borders, buildings, places of worship,
burial ground, spot level and other features at a scale of 16 feet to a mile.

7.4 ALIGNMENTS OF CANALS

The term "alignments of a canal" refers to the planned route or path that a canal follows from
its source to its destination. The alignment is a crucial aspect of canal design and
construction, and it involves determining the path that the canal will take, considering factors
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such as topography, geology, land use, and water availability. Canal alignments are typically
determined through a comprehensive engineering and planning process, involving surveys,
feasibility studies, and consultations with relevant stakeholders. Modern technologies, such
as Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping and modelling, are often used to optimize
canal alignments based on various factors. The goal is to create a sustainable and efficient
canal system that meets the water distribution needs while minimizing negative impacts on
the environment and communities. The various approaches can be used to align irrigation
channels are (i) as a watershed channel; (ii) as a contour channel; or (iii) as a side slope
channel. Figure 7.2 represents the various types of canal alignments. Key considerations and
factors in determining the alignments of a canal are described in the following sections.
a. Topography: The natural contours of the land, including slopes and elevation changes,
play a significant role in determining the alignment. Canals often follow the natural
topography to minimize excavation and earthmoving.
b. Hydraulic Considerations: The hydraulic characteristics of the area, including the flow
of water and potential waterlogging, influence the canal alignment. Engineers consider
factors such as water velocity, sediment transport, and the need for regulation structures.
c. Land Use and Ownership: Existing land use and ownership patterns affect the
feasibility of canal alignments. The canal route must navigate through available land and
accommodate existing land uses, avoiding conflicts with private properties or sensitive
areas.
d. Water Source: The location of the water source, whether it is a river, reservoir, or
another water body, influences the starting point and alignment of the canal.
e. Accessibility: The alignment should consider accessibility for construction,
maintenance, and operation. It should be easily reachable for maintenance crews and
equipment.
f. Economic Considerations: Economic factors, including construction costs, material
availability, and the overall project budget, can influence the choice of canal alignment.
g. Environmental Impact: Environmental considerations are crucial in modern canal
design. Engineers aim to minimize the environmental impact by avoiding sensitive
ecosystems, protecting biodiversity, and incorporating sustainable practices.
h. Urban Development: In urban areas, the alignment must consider existing
infrastructure, buildings, and other urban features. Canal routes may need to be
integrated into the urban landscape.
341 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Figure 7.2: Various types of canal alignments.

i. Cultural and Social Aspects: Consideration of cultural and social factors is important,
especially in areas where canals may impact communities. Community input and
involvement in the planning process are often valuable.
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j. Regulatory and Legal Requirements: Compliance with local, regional, and national
regulations and legal requirements is essential. This includes obtaining necessary
permits and approvals.

7.5 CANAL LOSSES

"Canal losses" refer to the reduction in the quantity of water that occurs as it travels through a
canal system from its source (such as a river or reservoir) to its destination (fields or
distribution points). These losses can occur due to various factors along the canal route.
Minimizing canal losses is crucial for the efficient use of water resources in irrigation
systems. Efforts to reduce canal losses often involve a combination of engineering solutions,
proper maintenance, and the adoption of modern irrigation and water management practices.
The goal is to optimize water use efficiency, conserve water resources, and ensure that an
adequate and reliable water supply reaches the intended users in agricultural or other
applications.
7.5.1 Causes of Canal Losses
Some common Causes of canal losses are described in the following section:
a. Evaporation Losses: Evaporation losses are known as the evaporation of water from
the surface of the canal, especially in regions with high temperatures and exposure to
sunlight. Lining canals with impermeable materials, such as concrete, can reduce
evaporation losses. Covering canals or using shading techniques may also help to reduce
evaporation losses.
b. Seepage Losses: Seepage Losses can be described as seepage of water into the soil
along the canal banks. Lining the canal with impermeable materials, installing cut-off
walls, or using vegetation to stabilize banks can help to reduce seepage losses.
c. Infiltration Losses: Infiltration losses are known as losses in which water can infiltrate
the soil, especially in unlined or poorly lined canals. Proper canal lining, compaction of
the canal bed, and maintenance of the canal structure can help reduce infiltration losses.
d. Conveyance Losses: Friction and turbulence in the water flow can lead to losses in the
conveyance of water through the canal. Proper design to minimize turbulence, regular
maintenance, and ensuring smooth canal beds can reduce conveyance losses.
e. Structural Losses: Leaks or structural deficiencies in the canal infrastructure can
contribute to water losses. These losses are known as structural losses. Regular
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inspections, maintenance, and timely repairs of canal structures (such as gates, weirs,
and regulators) are essential to minimize structural losses.
f. Operational Losses: Inefficient water management practices, such as over-irrigation or
improper scheduling, can result in unnecessary water losses. Implementing efficient
water management practices, including precision in irrigation techniques and use of
modern technology, can reduce operational losses.
g. Unaccounted-for Water: Water that is lost but not properly measured or accounted for
in the canal system is known as unaccounted- for water. Improved measurement and
monitoring systems, such as flow meters and telemetry, can help track water use and
identify areas of unaccounted-for water.

7.5.2 Factors Affecting the Canal Losses

The causes of canal losses depend on the several factors, as described below:
a. The permeability of the strata through which the canal runs affect the canal losses.
b. The local drainage system and the level of the groundwater table;
c. The conditions of the canal also affect the canal losses. A canal filled with fine silt
experiences less seepage loss than one that has just been built.
d. From the canal in cutting, less water is lost in comparison to the canal which is in filling.
e. Amount of silt, carried by the canal also affect the canal losses. If canal carries more silt
the canal is in the loess.
f. Velocities of water also affect the canal losses. If the Velocity of water is more, the less
will be the percentage of loss..
g. Channels that run sporadically experience more losses than ones that run continuously.
h. Canal cross Section through which the canal runs also affects the canal losses. The loss
due to absorption is directly correlated with the wetted perimeter and the depth of water.

7.6 DISCHARGE IN CANALS

Canal discharge refers to the flow or volume of water passing through a canal over a specific
period. Canals are artificial waterways designed to convey water for various purposes, such
as irrigation, drainage, navigation, or water supply. The discharge in a canal is typically
measured in cubic meters per second (m³/s) or cubic feet per second (f³/s), similar to river
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 344

discharge. Monitoring and managing canal discharge are essential for efficient water resource
management. It helps ensure an adequate water supply for agriculture, supports navigation,
controls flooding, and facilitates other human activities dependent on water transport. Like
river discharge, canal discharge is a critical parameter for water resource engineers and
managers to optimize water distribution and usage in a given region.

7.6.1 Factors affecting Canal discharge

Several factors influence canal discharge:
a. Inflow sources: Canals receive water from various sources, including rivers, reservoirs,
or other water bodies. The volume of water entering the canal from these sources
contributes to the overall discharge.
b. Irrigation demands: In agricultural regions, canals are often used for irrigation. The
discharge in the canal must be sufficient to meet the water needs of the crops.
c. Human interventions: Similar to rivers, human activities such as dam operations, water
withdrawals, and control structures can affect the canal discharge. Regulation structures
like gates and weirs may be used to manage and control the flow in the canal.
d. Precipitation and runoff: Rainfall in the canal's watershed or catchment area can impact
the water inflow, affecting canal discharge. Additionally, runoff from adjacent areas may
contribute to the canal's flow.

7.6.2 Head discharge and cultivable commanded area (CCA)

The head discharge of the main canal is chosen to maximize the use of available water based
on the known availability of river discharge and the amount of water needed for a specific
cropping plan. To calculate the discharge that would be accessible at the outlets, the channel
system's expected losses are estimated. Consequently, the cultivable command area is
calculated and plotted on the map based on the available discharge and duty of water. Higher
areas that are not irrigated by gravity are also noted and included on the map. An irrigation
project's most crucial component is the fixing of head discharge and C.C.A. To meet the
demands of both the techno-economic and socio-economic domains, meticulous planning is
necessary.
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7.7 DESIGN DISCHARGE

The term "design discharge" typically refers to the planned or engineered rate of water flow
through a water conveyance system, such as a canal, river, or pipeline. The design discharge
is a critical parameter in the planning and engineering of water infrastructure, and it is
determined based on various factors and considerations. Accurate determination of design
discharge is crucial for the proper functioning and safety of water infrastructure. Engineers
must balance the need for conveying water efficiently with the need to manage potential risks
associated with extreme flow conditions.
Definition: Design discharge is the maximum expected flow rate that a water conveyance
system is designed to accommodate. It is expressed in terms of volume per unit of time, often
measured in cubic meters per second (m³/s).

7.7.1 Factors Influencing Design Discharge

a. Hydrological Data: Engineers analyze historical and statistical hydrological data,
including rainfall patterns, river flow data, and watershed characteristics, to estimate the
potential water flow in the system.
b. Land Use and Development: The design discharge considers the impact of land use
changes and development on the water flow patterns. Urbanization, deforestation, and
changes in land cover can influence runoff and flow rates.
c. Climate Conditions: Climate factors, such as precipitation, temperature, wind velocity,
humidity, sun shine hours, etc., are considered to estimate the potential for weather
events that may affect water flow.
d. Regulatory Requirements: Design discharge may be subject to regulatory
requirements and standards set by governmental agencies to ensure the safety and
sustainability of water infrastructure.

7.7.2 Applications of Design Discharge

a. Irrigation Canals: In irrigation systems, the design discharge determines the amount of
water that can be safely conveyed to irrigate agricultural fields.
b. River Channels: For river channels, the design discharge is essential in designing
bridges, culverts, and other hydraulic structures to handle the maximum expected flow.
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c. Storm-water Management: In urban areas, Stormwater management systems are

designed with a specific discharge capacity to handle rainfall and prevent flooding.
d. Water Supply Systems: Design discharge is considered in the planning of water supply
systems to ensure an adequate supply of water for domestic, industrial, or municipal use.
e. Safety Considerations: Design discharge is calculated to ensure that the water
conveyance system can safely handle the peak flow conditions without causing flooding,
erosion, or structural failure.
f. Hydraulic Modelling: Engineers often use hydraulic modelling and simulation tools to
analyze different scenarios and determine the appropriate design discharge for a given
water system.
g. Long-Term Planning: Design discharge is part of the long-term planning for water
infrastructure, considering factors such as population growth, changes in land use, and
potential climate variations.

7.8 DESIGN DISCHARGE ESTIMATION

The design discharge estimation involves the process of determining the maximum expected
flow rate that a water conveyance system, such as a canal, river, or pipeline, is designed to
handle. The process is critical for the planning, design, and engineering of water
infrastructure to ensure the system's capacity meets the demands under various conditions.
The estimation of design discharge is a complex process that requires a thorough
understanding of hydrological principles, local conditions, and potential variations in climate
and land use. It is crucial for engineers and planners to use reliable data and modelling
techniques to ensure the safety and effectiveness of water conveyance systems. Here are key
steps and considerations in the estimation of design discharge:
a. Hydrological Data Collection: Usually, it begins with collecting historical and statistical
hydrological data for the area of interest. This includes rainfall data, river flow
measurements, and information about the watershed characteristics.
b. Frequency Analysis: Use of statistical methods, such as frequency analysis, to analyze
historical data and estimate the return period of extreme events (e.g., floods). Common
probability distributions like Gumbel, Log-Pearson Type III, or others are often used.
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c. Peak Flow Estimation: Based on the frequency analysis, estimate the peak flow for
different return periods (e.g., 2-year, 10-year, 50-year, 100-year events). These events
represent the extreme conditions that the design discharge must accommodate.
d. Climate Change Considerations: Consideration of the potential impact of climate
change on precipitation patterns and extreme weather events. Climate change projections
may influence the estimation of design discharge, requiring adjustments for potential
future changes.
e. Land Use and Development Impact: Assessment of the impact of current and future
land use changes on the hydrological characteristics of the area. Urbanization,
deforestation, and changes in land cover can affect runoff patterns.
f. Regulatory Standards: Checking and adjuration to any regulatory standards or
guidelines set by relevant authorities. Regulatory requirements may specify the design
discharge criteria based on safety and environmental considerations.
g. Hydraulic Modelling: Utilization of hydraulic modelling and simulation tools to analyze
the behavior of the water conveyance system under different flow conditions. Hydraulic
models can help to simulate the impact of various scenarios on the system's performance.
h. Safety Margins: Introduction of safety margins to account for uncertainties in the
estimation process. Safety margins help ensure that the system can handle unexpected
conditions or variations from the predicted hydrological patterns.
i. Long-Term Planning: Consideration of long-term factors such as population growth,
urbanization trends, and potential changes in water demand. Design discharge should not
only meet current needs but also allow for future expansion.
j. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Engagement in interdisciplinary collaboration
involving hydrologists, hydraulic engineers, meteorologists, and other relevant experts.
This ensures a comprehensive approach to estimating design discharge.
k. Documentation and Reporting: Documentation of the methodology, assumptions, and
data used in the estimation process. Clearly report the estimated design discharge values
and associated uncertainties.
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7.8.1 Methods for Design Discharge Estimation

Several methods are used to estimate the design discharge for various engineering and water
management purposes. The choice of method depends on factors such as the characteristics
of the watershed, available data, and the level of precision required. Here are some
commonly used methods for estimating design discharge: When selecting a method, it is
crucial to consider the specific requirements of the project, data availability, and the desired
level of accuracy. In practice, engineers often use a combination of methods or models to
account for various factors influencing the design discharge.
a. Rational Method
Rational Method is a simple and widely used approach for estimating peak runoff based on
the runoff coefficient, rainfall intensity, and watershed area. It is suitable for small to
medium-sized watersheds with relatively short time of concentration. The Rational Method is
a widely used empirical equation for estimating peak runoff or design discharge from a
watershed or catchment area. It is commonly applied in hydrology and civil engineering for
designing Stormwater drainage systems, culverts, and other hydraulic structures. The
Rational Method is relatively simple but is suitable for small to medium-sized urban or rural
watersheds where the time of concentration is relatively short. The Rational Method provides
a quick and straightforward approach for estimating peak runoff, but it has limitations. It
assumes a uniform rainfall intensity over the entire watershed, neglects the time distribution
of rainfall, and may not be suitable for large watersheds with longer time of concentration.
For more complex and accurate analyses, hydrologists may use more sophisticated methods
such as the SCS (Soil Conservation Service) Curve Number method or distributed
hydrological models. The formula for rational method is given below as Equation 7.2.
Q=CiA ……(7.2)
where,
Q=Design discharge (cubic feet per second or cubic meters per second),
C = Runoff coefficient (dimensionless),
i = Rainfall intensity (inches per hour or millimeters per hour), and
A = Area of the watershed (square feet or square meters).
Here is a breakdown of the components:
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• Runoff Coefficient (C): The runoff coefficient represents the portion of rainfall that
becomes runoff. It ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates no runoff (all rainfall infiltrates
into the soil), and 1 indicates all rainfall becomes runoff. The coefficient depends on
factors such as land use, soil type, slope, and vegetation cover. It is often determined
empirically based on local conditions or from published tables.
• Rainfall Intensity (i): This is the rate of rainfall, usually expressed in inches per hour or
millimeters per hour. It can be derived from rainfall frequency analysis or obtained from
local meteorological records.
• Watershed Area (A): This is the total area of the watershed or catchment that
contributes to the runoff. It is measured in square feet or square meters.
Example 7.1: In each watershed, Rainfall Intensity (i): 5cm per hour; Area of the Watershed
(A): 100 square km; Runoff Coefficient (C): 0.5 (represents soil and land use characteristics).
Calculated design discharge (Q) using Rational Method.
Solution: Rainfall Intensity in meter: 5 cm/hour
= 5/100x3600 m/s
=1.388x10-5m/s
Design Discharge (Q):
The Rational Method formula is Q=CiA,
Q= 0.5 x 1.388x10-5x 100 x106
Q= 694 m3/sec
Adjust for Return Period:
• The value obtained from the Rational Method is often based on a specific return period,
such as a 2-year or 10-year storm. If no return period is specified, this is considered a
general design discharge.
• For example, if the design discharge is needed for a 10-year storm, adjustments would be
made based on regional frequency analysis.
This simplified example illustrates the steps involved in estimating the design
discharge using the rational method. It is important to note that real-world applications
involve more sophisticated methods, consideration of hydrological data, and collaboration
with experts in hydrology and hydraulic engineering.
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b. SCS (Soil Conservation Service) Curve Number Method

This method, developed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil
Conservation Service) to aid in the planning and design of water conservation and
management practices, considers factors such as land use, soil type, and hydrologic condition
to estimate runoff. The method is suitable for a range of watershed sizes and provides a more
detailed analysis compared to the Rational Method. The SCS (Soil Conservation Service)
Curve Number (CN) method is a widely used hydrological technique for estimating direct
runoff or peak discharge from rainfall events. The SCS-CN method is particularly applicable
too small to medium-sized watersheds. The SCS CN method is often used for event-based
rainfall-runoff modelling. It provides a simple and efficient way to estimate direct runoff for
different storm events. However, it has limitations, such as assuming uniform rainfall
distribution, neglecting snowmelt, and not considering channel routing. For more detailed
and comprehensive analyses, hydrologists may use more advanced models. The method
involves the following steps:
• Land Use and Cover Classification: Classify the land use and land cover within the
watershed. The SCS provides tables assigning curve numbers based on different types of
land cover, such as forests, grasslands, and urban areas.
• Hydrologic Soil Group Classification: Classify the soils in the watershed into one of
four hydrologic soil groups (A, B, C, or D) based on their runoff potential. Soils with
higher infiltration rates are assigned to Group A, while those with lower infiltration rates
are assigned to Group D.
• Antecedent Moisture Conditions: Determine the antecedent moisture condition (AMC)
of the watershed, which represents the soil moisture conditions prior to the rainfall event.
The three conditions are Dry (I), Average (II), and Wet (III).
• Calculate Curve Number: Using the land use, soil group, and antecedent moisture
condition, look up the corresponding curve number in the SCS CN tables or use
equations provided by the SCS. The curve number is a dimensionless number ranging
from 30 to 100, representing the runoff potential of the watershed.
• Estimate Runoff: The formula for estimating direct runoff (Q) is given as Equation 7.3.
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2
�(𝑃𝑃−0.2𝑆𝑆)�
𝑄𝑄 = (𝑃𝑃+0.8𝑆𝑆)
..…………(7.3)
where,
P= Rainfall excess, and
S= Potential maximum retention after runoff begins. The initial abstraction is
assumed to be 0.2 times the potential maximum retention.
c. Unit Hydrograph Method
The Unit Hydrograph method involves using a hypothetical unit hydrograph, which
represents the response of a watershed to a unit of excess rainfall. By convolution, the unit
hydrograph can be transformed to estimate the discharge for any given rainfall event. The
Unit Hydrograph (UH) method is a hydrological technique used to estimate the runoff
response of a watershed to a unit of excess rainfall. It is commonly employed for designing
Stormwater management systems, flood forecasting, and other water resource planning
applications. The method involves developing a unit hydrograph, which represents the
temporal distribution of runoff resulting from a unit of effective rainfall spread over a
specific duration. This method is often used in larger watersheds. The Unit Hydrograph
method assumes of linearity, which means that the shape of the unit hydrograph remains
constant regardless of the magnitude of the storm event. While this assumption simplifies the
analysis, it may not always hold true in all hydrological conditions. More sophisticated
hydrological models, such as the SCS Curve Number method or distributed hydrological
models, may be used for more complex and accurate analyses in larger watersheds. Here are
the key steps involved in the Unit Hydrograph method:
• Rainfall Distribution: Determination of the effective rainfall for a given storm event.
Effective rainfall is the portion of total rainfall that contributes to runoff after losses due
to infiltration, interception, and other abstractions have been considered.
• Unit Hydrograph Extraction: Extraction or derivation of the unit hydrograph from
historical rainfall and runoff data for the watershed. The unit hydrograph is a graphical
representation of the response of the watershed to a unit of effective rainfall. It shows the
relationship between time and discharge.
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• Duration Adjustment: Adjustment of the duration of the unit hydrograph to match the
duration of the effective rainfall for the specific storm event. This involves stretching or
compressing the time axis of the unit hydrograph.
• Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves: Usage of rainfall intensity-duration-
frequency curves to determine the intensity of the rainfall for different durations and
return periods. This information helps in selecting appropriate rainfall events for analysis.
• Convolution: Convolution of the adjusted unit hydrograph with the effective rainfall
hyetograph (rainfall over time). Convolution is a mathematical operation that combines
the unit hydrograph and the effective rainfall to produce the resulting hydrograph.
• Estimate Design Discharge: The resulting hydrograph represents the expected runoff for
the specific storm event. Design discharge can be estimated by identifying the peak flow
in the hydrograph.
d. Empirical Rainfall-Runoff Models
Empirical models use statistical relationships based on historical data to estimate runoff.
These models may consider factors such as antecedent soil moisture, rainfall characteristics,
and land use. Examples include the Clark, Nash, and SCS-CN methods. Empirical rainfall-
runoff models are statistical models that establish a relationship between rainfall inputs and
resulting runoff based on observed data. These models are empirical in nature, meaning they
are developed through the analysis of real-world data rather than being derived from physical
principles. Empirical models are often used when detailed information about the underlying
hydrological processes is limited or when simplicity is required. Empirical rainfall-runoff
models are valuable when detailed hydrological data are scarce or when there is a need for a
simplified representation of the watershed response. However, they may have limitations in
capturing the complexity of hydrological processes, especially in larger and more diverse
watersheds. In such cases, more comprehensive and physically based hydrological models
may be employed for a more accurate representation of the watershed behaviors. Here are
some common types of empirical rainfall-runoff models:
• Clark's Model: Clark’s model is one of the earliest empirical models and is based on a
linear relationship between runoff and effective rainfall. It involves a unit hydrograph
approach and assumes a linear reservoir for runoff production. The model parameters are
determined from observed data.
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• Nash Model: The Nash model is an improvement upon Clark's model and considers the
nonlinear relationship between rainfall and runoff. It introduces a parameter that accounts
for the time delay in runoff response. The Nash model is often used for small to medium-
sized watersheds.
• SCS-CN (Soil Conservation Service Curve Number) Models: While the SCS-CN
method is often used for direct runoff estimation, it can also be considered an empirical
model. It uses curve numbers derived from observed data to estimate runoff based on
factors such as land use, soil type, and antecedent moisture conditions.
• Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) Models: IUH models estimate runoff directly
from rainfall by using unit hydrographs that vary with time. These models consider the
temporal distribution of runoff and are often applied in urban hydrology studies.
• Gamma Model: The gamma model relates rainfall and runoff through a gamma
probability distribution. This model has been used in various regions and is based on
statistical properties of rainfall-runoff events.
• Power Law Models: Power law models express a power relationship between rainfall
and runoff. These models assume that runoff is a power function of rainfall, and the
model parameters are estimated from the observed data.
e. Probabilistic Methods
Probabilistic methods, such as frequency analysis, involve assessing the probability of
different rainfall events occurring. These methods are often used to estimate design
discharges for specific return periods, considering the likelihood of extreme events.
Probabilistic methods in hydrology involve assessing the probability of different hydrological
events, such as floods or extreme rainfall, occurring over a given period. These methods are
particularly useful for estimating design discharges for various return periods. Probabilistic
methods allow engineers and hydrologists to incorporate uncertainty into their analyses and
design processes. They help in making informed decisions by providing a range of possible
outcomes and their associated probabilities. This is particularly important in designing
infrastructure that needs to withstand extreme events while considering the inherent
variability in the hydrological system. Here are some common probabilistic methods used in
hydrology:
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• Frequency Analysis: Frequency analysis involves the statistical analysis of historical

hydrological data to estimate the probability of different magnitudes of events occurring.
It helps in determining the return period of a specific discharge value, which is essential
for designing structures like dams or bridges.
• Probability Distribution Models: Hydrologists often use probability distribution models
to represent the statistical distribution of hydrological variables, such as annual maximum
discharge or rainfall. Common distributions include the Gumbel, Lognormal, and Pearson
Type III distributions.
• Return Periods: Return periods express the average recurrence interval of an event of a
specific magnitude. For example, a 100-year flood has a 1% chance of occurring in any
given year. Return periods are often determined using frequency analysis and probability
distributions.
• Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves: IDF curves provide information about
the relationship between rainfall intensity, duration, and frequency. These curves help to
estimate the likelihood of different rainfall events, which is crucial for designing the
Stormwater management systems.
• Copula Models: Copulas are mathematical tools used to model the joint distribution of
multiple variables. In hydrology, copula models are applied to understand the dependence
structure between different hydrological variables, such as rainfall and runoff.
• Monte Carlo Simulation: Monte Carlo simulation involves generating a large number of
random samples from probability distributions to simulate different scenarios. This
method is often used to assess the uncertainty associated with hydrological predictions
and design discharges.
f. Distributed Hydrological Models
These models are designed to simulate the spatial and temporal distribution of various
hydrological variables, such as precipitation, evapotranspiration, soil moisture, and runoff,
within a watershed. Distributed hydrological models are sophisticated mathematical
representations of the hydrological processes that occur within a watershed. Unlike lumped
models that consider the entire watershed as a single unit, distributed models divide the
watershed into multiple spatial units, each with its own set of characteristics. Examples
include the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and the Hydrologic Engineering
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Centre-Hydrologic Modelling System (HEC-HMS). Distributed models are more complex

but can provide detailed insights into watershed behavior. Distributed hydrological models
are valuable tools for detailed and comprehensive hydrological assessments, especially in
larger and more complex watersheds. They provide a more realistic representation of the
spatial variability of hydrological processes, enabling better-informed decision-making in
water resources management. Here are key features and components of distributed
hydrological models:
• Spatial Representation: The spatial distribution of land cover, soil types, and other
relevant features is considered for each cell.
• Physical Processes: Distributed models simulate various physical processes, including
rainfall, infiltration, surface runoff, subsurface flow, groundwater flow, and stream flow.
These processes are often represented by mathematical equations derived from physical
principles.
• Hydrological Connectivity: The models consider the connectivity between adjacent
cells and their influence on water movement. This connectivity is crucial for capturing
the flow pathways, especially in terms of overland flow, interflow, and groundwater flow.
• Land Surface Processes: Distributed models account for land surface processes such as
vegetation dynamics, snow accumulation and melt, and surface energy balance. These
components are essential for understanding the impact of land cover on hydrological
processes.
• Model Calibration and Validation: Distributed models require calibration to adjust the
model parameters to match observed hydrological behavior. Calibration involves
adjusting the model to replicate observed streamflow and other hydrological variables.
Validation ensures that the model performs well under different conditions.
• Remote Sensing and GIS Integration: Distributed models often incorporate remote
sensing data and Geographic Information System (GIS) information to obtain accurate
and up-to-date spatial data for land cover, topography, and other relevant parameters.
• Simulation of Extreme Events: Distributed models are particularly useful for simulating
extreme events, such as floods or droughts, as they capture the spatial variability in
rainfall and terrain that influences the runoff.
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• Model Outputs: The models provide outputs such as spatial distribution of soil moisture,
evapotranspiration, and streamflow. These outputs can be used for various purposes,
including water resource management, flood forecasting, and land-use planning.

7.8.2 Natural Channels

When discussing natural channels for the flow of water, it typically refers to rivers, streams,
or watercourses that follow their natural course without significant human modifications.
These natural channels play a crucial role in the hydrological cycle and support various
ecological functions. Preserving and restoring natural channels is crucial for maintaining the
ecological integrity of the river systems and ensuring sustainable water management
practices. Human activities, such as channelization, urbanization, and dam construction, can
significantly impact these natural channels and alter their functions. Conservation efforts
often focus on maintaining or restoring the natural flow and geomorphic characteristics of
watercourses to support both environmental and human needs. Here are some key features
and aspects of natural water channels.
a. River Systems: Natural channels often include river systems with headwaters,
tributaries, and main stems. Rivers naturally meander, creating bends and curves, and
they may have varying widths and depths.
b. Bankfull Stage: The bankfull stage is the level at which a river or stream is just about to
overflow its banks. It represents the point where water begins to inundate the floodplain,
and it is a key parameter in understanding the natural flow regime.
c. Fluvial Processes: Natural channels are shaped and maintained by fluvial processes such
as erosion, sediment transport, and deposition. These processes contribute to the
formation of riverbeds, bars, and other geomorphic features.
d. Riparian Zones: The areas along the banks of natural channels, known as riparian zones,
are important for biodiversity. They provide habitat for various plant and animal species,
offer floodplain connectivity, and help filter pollutants.
e. Ecosystem Services: Natural water channels provide essential ecosystem services,
including water purification, groundwater recharge, and the transport of nutrients. They
also play a role in flood control by absorbing excess water during high-flow events.
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f. Meanders and Oxbows: Meanders are bends or curves in a river's course, and oxbow
lakes are formed when meanders are cut off from the main channel. These features are
part of the dynamic nature of natural watercourses.
g. Hydrological Variability: Natural channels exhibit natural variability in flow,
influenced by seasonal changes, precipitation patterns, and other environmental factors.
This variability is important for maintaining the health of aquatic ecosystems.
Preserving and restoring natural channels is crucial for maintaining the ecological
integrity of river systems and ensuring sustainable water management practices. Human
activities, such as channelization, urbanization, and dam construction, can significantly
impact these natural channels and alter their functions. Conservation efforts often focus on
maintaining or restoring the natural flow and geomorphic characteristics of watercourses to
support both environmental and human needs.
7.8.3 Rigid boundary channels
Rigid boundary channels refer to channels or conduits with structural boundaries that
maintain a fixed shape and do not deform significantly under the influence of flowing water.
Unlike natural channels with erodible banks or flexible linings, rigid boundary channels have
constructed or engineered boundaries that resist deformation and maintain a stable cross-
sectional shape. Rigid boundary channels are a common feature in urban infrastructure and
engineered water management systems where predictable flow conditions, stability, and
durability are crucial. The design and construction of these channels involve a combination
of hydraulic engineering principles, material science, and structural design considerations.
Key features and considerations related to rigid boundary channels include:
a. Material of Construction: Rigid boundary channels are typically constructed using
materials such as concrete, steel, or other rigid materials. These materials provide
stability and prevent significant deformation.
b. Lining Materials: Concrete is a common material used for lining rigid boundary
channels. The concrete lining can be applied to both the bed and the sides of the channel,
creating a durable and erosion-resistant structure.
c. Applications: Rigid boundary channels are often employed in engineered water
conveyance systems, irrigation canals, Stormwater channels, and urban drainage systems
where stable and well-defined channel geometry is essential.
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d. Stability and Erosion Resistance: The primary advantage of rigid boundary channels is
their stability and resistance to erosion. They are designed to withstand the hydraulic
forces of flowing water and resist the erosive effects that might occur in natural or
unlined channels.
e. Efficient Water Conveyance: Rigid boundary channels are designed to provide efficient
and controlled water conveyance. The fixed geometry allows for predictable flow
patterns and minimizes energy losses associated with channel deformation.
f. Maintenance: Rigid boundary channels often require less maintenance compared to
natural or flexible-lined channels. The durable materials used in construction, contribute
to longer service life and reduced susceptibility to erosion.
g. Hydraulic Design: The hydraulic design of rigid boundary channels involves
considerations of cross-sectional geometry, slope, and flow rates to optimize water
conveyance efficiency while ensuring structural stability.
h. Culverts and Stormwater Channels: Rigid boundary channels are commonly used in
the construction of culverts and Stormwater drainage systems in urban areas. These
structures are designed to efficiently transport Stormwater while preventing erosion and
maintaining structural integrity.
i. Environmental Impact: The environmental impact of rigid boundary channels should be
carefully considered. While they provide stability and durability, the alteration of natural
drainage patterns may have ecological implications, and efforts may be made to
incorporate features that enhance habitat diversity.
j. Design Standards and Codes: Engineers follow design standards and codes when
designing rigid boundary channels to ensure safety, stability, and compliance with
regulations. Local, regional, or national guidelines may dictate specific design criteria.

7.8.4 Alluvial channels

Alluvial channels are river channels characterized by the transportation and deposition of
sediments, typically consisting of sand, gravel, silt, and clay. These channels form in
response to the dynamic interactions between flowing water and the sediment load it carries.
Alluvial channels are common in fluvial environments and undergo continuous adjustments
based on factors such as flow characteristics, sediment supply, and base level changes.
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Understanding the behavior and characteristics of alluvial channels is crucial for various
applications, including river management, water resource planning, and environmental
conservation. Hydraulic engineers and geo-morphologists study these channels to predict
changes, assess sediment transport dynamics, and implement effective management
strategies. Key characteristics of alluvial channels include:
a. Dynamic Nature: Alluvial channels are dynamic and constantly changing due to the
continuous processes of erosion, transport, and deposition of sediment. Fluctuations in
water flow, sediment load, and base level contribute to these changes.
b. Sediment Transport: The channels transport a mix of sediments, ranging from coarse
particles like sand and gravel to finer particles like silt and clay. The nature of sediment
transport is influenced by flow velocity, channel slope, and the size and quantity of
sediments available.
c. Channel Morphology: Alluvial channels often exhibit diverse morphologies, including
braided, meandering, or straight patterns. The channel morphology is influenced by
sediment supply, slope, and the balance between erosion and deposition.
d. Braided Channels: In areas with abundant coarse sediments and variable flow
conditions, alluvial channels may form braided patterns characterized by multiple
interconnected channels separated by sediment bars.
e. Meandering Channels: Meandering channels have a sinuous, winding course and are
often associated with finer sediments. The migration of meanders contributes to the
lateral movement of the channel.
f. Floodplains: Alluvial channels typically have adjacent floodplains where sediment
deposition occurs during periods of flooding. Floodplains play a crucial role in storing
sediment and providing habitat diversity.
g. Natural Levees: During floods, sediment deposition along the channel banks can lead to
the formation of natural levees, raised landforms parallel to the channel. These levees
help to confine water within the channel during subsequent floods.
h. Avulsion and Shifts: Alluvial channels may undergo avulsion, which is the sudden shift
of the main channel to a new location on the floodplain. Avulsion is often associated with
changes in river course due to sedimentation and channel dynamics.
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i. Sediment Sorting: The sorting of sediments within the channel occurs based on size and
weight. Finer sediments may be transported farther downstream, while coarser sediments
may be deposited closer to the source.
j. Hydraulic Geometry: Alluvial channels adhere to hydraulic geometry principles, where
channel dimensions, such as width, depth, and slope, adjust in response to variations in
discharge and sediment load.

7.9 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW HYDRAULICS

a. Chezy’s equation
The design of irrigation channels must provide consistent and even flow. The flow condition
is said to be steady and uniform, when the discharge is constant along a specific length of the
channel under consideration and the flow depth remains constant. The Equation (7.4)
proposed by French engineer, Chezy in 1769, is to describe for flow of water in channels.
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐶𝐶√𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 ..…………(7.4)
where,
V = Mean velocity of flow in m/sec;
C = Chezy’s coefficient depends upon the surface and shape of the channel;
R = Mean hydraulic depth in meters;
S = channel's slope
b. Ganguillet and Kutter’s equation
Various authors have periodically conducted statistical analyses to estimate the value of Chez
y's Coefficient, and the values of Chezy's Coefficient from the equation
proposed by Ganguillet and Kutter gave satisfactory results. The Ganguillet and Kutter
equation is given as Equation 7.5a.
1 0.00155
23+ +
𝐶𝐶 = 𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆
0.00155 𝑛𝑛 ..…………(7.5a)
1+�23+ �
𝑆𝑆 √𝑅𝑅

Substituting C in Chezy's equation, the Equation (7.5a) can be written as Equation (7.5b).
1 0.00155
23+ +
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆
0.00155 𝑛𝑛 √𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 ..…………(7.5b)
1+�23+ �
𝑆𝑆 √𝑅𝑅
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c. Manning’s equation
The equation proposed by Ganguillet and Kutter is quite cumbersome. This equation was
further modified by Manning, who also gave similar results to those obtained from the
equation proposed by Ganguillet and Kutter. The manning’s equation can be expressed as
Equation (7.6a):
1
𝑅𝑅 �6
𝐶𝐶 = ..…………(7.6a)
𝑛𝑛

Substituting the value of C from Chezy’s equation, Manning’s equation can be rewritten as
Equation (7.6b).
1 2� 1�
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅 3 𝑆𝑆 2 …………(7.6b)
where n = roughness or Rugosity coefficient.
The physical roughness of the channel's sides and bottom determines the value of n,
which is affected by several elements including (i), channel curvature, (ii) changes in cross-
sectional size and shape, (iii) obstructions including debris roots, structures, and (iv)
vegetation etc. Table 7.1 lists the values of n that I.S.1 recommends for channels that have
been excavated. The projected future channel condition determines the value of n that should
be used. The number of weeds, issues with silting or scouring, and maintenance standards are
the key factors influencing the condition of the channel. The recommended values of n for
alluvial rivers by Buckley are listed in Table 7.2.
Table 7.1: Values of n for excavated open channels
SN Types of Channels Values on n
a. Earth, straight and uniform
i Clean, straight and uniform 0.016-0.020
ii Clean, after weathering 0.018-0.025
iii With short grass, few weeds 0.022-0.033
b. Rock cuts
i Smooth and uniform 0.025-0.040
ii Tagged and irregular 0.035-0.050
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Table 7.2: Values of Rugosity coefficient recommended by Buckley for alluvial channels
SN Condition of Channel Value of n
1 Very good 0.0225
2 Good 0.0250
3 Indifferent 0.0275
4 Bad 0.0300

Example 7.2: Find out the normal water depth and velocity in channel carrying a discharge
of 12 cumec and having bed width of 8 m. Use roughness coefficient n= 0.0250 and bed
slope S = 0.0018.
Solution:
Assuming side slope as 1:1, Channel cross-sectional area (A) = (B+D) x D}
Wetted Perimeter (p) = (𝐵𝐵 + 2𝐷𝐷√2)
where,
B = Bed width of the channel. and
D = depth of water in the channel
Hence, Hydraulic mean depth R = A/P
1 2� 1�
By Manning's Formula, 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅 3 𝑆𝑆 2
𝑛𝑛
2�
1 (B+D) x D} 3 1�
V = 0.025 � (𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2) � 0.0018 2

2�
(B+D) x D} 3
V = 1.697 𝑥𝑥 � (𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2) � ..…...………(i)

Now Q = A* V
2�
(B+D) x D} 3
Q = (B+D) x D} x 1.697 � (𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2) �
5
((B+D) x D) �3
𝑄𝑄 = 1.697 2 .....…………(ii)
(𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2) �3

Solving Equation (ii) by trial and error method, so that value of Q = 12. We get D = 0.93 m
363 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g
5
((8+0.93) x 0.93) �3
𝑄𝑄 = 1.697 2
(8+2x0.93x√2) �3

= 11.96 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
= Say 12 cumec
Hence, the water depth (D) = 93 cm
Substituting values of B and D in the Eqn. (i) we get
2�
(B+D) x D} 3
𝑉𝑉 = 1.697 𝑥𝑥 � �𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷 �
√2�
2�
(8+0.93)x0.93} 3
𝑉𝑉 = 1.697 𝑥𝑥 ��8+2x0.93x �
√2�

V= 1.44 m/sec.
Example 7.3: Design a channel with side slope 1:1 to carry 16 cumec discharge at a slope =
0.0016. Maximum permissible velocity in channel is 2.0 m/sec and n = 0.020.
Solution:
Assuming the side slope as 1:1
Area of Channel (A) = (B+D) x D}
Wetted Perimeter (p) = (𝐵𝐵 + 2𝐷𝐷√2)
Where,
B = Bed width of the channel. and
D = depth of water in the channel
Hence, Hydraulic mean depth
R= A/P
(B+D) x D}
R= (𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2)

Substituting these values in Manning's Formula

1 2� 1�
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅 3 𝑆𝑆 2
𝑛𝑛
2�
1 (B+D) x D} 3 1�
𝑉𝑉 = 0.02 � (𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2) � 0.0016 2
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2�
1 (B+D) x D} 3 1�
2.0 = 0.02 � (𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2) � 0.0016 2

2�
(B+D) x D} 3
1.0 = � � .…...………(i)
(𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2)

Now, Q = A* V
A =Q / V
(B+D) x D} = 16/2 = 8
(BD+D2) =8 ….….……(ii)
Substituting this value in equation (i), we have
2�
8 3
� � = 1.0
(𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2)
8
= 1.0
(𝐵𝐵+2𝐷𝐷√2)

�𝐵𝐵 + 2𝐷𝐷√2� = 8
B = 8.00 – 2.82 D
Substituting these values of B in equation (ii), and solving we get
(BD+D2) = 8
D (8.00 – 2.82 D) + D2 = 8
Or D = 1.53 m and B= 3.69 meter

7.10 KENNEDY'S SILT THEORY FOR STEADY REGIME CHANNELS

The charges and silt grade found in the upper Bari Doab Canal and its distributaries served as
the foundation for R.G. Kennedy's idea. Based on his observations, he concluded that, in a
stable regime, there is only one velocity for non-silting and non-scouring channels. This
velocity is known as the "critical velocity," represented by Vo, and it depends on the water
depth in the channel. Kennedy found the equation (Equation 7.7a) by charting his
measurements of depth and velocity in the steady regime reaches. Kennedy found the
equation by charting his measurements of depth and velocity in the steady regime reaches.

𝑽𝑽𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝑫𝑫𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟒𝟒 ..…………(7.7a)

365 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

where,
D = Depth of water in meter
𝑉𝑉0 = Velocity of water m/sec
This formula only applied to the silt grade found in the upper Bari-Doab Canal. The
'critical velocity ratio' (C.V.R.), represented by m, was included to the equation as an
additional element to account for different grades of silt. The equation may thus be re-written
as Equation (7.7b).
𝑽𝑽 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝒎𝒎𝑫𝑫𝟎𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟒𝟒 ..…………(7.7b)
where, m = V/V0 = C.V.R.
Table 7.3 lists the values of m for the various types of silt.
Table 7.3: Values of C.V.R. for different types of soils
Type of silt Value of m
Light sandy silt in the rivers of Northern India 1.00
Somewhat coarser silt or debris of hard soils 1.10
Sandy, loamy silt 1.20
Rather, coarser silt or debris of hard soils 1.30
Silt of the River Indus in Sindh (Pakistan) 0.70

Kennedy's equation does not account for the channel's breadth, shape, or slope.
Assuming trial values for these parameters is important before moving further with the
design. The calculated velocity should fulfil Kennedy's equation and provide the necessary
discharge for the estimated segment. The channel's mean velocity must not be lower than the
critical velocity.

7.10.1 Channel design by Kennedy’s theory

a. For designing a channel on Kennedy’s theory, the following data is required:
(i) Channel's design discharge, Q (cumec),
(ii) The Rugosity coefficient, n
(iii) The slope, S
(iv) The ratio of critical velocity, m = V/V0
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b. The equations to be applied are:

(i) Q = A* V
1 0.00155
23+ −
(ii) Kutter’s equation = 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆
0.00155 𝑛𝑛 √𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆
1+�23+ �
𝑆𝑆 √𝑅𝑅

(iii) Kennedy's equation = 𝑉𝑉 = 0.546 𝑚𝑚𝐷𝐷0.64

Procedure:
(a) Assume a trial value of Depth (D). Find out the value the critical velocity needed (V),
for this trial depth, by substituting in Kennedy's equation given as (iii).
(b) Using given value of channel's design discharge (Q) and Velocity (V), Obtain value
of A using equation (i) above, A = Q/V,.
(c) Find out the value of Bed width B, using side slope of channel, obtained value A and
trail value depth D. If slide slope of channel is not known, it can be assumed as ½:1.
(d) Find out the value of Hydraulic mean depth R, using obtained value A, Obtained
value of bed width B and trail value of depth D. Using equation R=A/P; where P=
wetted perimeter.
(e) Substitute obtained value R along with the other known values of Rugosity
coefficient, n, and Slope S, in the Kutter’s equation and obtain actual velocity V.
(f) If the velocity worked out from Kutter’s equation and obtained from Kennedy's
equation are almost same, the assumed depth is correct. If not, repeat the calculations
with changed values of D, till the both values of Velocity V are almost same.
Example 7.4: Design an irrigation channel to carry 50 cumec at a slope of 1/5000 with
Kutter's n = 0.0250 and m = 0.90.
Solution:
Assume depth = 2.50 m
Kennedy's V = 0.546 x 0.90 x 2.500.64
= 0.88 m/sec.
A = Q/V = 50.0/0.88 = 56.81 m2
For the purpose of discharging capacity, the side slopes of an irrigation
1
channel may be considered as 2
:1
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Hence A = BD + D2/2 = 56.81 sq. meter

Substituting D = 2.50 m, we have
2.50 B + 2.502/2 = 56.81
2.50 B = 56.81-3.125= 53.685
B = 21.474 m
P = B + 2𝐷𝐷√2
= 21.474 + 2√2 𝑥𝑥 2.50
= 28.54 m
Hydraulic mean depth R= A/P
R = 56.81/28.54
= 1.99 m
1 0.00155
23+ +
𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆
Chezy’s C, according to Kutter’s equation = 0.00155 𝑛𝑛
1+�23+ �
𝑆𝑆 √𝑅𝑅
1 0.00155
23+ +
0.0250 1/5000
= 0.00155 0.0250
1+�23+ �
1/5000 √1.99
23+40+7.75
=1+(23+7.75)0.0177
70.75
= = 45.82
1.544

Actual velocity of flow = 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐶𝐶√𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆

V= 45.82 �1.99x1/5000
V = 0.914 m/sec
The actual velocity of flow comes out to be nearly the same as the critical velocity of 0.88
m/sec. Hence the assumed channel dimensions are in order.
Bed width = 21.474 m; Depth D = 2.50 m.
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7.11 LACEY’S THEORY

Lacey’s theory likely refers to the work of Luna Bergere Lacey, an American hydraulic
engineer who made significant contributions to the understanding of sediment transport in
rivers and channels. While Lacey's work primarily focused on sediment transport in river
channels rather than the design of regime channels, we can draw some general principles
from his research that might inform the design of regime channels as follows:
(i) Just as Lacey studied the optimal flow of water in rivers; in designing regime
channels, one might aim to optimize the flow of information and communication
between states.
(ii) Lacey's equilibrium slope concept suggests a balance between sediment transport and
deposition.
(iii) Lacey's work recognized that river channels are dynamic and subject to change over
time. Similarly, in designing regime channels, flexibility and adaptability are crucial.
(iv) Channels should be designed to accommodate shifting geopolitical landscapes,
evolving interests among states, and changes in the issues or challenges facing the
international community.
(v) Lacey's theories considered how the shape and geometry of a river channel influence
sediment transport.
(vi) Lacey's equilibrium slope concept aimed to achieve stability in river channels over
time.
7.11.1 Lacey's silt theory
"Lacey's silt theory" likely refers to the developed theories and formulas by Lacey to predict
the movement of sediment, including silt, in river systems. Lacey's research focused on how
sediment particles of various sizes move and settle within river channels. He developed
equations and theories that described the relationships between flow velocity, channel
geometry, and sediment transport. One of his notable contributions was the development of
the "equilibrium slope" concept, which predicts the slope of a river channel necessary to
maintain a balance between sediment transport and deposition over time.
In essence, Lacey's silt theory provided valuable insights into the dynamics of sediment
transport in river systems, which have practical applications in engineering projects related to
river management, flood control, and navigation. His work had a lasting impact on the field
of hydraulic engineering and continues to be studied and applied by researchers and
practitioners today.
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7.11.2 Channel design using Lacey’s theory

Lacey's equations primarily pertain to the study of sediment transport in river channels rather
than the design of regime channels in international relations. However, we can draw some
parallels and use Lacey's principles metaphorically to illustrate the design of regime
channels. Here is an attempt to provide a metaphorical interpretation of Lacey's equations in
the context of regime channel design: For designing the channel based on Lacey’s theory, the
following items must be known.
(i) Discharge Q cumec
(ii) Silt factor ‘f’
The following equations are to be used for designing the channel:
1�
𝑄𝑄 𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑓 2 6
(i) 𝑉𝑉 = � 140
� ..…………(i)
5 𝑉𝑉 2
(ii) 𝑅𝑅 = 2 × � 𝑓𝑓 � ..…………(ii)

(iii) 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑄𝑄 × 𝑉𝑉 ..…………(iii)
(iv) 𝑃𝑃 = 4.75 �𝑄𝑄 ..…………(iv)
5
𝑓𝑓 �3
(v) 𝑆𝑆 = 1 .…………(v)
3340×𝑄𝑄 �6

Procedure:
(a) Using the given discharge (Q) and silt factor (f), find out the velocity from equation (i),
(b) Obtain the hydraulic mean depth (R) fusing equation (ii) above.
(c) Work out the channel’s area and wetted perimeter using equations (iii) and (iv) above.
(d) Using the Channel’s area A, wetted perimeter (P) and hydraulic mean depth (R); obtain
1
the bed width and depth of the channel, assuming the channel side slope 2
: 1.
(e) The longitudinal slope may be obtained using equation (v).
Example 7.5: Design a regime channel using by Lacey's theory. The available discharge of
the regime channel may be taken as 50 cumec and silt factor = 0.80. The corresponding side
1
slope of the channel can be assumed as 2 : 1.
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Solution:
Given, Channel discharge (Q) = 50 cumec
Silt factor (f) = 0.80
1�
𝑄𝑄 𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑓 2 6
𝑉𝑉 = � �
140
1�
50 𝑥𝑥 0.802 6
𝑉𝑉 = � �
140
V = 0.782 m/sec
5 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑅𝑅 = 2 × � 𝑓𝑓 �

5 0.7822
𝑅𝑅 = × � �
2 0.80
R = 1.91 m
𝑃𝑃 = 4.75 �𝑄𝑄

𝑃𝑃 = 4.75 √50
P = 33.58 m
𝐴𝐴 = 𝑄𝑄 × 𝑉𝑉
𝐴𝐴 = 50 × 0.782
A = 39.1 m
1
For a trapezoidal channel with 2 : 1 side slopes:

P = (B + √5𝐷𝐷 )
(B + √5𝐷𝐷 ) = 33.58, and
𝐷𝐷 2
A = BD+ .…………(i)
2
𝐷𝐷 2
BD+ = 39.1 ..…………(ii)
2

Solving equation (i) & (ii) we get

B = 30.90 m and D = 1.245 m
371 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g
5
𝑓𝑓 �3
Now, Silt factor 𝑆𝑆 = 1
3340×𝑄𝑄 �6
5
0.80 �3
𝑆𝑆 = 1 = 1/ 9303
3340×50 �6

7.11.3 Factors for channel design consideration

The design of channels, whether for irrigation, drainage, or Stormwater management,
involves a systematic process that considers various hydraulic, geometric, and environmental
factors. Proper channel design is essential for efficient water conveyance, erosion control,
and overall functionality. Here are the key steps and considerations in the design of channels
that needs to be followed:
a. Hydraulic Design:
• Flow Requirements: Determine the expected flow rates, or design discharge, based
on factors such as water demand (for irrigation), Stormwater runoff, or drainage
requirements.
• Velocity and Manning's Equation: Calculate the required channel velocity using
Manning's equation, considering the channel slope, roughness coefficient, and flow
rate. Adjust the channel dimensions to achieve the desired velocity.
• Cross-Sectional Shape: Select an appropriate cross-sectional shape for the channel,
such as trapezoidal, rectangular, or triangular, based on hydraulic efficiency and site-
specific conditions.
b. Geometric Design:
• Channel Dimensions: Determine the width, depth, and side slope of the channel
based on hydraulic and geometric considerations. Ensure that the dimensions provide
adequate conveyance capacity and stability.
• Bed Slope: Establish the longitudinal slope (bed slope) of the channel to achieve the
desired flow velocity and facilitate sediment transport. The slope is often influenced
by the topography of the area.
c. Erosion Control:
• Bank Protection: Incorporate measures to prevent erosion of channel banks. This
may involve adding riprap, vegetation, or other erosion control structures.
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• Velocity Control: Design the channel to control flow velocities and prevent
excessive erosion. Structures like weirs, drop structures, or energy dissipaters may be
used.
d. Sediment Transport:
• Velocity and Sediment Load: Consider the ability of the channel to transport
sediment without excessive deposition. Adjust channel dimensions and slope to
accommodate sediment transport requirements.
e. Materials and Linings:
• Lining Material: Select appropriate materials for the channel lining, considering
factors such as soil type, erosion potential, and water quality. Common materials
include concrete, asphalt, clay, or synthetic liners like geo-membranes.
• Vegetative Cover: In some cases, vegetation may be used to stabilize the channel
banks and enhance erosion control.
f. Structural Elements:
• Culverts and Bridges: Design and incorporate culverts or bridges where necessary
to facilitate water flow across roads, railways, or other obstacles.
• Weirs and Drop Structures: Include structures like weirs and drop structures to
control flow velocities, reduce erosion, and manage elevation changes.
g. Water Quality Considerations:
• Vegetative Buffers: Design vegetative buffers along the channel to filter pollutants
and protect water quality.
• Sediment Basins: Consider the need for sediment basins or settling ponds to capture
sediment before it enters the channel.
h. Regulatory Compliance:
• Permitting and Regulations: Ensure that the channel design complies with local,
regional, and national regulations. Obtain the necessary permits for construction and
modifications.
i. Maintenance Considerations:
• Accessibility: Design the channel for ease of maintenance. Access points, service
roads, and maintenance considerations should be incorporated into the design.
• Sediment Removal: Plan for periodic sediment removal to maintain the channel's
conveyance capacity.
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j. Environmental Impact Assessment:

• Ecological Impact: Assess and minimize the potential impact of the channel design
on the surrounding environment, including aquatic habitats, flora, and fauna.
k. Hydrological Analysis:
• Rainfall and Runoff: Conduct a hydrological analysis to estimate rainfall patterns,
runoff characteristics, and peak flow rates. Use this information for sizing the
channel and designing appropriate structures.
l. Community Engagement:
• Stakeholder Involvement: Involve local communities and stakeholders in the
design process to gather input, address concerns, and enhance the project's overall
success.
Throughout the design process, it is crucial to use engineering principles, consider
site-specific conditions, and integrate environmental sustainability practices. Collaborating
with hydrologists, hydraulic engineers, environmental scientists, and other relevant experts
can contribute to a comprehensive and effective channel design.

7.12 CANAL OUTLETS

Canal outlets refer to structures or mechanisms designed to regulate the flow of water from a
canal to its intended destination. These outlets are crucial in managing water distribution for
agricultural, industrial, or domestic purposes. The choice of canal outlet depends on factors
such as the volume of water to be discharged, the desired flow rate, and the specific
requirements of the downstream area.
Here are some common types of canal outlets:
a. Sluice Gates: Sluice gates are adjustable gates or barriers that can be raised or lowered to
control the flow of water. They are often used in larger canals and are effective in
managing water levels.
b. Check Structures: Check structures are built across canals to control the flow of water.
They can include various features such as gates, weirs, or other flow control mechanisms.
c. Siphons: Siphons are structures that allow water to flow over an obstruction or under an
obstacle. They are often used to carry water across a depression or under a road, enabling
the canal to continue its course.
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d. Culverts: Culverts are pipes or structures that allow water to pass under a road,
embankment, or other obstacle. They are commonly used in canal systems to maintain a
continuous flow.
e. Flumes: Flumes are open channels designed to carry water over a short distance. They
can be used as outlets to direct water to specific areas or as a means of controlling the
flow.
f. Weirs: Weirs are structures built across a river or canal to control the flow of water.
They often involve a low dam or wall with a notch to regulate water levels.
g. Regulators: Regulators are structures that help in dividing water among different
distributaries. They are used to control the distribution of water in irrigation systems.
7.12.1 Factors Affecting Canal Outlets
The choice of a canal outlet depends on factors such as the type of canal, the terrain, the
intended use of the water, and the local environmental conditions. Properly designed and
maintained canal outlets are essential for efficient water management in agriculture, and
several irrigation factors influence the selection and performance of canal outlets. The choice
of a canal outlet is crucial for effective water management and distribution. Here are some
key factors that can affect canal outlets:
a. Flow Rate and Discharge Requirements: The volume of water that needs to be
discharged from the canal influences the type of outlet selected. Different outlets have
varying capacities, and the design must accommodate the expected flow rates.
b. Topography and Terrain: The physical characteristics of the landscape, such as slopes,
elevations, and soil types, can impact the design and location of canal outlets. The outlet
must be situated in a way that allows for efficient water flow and minimizes erosion.
c. Water Quality: The quality of the water in the canal, including sediment levels and
debris, can affect the choice of outlet. Some outlets, like sluice gates and screens, are
better at handling debris, while others may require additional filtration systems.
d. Purpose of Water Use: The intended use of the water (agriculture, industrial, or
domestic) can influence the type of outlet chosen. Different outlets may be more suitable
for delivering water to specific applications.
e. Local Climate and Weather Conditions: Climate factors such as rainfall patterns,
temperature variations, and the possibility of freezing conditions can impact the
performance of canal outlets. Proper design and materials should account for these
environmental factors.
375 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

f. Maintenance Requirements: The ease of maintenance and the frequency of required

upkeep are essential considerations. Some outlets may be more prone to clogging or
damage, requiring more frequent inspection and maintenance.
g. Regulation and Control Needs: The level of control needed over water flow, including
the ability to adjust flow rates, is a significant factor. Sluice gates, weirs, and other
control structures offer varying degrees of regulation.
h. Cost and Budget Constraints: The financial resources available for the canal outlet's
construction, installation, and maintenance play a major role in the selection process.
Different types of outlets have varying costs associated with their design and
implementation.
i. Environmental Impact: The ecological impact of canal outlets on the surrounding
environment, including aquatic ecosystems and wildlife, is a consideration. Designs that
minimize negative effects on the environment may be preferred.
j. Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Compliance with local laws, regulations, and
permits is essential. Authorities may have specific requirements regarding the design,
construction, and operation of canal outlets to ensure water resource management and
environmental protection.
Considering these factors in the planning and design stages helps to ensure the
successful implementation of canal outlets that meet the specific needs of the water
distribution system and the surrounding environment.
7.12.2 Modular Canal Outlets
"Modular" typically refers to a system or design that consists of separate components or
modules that can be easily connected or combined to create a larger structure. In the context
of canal outlets, it might imply a design where various components are assembled in a
modular fashion to create an outlet structure. In general, canal outlets can be designed with
modular features to enhance flexibility, ease of installation, and adaptability to different
conditions. Some features that could be considered modular in canal outlet design include:
a. Adjustable Components: Outlets that have adjustable elements, such as gates or weirs,
allowing for customization based on water flow requirements.
b. Modular Screens or Filters: Filters or screens that can be modular in design, making it
easier to replace or clean specific components without affecting the entire system.
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c. Interchangeable Parts: Components that can be easily replaced or upgraded without

requiring extensive changes to the entire canal outlet structure.
d. Scalability: Modular designs can often be easily scaled up or down to accommodate
varying water flow rates or different canal sizes.
e. Easy Maintenance: Components designed for easy access and maintenance, ensuring
that individual parts can be addressed without disrupting the entire canal outlet.

7.12.3 Non-modular canal outlets

The term "non-modular canal outlets" refers to canal outlet structures that are not designed
with modular components. In this context, "non-modular" suggests that the outlet is
constructed as a single, integrated system without easily separable or interchangeable parts.
Here are some characteristics of non-modular canal outlets:
a. Integrated Design: Non-modular canal outlets are designed and constructed as a single,
cohesive structure. The components are typically interconnected and not intended to be
easily separated.
b. Limited Customization: Unlike modular designs that allow for customization through
the addition or removal of specific modules, non-modular outlets may offer limited
options for customization once installed.
c. Fixed Components: The various elements of the canal outlet, such as gates, weirs, or
control structures, are often fixed in place and not easily adjustable or replaceable.
d. Single-Purpose Structures: Non-modular canal outlets are typically designed for
specific flow rates, water levels, and purposes without the flexibility to adapt to changing
conditions.
e. Complex Maintenance: Maintenance of non-modular canal outlets may involve more
intricate processes, as repairs or replacements may require addressing the entire structure
rather than individual components.
f. Less Scalability: Non-modular designs may be less scalable in terms of accommodating
changes in water flow rates or canal system modifications.
It is important to note that the choice between modular and non-modular canal outlets
depends on various factors, including the specific requirements of the water distribution
system, environmental conditions, and the level of flexibility needed in managing water flow.
377 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Engineers and designers carefully consider these factors when planning and implementing
canal outlet structures to ensure efficient water management.
7.12.4 Semi-modular canal outlets
The term "semi-modular canal outlets" suggests a design that incorporates both modular and
non-modular features. While there is not a standard or widely recognized definition for
"semi-modular" in the context of canal outlets, the term generally implies a combination of
both modular and integrated elements in the design. Here are some characteristics that might
be associated with semi-modular canal outlets:
a. Combination of Modular and Fixed Components: Semi-modular canal outlets may
include some components that are designed to be modular, allowing for flexibility and
customization, while other components are integrated and less easily separable.
b. Adjustable Features: Some elements of the canal outlet structure might be designed to
be adjustable or interchangeable, providing a degree of flexibility in managing water
flow.
c. Limited Customization: While offering more flexibility than non-modular designs,
semi-modular canal outlets may not provide the same level of customization as fully
modular systems.
d. Integrated Control Structures: Certain critical components, such as control gates or
weirs, may be integrated into the structure and not easily replaced or modified.
e. Adaptability to Changing Conditions: Semi-modular designs may strike a balance
between adaptability and stability, allowing for adjustments to be made based on
changing water flow requirements or other conditions.
f. Ease of Maintenance: Maintenance of semi-modular canal outlets may involve a
combination of straightforward tasks for modular components and more complex
procedures for integrated elements.
It is important to note that the specific features and characteristics of semi-modular canal
outlets can vary based on the engineering and design choices made for a particular project.
The goal is often to find a balance between the benefits of modularity, such as ease of
maintenance and adaptability, and the stability of an integrated structure. The choice of a
semi-modular design will depend on the specific needs and constraints of the water
distribution system in question.
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7.13 WATER LOGGING

Water logging refers to the saturation of soil with water to the extent that it hinders or
prevents plant growth. This occurs when the soil's ability to absorb and drain water is
exceeded, leading to an accumulation of excess water on the surface or in the root zone of
plants. Water logging can have detrimental effects on both agricultural and urban areas. Here
are some key points related to water logging:
a. Causes:
• Excessive rainfall: Heavy and prolonged rainfall can lead to water logging,
especially in areas with poor drainage systems.
• Poor drainage: Inadequate drainage systems or blocked drainage channels can
contribute to water logging.
• High water table: In some areas, the water table may be naturally high, making the
soil more prone to water logging.
• Compacted soil: Soil compaction reduces its ability to absorb water, increasing the
likelihood of water logging.
b. Effects:
• Reduced oxygen availability: Waterlogged soil restricts the flow of air to plant
roots, leading to oxygen deficiency. This can negatively impact root growth and
overall plant health.
• Nutrient leaching: Water logging can result in the leaching of nutrients from the
soil, making them less available to plants.
• Increased susceptibility to diseases: Waterlogged conditions create a favorable
environment for certain plant diseases.
• Crop damage: Agricultural crops may suffer yield losses or even complete crop
failure due to water logging.
c. Prevention and Mitigation:
• Improved drainage: Installing or maintaining proper drainage systems helps
prevent waterlogging.
• Land shaping: Properly shaping the land can promote water runoff and prevent
water accumulation.
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• Crop selection: Choosing crops that are more tolerant to waterlogged conditions can
mitigate the impact.
• Soil management: Implementing practices like organic matter addition and avoiding
soil compaction can improve soil structure and drainage.
d. Urban Water logging:
• In urban areas, water logging can lead to flooding of streets, basements, and other
low-lying areas.
• Inadequate stormwater drainage systems and improper urban planning can contribute
to urban water logging.
e. Climate Change Impact:
• Changes in precipitation patterns and more intense rainfall events due to climate
change may exacerbate water logging issues in certain regions.
Effective management of water logging involves a combination of proper land use
planning, sustainable agricultural practices, and infrastructure development to ensure
efficient water drainage.

7.14 LINING OF CANALS

Canal lining refers to the process of adding a protective layer to the bed and/or sides of a
canal to reduce seepage and enhance the conveyance efficiency of the canal system. Lining
can help conserve water resources by minimizing losses due to seepage into the surrounding
soil. The choice of lining material and method depends on factors such as the local soil
conditions, climate, and the specific requirements of the canal. Here are some common
methods of canal lining:
a. Earthen Lining: The canal bed and sides are compacted to form a relatively
impermeable layer using locally available soil.
• Application: Suitable for canals with cohesive soils that have good compaction
characteristics. It is a cost-effective method but may require periodic maintenance.
b. Clay Lining:
• Description: A layer of clay is applied to the canal bed and sides to form a seal
against seepage. The clay layer may be compacted to enhance impermeability.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 380

• Application: Effective in areas where suitable clay is available. Proper compaction

is essential for the success of clay lining.
c. Concrete Lining:
• Description: Concrete is applied to the canal bed and sides to form a durable and
impermeable lining. It can be precast or applied in situ.
• Application: Suitable for canals with high seepage losses and where a durable and
long-lasting lining is required. Common in urban areas and large irrigation projects.
d. Asphaltic Concrete Lining:
• Description: A layer of asphaltic concrete, which consists of asphalt and aggregates,
is applied to the canal to provide an impermeable coating.
• Application: Effective in reducing seepage losses. Commonly used in conjunction
with other lining methods or materials.
e. Geo-membrane Lining:
• Description: Synthetic liners, such as geo-membranes made of materials like HDPE
(High-Density Polyethylene) or PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride), are used to create an
impermeable barrier.
• Application: Suitable for canals with highly permeable soils. Geo-membranes are
resistant to chemical degradation and provide a reliable lining solution.
f. Flexible Membrane Lining:
• Description: Flexible membranes made of materials like EPDM (Ethylene
Propylene Diene Monomer) or PVC are used as liners to reduce seepage.
• Application: Effective in areas with expansive soils or where flexibility is required.
They can conform to the soil surface and resist cracking.
g. Grouted Lining:
• Description: Cement or chemical grout is injected into the soil to create an
impermeable barrier against seepage.
• Application: Used in conjunction with other lining methods or in situations where
localized treatment is needed.
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h. Rock Lining:
• Description: A layer of rock or other durable materials is placed along the canal bed
and sides to reduce erosion and seepage.
• Application: Common in open-channel sections of canals where protection against
erosion is a primary concern.
The choice of lining method depends on factors such as the local soil conditions, the
level of seepage control required, the project budget, and the expected lifespan of the canal. It
is essential to consider the long-term maintenance requirements and the environmental
impact of the chosen lining method. Additionally, a proper engineering analysis and design
are crucial for the success of the canal lining project.
The drainage of irrigated lands is essential to maintain optimal soil conditions for plant
growth and prevent issues such as water logging, salinity, and root damage. Here are the key
reasons why drainage is necessary for irrigated lands, along with various methods used to
achieve effective drainage:
7.14.1 Necessity of Drainage in Irrigated Lands
a. Preventing Water logging:
• Excess Water Removal: Irrigated lands may receive more water than the soil can
absorb or drain naturally. Proper drainage prevents water logging, which can lead to
oxygen deprivation and hinder root development.
b. Avoiding Soil Salinity:
• Leaching of Salts: Irrigation water can contain dissolved salts. Without proper
drainage, these salts may accumulate in the soil, leading to salinity problems that
adversely affect plant growth.
c. Improving Soil Aeration:
• Oxygen Infiltration: Effective drainage enhances soil aeration by allowing the
infiltration of oxygen into the root zone. Adequate oxygen levels are crucial for the
respiration of plant roots.
d. Enhancing Nutrient Uptake:
• Nutrient Availability: Proper drainage helps to maintain optimal nutrient levels in
the soil by preventing nutrient leaching and ensuring that essential elements are
available for plant uptake.
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e. Preventing Erosion:
• Surface Runoff Control: Drainage systems help to control surface runoff,
preventing soil erosion and preserving the topsoil structure.
f. Facilitating Timely Planting and Harvesting:
• Workability of Soil: Well-drained soils are more workable, allowing for timely
planting and harvesting operations. In poorly drained soils, fieldwork may be
delayed due to wet conditions.
7.14.2 Methods of Drainage in Irrigated Lands:
a. Surface Drainage:
• Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines helps slow down water
runoff, preventing soil erosion.
• Open Ditches: Constructing open ditches or channels helps to collect and direct
excess water away from the fields.
b. Subsurface Drainage:
• Tile Drainage: Installing perforated pipes or tiles underground to collect and
transport excess water to drainage outlets.
• French Drains: Buried pipes filled with gravel or rocks that collect and redirect
subsurface water.
c. Land Grading and Levelling:
• Precision Grading: Levelling the land to ensure a uniform slope for efficient water
drainage.
d. Vegetative Measures:
• Cover Crops: Planting cover crops helps stabilize the soil structure, reduce surface
runoff, and enhance water infiltration.
• Buffer Strips: Planting vegetation along waterways to trap sediments and filter
runoff.
e. Water Control Structures:
• Weirs and Check Dams: Structures that regulate water flow in ditches and canals.
• Culverts and Bridges: Allow water to pass under roads and pathways without
causing obstruction.
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f. Irrigation Management:
• Controlled Irrigation: Implementing precise irrigation schedules to avoid
overwatering and minimize the risk of waterlogging.
g. Regular Maintenance:
• Clearing Obstructions: Periodically inspecting and clearing drainage channels and
structures to ensure unimpeded water flow.
h. Water-Quality Monitoring:
• Testing Water Quality: Regularly monitoring the quality of irrigation water to
detect and address salinity issues.
A comprehensive approach that combines various drainage methods and considers the
specific characteristics of the land is essential for effective drainage in irrigated areas. The
goal is to create a balanced and sustainable water management system that supports healthy
crop growth.

SUMMARY
Canal distribution systems are crucial for maintaining human activity and managing water
resources in many parts of the world. It typically describes a network of artificial waterways
used for drainage, flood control, transportation, irrigation, and water supply, among other
purposes. Canal distribution systems require the construction and upkeep of canals to
transport water from a river or reservoir to farms and crops. Technology is widely used in
today's canal distribution systems to boost efficiency and conserve water. The use of sensors,
automated control systems, and specialized irrigation techniques might be required to achieve
this. Materials such as concrete or plants may be utilized to line canals. Water losses from the
canal distribution system, estimation of its design discharge, types of channels (such as rigid
boundary channels, alluvial channels, etc.), and channel design methodologies (such as
Kennedy's and Lacey's theory) have all been addressed during this unit. Furthermore, various
kinds of canal linings and outflows have been documented. Lastly, techniques for draining
irrigated land have been discussed, along with the causes, consequences, and corrective
actions for waterlogging.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 384

EXERCISE
Revision Questions
1. Define the canal distribution systems.
2. What are the uses of a canal system? With the help of a diagram classify a canal system.
3. Provide different category of canals based on their uses.
4. What do you understand by alignment of canals? Describe key considerations and factors
in determining the alignments of a canal.
5. With the help of a neat sketch define various types of canal alignments.
6. Give a short note on (a) Command area; (b) gross command area; and (iii) cultivable
command area.
7. Describe the causes of canal losses.
8. What are the factors that affects the canal losses?
9. What do you understand by discharge of canal? Describe various factors affecting
discharge in a canal system.
10. Define term design discharge. Describe the factors affecting design discharge.
11. Describe the key considerations in the estimation of design discharge.
12. Describe the rational method for design discharge of a water body.
13. Describe SCS (Soil Conservation Service) Curve Number Method for design discharge of
a water body.
14. Describe the Unit hydrograph method for design discharge of a canal.
15. Describe in brief different empirical models use statistical relationships based on
historical data to estimate runoff.
16. What are the differences between a natural channel and a canal system?
17. Define rigid boundary channels. Describe the key features and considerations related to
rigid boundary channels.
18. What do you understand by the alluvial channel?
19. Define the following equations. (i) Chezy’s equation; (ii) Ganguillet and Kutter’s
equation; (iii) Manning’s equation.
20. Define the following (i) Kennedy's silt theory; (ii) Lacey’s theory.
385 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

21. Describe key factors for design of channel.

22. Describe canal outlets. Describe various factors affecting the canal outlets.
23. Define the term, water logging. Describe various factors affecting water logging.
24. What do you understand by lining of canals? Describe various types of canal lining.
Numerical Problems
1. In a given watershed, Rainfall Intensity (i): 6cm per hour; Area of the Watershed (A):
120 square km; Runoff Coefficient (C): 0.5 (represents soil and land use characteristics).
Calculated design discharge (Q) using the Rational Method.
2. Find out normal water depth and velocity in channel carrying a discharge of 11 cumec
and having bed width of 7 m. Use roughness coefficient n= 0.0225 and bed slope S =
0.0017.
3. Design as channel with side sloped 1:1 to carry 15 cumec at a slope = 0.0018. Maximum
permissible velocity in channel is 1.9 m/sec and n = 0.022.
4. Design an irrigation channel to carry 45 cumec at a slope of 1/5500 with Kutter's n =
0.0250 and m = 0.95.
5. Design a regime channel using Lacey's theory. The available discharge of the regime
channel may be taken as 55 cumec and silt factor = 0.85. The corresponding side slope of
1
the channel can be assumed as 2 : 1.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is the primary purpose of a canal distribution system?
A) To transport water for irrigation
B) To generate hydroelectric power
C) To provide recreational boating opportunities
D) To manage stormwater runoff
2. Which of the following is a common feature of a canal distribution system?
A) Dams B) Spillways
C) Sluice gates D) All of the above
3. What is a "headworks" in a canal distribution system?
A) The area where water is stored
B) The structure that regulates water flow into the canal
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 386

C) The main canal itself

D) A type of irrigation technique
4. Which factor is most important in the design of a canal distribution system?
A) Soil type B) Crop water requirements
C) Climate conditions D) All of the above
5. What is a "reach" in the context of canal distribution systems?
A) The total length of a canal
B) A segment of the canal between two control structures
C) The area where water is diverted from a river
D) The point where water is used for irrigation
6. How is water typically conveyed in a canal distribution system?
A) Through underground pipes B) In open channels
C) Using pumps only D) Through water tanks
7. What is a potential drawback of canal distribution systems?
A) High efficiency in water delivery B) Evaporation losses
C) Low construction costs D) Minimal environmental impact
8. What is the term for the process of measuring and managing water flow in a canal?
A) Hydrology B) Water allocation
C) Water management D) Flow regulation
9. Which type of canal is primarily used for navigation?
A) Irrigation canal B) Drainage canal
C) Navigation canal D) Flood control canal
10. What type of canal is designed specifically to divert water for agricultural purposes?
A) Irrigation canal B) Stormwater canal
C) Flood control canal D) Recreational canal
11. Which type of canal helps to manage excess water and prevent flooding?
A) Navigation canal B) Irrigation canal
C) Drainage canal D) Recreational canal
387 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

12. What is a "feeder canal"?

A) A canal that collects stormwater
B) A canal that supplies water to a larger canal system
C) A canal used for recreational purposes
D) A canal that drains excess water
13. Which type of canal is often used to create artificial lakes for recreational activities?
A) Irrigation canal B) Flood control canal
C) Recreational canal D) Navigation canal
14. What distinguishes a "conveyance canal" from other types?
A) It is only used for irrigation
B) It primarily transports water over long distances
C) It is designed for small water bodies
D) It has no controlled flow
15. What is the main function of a "drainage canal"?
A) To provide water for irrigation B) To remove excess water from land
C) To facilitate navigation D) To store water for later use
16. What is a major category of canals based on their construction?
A) Concrete canals B) Earthen canals
C) Steel-lined canals D) All of the above
17. Which type of canal is specifically designed to accommodate large vessels?
A) Irrigation canal B) Drainage canal
C) Navigation canal D) Flood control canal
18. Canals can be categorized based on their maintenance requirements. Which of the
following is true?
A) Natural canals require more maintenance
B) Artificial canals are typically easier to maintain
C) All canals need regular maintenance
D) Only irrigation canals require maintenance
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19. Based on water flow, canals can be categorized into two types. What are they?
A) Open and closed B) Static and dynamic
C) Natural and artificial D) Seasonal and perennial
20. What is a "seasonal canal"?
A) A canal that runs dry in the summer
B) A canal that is used only during certain times of the year
C) A permanent canal with fluctuating water levels
D) A canal used for recreational purposes
21. Canals can also be categorized based on their size. Which of the following is a common
size category?
A) Micro canals B) Major canals
C) Minor canals D) All of the above
22. What is a "command area" in irrigation terminology?
A) The total area that can be cultivated
B) The area served by a specific irrigation project
C) The area affected by soil erosion
D) The area designated for crop rotation
23. Which of the following is a primary objective of defining a command area?
A) To increase the use of chemical fertilizers B) To manage water resources efficiently
C) To eliminate pests and diseases D) To promote urban development
24. In a well-managed command area, which factor is most critical for optimizing crop yield?
A) Soil type B) Water availability
C) Weather patterns D) Market access
25. What is a common challenge faced in command areas?
A) Excessive rainfall B) Water scarcity and distribution
C) Overpopulation D) High land prices
26. Which method is often used to improve irrigation efficiency in command areas?
A) Flood irrigation B) Drip irrigation
C) Rain-fed agriculture D) Traditional ploughing
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27. What does GCA stand for in irrigation terminology?

A) Gross Cultivated Area B) Gross Command Area
C) Geographic Crop Area D) General Crop Assessment
28. What is the primary characteristic of CCA?
A) The total area under water management
B) The area that can be cultivated with irrigation
C) The area affected by soil salinity
D) The area used for non-agricultural purposes
29. Which of the following statements is true regarding the relationship between GCA and
CCA?
A) GCA is always equal to CCA B) CCA is typically less than GCA
C) CCA can be greater than GCA D) GCA and CCA are unrelated concepts
30. Why is it important to differentiate between GCA and CCA in irrigation planning?
A) To maximize crop prices
B) To assess environmental impact
C) To ensure efficient water resource management
D) To identify pest control methods
31. Which of the following factors can reduce the CCA within a given GCA?
A) Improved irrigation techniques B) Urban development and infrastructure
C) Crop rotation practices D) Increased rainfall
32. What is design discharge?
A) The maximum flow that can be accommodated in a system
B) The average flow during peak usage
C) The flow rate estimated for a specific design condition
D) The flow rate during a storm event
33. Which of the following methods is commonly used for estimating design discharge for
drainage systems?
A) Rational Method B) Average Daily Flow Method
C) Peak Hourly Flow Method D) Continuous Simulation Method
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 390

34. The Rational Method for design discharge estimation is typically used for which type of
area?
A) Urban areas with extensive drainage networks
B) Rural areas with large watersheds
C) Areas with limited impervious surfaces
D) Any area regardless of land use
35. What factors can affect the design discharge estimation?
A) Land use changes B) Climate change
C) Topography D) All of the above
36. In hydrology, the term "return period" refers to:
A) The average frequency of a flood event
B) The time taken for water to return to a normal level
C) The duration of a design storm
D) The frequency at which design standards need to be updated
37. Which of the following is NOT typically considered in design discharge calculations?
A) Rainfall intensity B) Soil type
C) Colour of the infrastructure D) Drainage area
38. For a drainage system, what is the primary purpose of estimating design discharge?
A) To determine the aesthetic appearance of the system
B) To ensure the system can handle expected peak flows
C) To calculate the total cost of materials
D) To assess environmental impact
39. In an urban area, increased impervious surfaces would likely lead to:
A) Decreased design discharge B) Increased design discharge
C) No change in design discharge D) Variable design discharge
40. Which equation is commonly used in the Rational Method for estimating design
discharge?
A) Q = A × V B) Q = C × I × A
C) Q = P × H D) Q = R × T
391 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

41. Why is it important to consider climate change in design discharge estimation?

A) It affects the aesthetic design of infrastructure
B) It can alter precipitation patterns and increase flood risks
C) It has no impact on design discharge
D) It helps in determining construction materials
42. What defines an alluvial channel?
A) A channel carved into bedrock B) A channel composed of loose sediment
C) A channel that is always dry D) A channel formed by glacial activity
43. Which of the following is a characteristic of open channel flow?
A) Flow is confined within pipes B) Flow depth is greater than the channel width
C) Flow is influenced by gravity and friction D) Flow is only unidirectional
44. In an alluvial channel, sediment transport occurs primarily due to:
A) Gravity B) Wind
C) Ice D) Biological activity
45. What is the main factor influencing the flow velocity in an open channel?
A) Channel depth B) Channel roughness
C) Bed slope D) All of the above
46. Which formula is commonly used to estimate the discharge in an open channel flow?
A) Q = A × V B) Q = C × R^2/3 × S^1/2
C) Q = V × T D) Q = P × H
47. What does the term "critical flow" refer to in open channel flow?
A) The maximum possible flow rate
B) Flow conditions where specific energy is minimized
C) Flow conditions at which sediment begins to settle
D) Flow that is stable and constant
48. The Manning's equation is used for:
A) Estimating sediment transport B) Calculating flow velocity in open channels
C) Designing hydraulic structures D) Determining rainfall intensity
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49. Which factor does NOT influence the flow regime in an alluvial channel?
A) Channel shape B) Flow depth
C) Type of vegetation D) Air temperature
50. Which type of flow is characterized by a high Reynolds number and turbulent flow
conditions?
A) Laminar flow B) Subcritical flow
C) Supercritical flow D) Steady flow
51. What is the primary environmental concern with alluvial channels?
A) Sediment accumulation B) Water temperature fluctuations
C) Erosion and habitat destruction D) Noise pollution
52. What are canal losses?
A) The total flow rate in the canal
B) Water that is lost due to evaporation and seepage
C) Water that is diverted for irrigation
D) Water that flows back to the river
53. Which of the following is NOT a type of canal loss?
A) Seepage loss B) Evaporation loss
C) Loss due to sedimentation D) Loss due to irrigation
54. What is the primary function of a canal outlet?
A) To measure flow velocity
B) To control water levels in a canal
C) To release water from the canal into another system
D) To filter water before release
55. In the SCS-CN method, the Curve Number (CN) is used to estimate:
A) Peak discharge B) Rainfall intensity
C) Runoff potential from a given area D) Evapotranspiration
56. What factors influence the Curve Number in the SCS-CN method?
A) Land use and hydrologic condition B) Soil type and cover
C) Antecedent moisture conditions D) All of the above
393 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

57. Which of the following statements is true about seepage loss in canals?
A) It is always negligible. B) It can lead to water shortages downstream.
C) It is beneficial for groundwater recharge. D) It occurs only in lined canals.
58. When using the SCS-CN method, what is typically used to convert rainfall to runoff?
A) A runoff coefficient B) The curve number
C) The infiltration rate D) The evaporation rate
59. Which type of outlet is designed to allow for controlled water release at varying levels?
A) Fixed outlet B) Adjustable outlet
C) Spillway outlet D) Weir outlet
60. In the context of canal systems, which of the following is a method to reduce evaporation
losses?
A) Increasing flow velocity B) Reducing surface area exposed to air
C) Deepening the canal D) Using lined channels
61. What is the main advantage of using the SCS-CN method for hydrological analysis?
A) It requires complex data input.
B) It can be applied universally regardless of location.
C) It is a straightforward method for estimating runoff.
D) It does not consider land use changes.
Answer: 1-A; 2-D; 3-B; 4-D; 5-B; 6-B; 7-B; 8-D; 9-C; 10-A; 11-C; 12-B; 13-C; 14-B; 15-B;
16-D; 17-C; 18-C; 19-A;20-B; 21-D; 22-B; 23-B; 24-B; 25-B; 26-B; 27-B; 28-B; 29-B; 30-
C; 31-B; 32-C; 33-A; 34-A; 35-D; 36-A; 37-C; 38-B; 39-B; 40-B; 41-B; 42-B; 43-C; 44-A;
45D; 46-B; 47-B; 48-B; 49-D; 50-C; 51-C; 52-B;53-D;54-C;55-C;56-D;57-B;58-B;59-B;60-
B;61-C.

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3. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, 1964.
4. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources
of India, Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland,
ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4(HB).
5. Punmia, B.C. and Lal, Pande B.B., (1992), “Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering”, Twelfth Edition. Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
6. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
7. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India)
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN(13): 978-1-25902997-4.
8. Varshney, R.S., Gupta, S.C and Gupta R. L.(2009), “Theory and design of Irrigation
structures (Vol-1: Channels and Tubewells)”, Published by Nem Chand & Bros, Civil
Lines, Roorkee, ISBN 81-85240-73-6.
9. Varshney, R.S., Gupta, S.C and Gupta R. L.(2009), “Theory and design of Irrigation
structures (Vol-I1: Canal and Storage works)”, Published by Nem Chand & Bros,
Civil Lines, Roorkee, ISBN 81-85240-48-5.
 8
395 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Dams and Spillways

UNIT SPECIFICS
Dams and spillways are crucial components of water management systems. Dams are barriers
built across rivers or streams to store water, create reservoirs, and control water flow. They
help with water supply, flood control, hydroelectric power generation, and recreational
activities. There are various types of dams, including gravity, arch, and earthen dams.
Spillways are channels or structures designed to safely release excess water from a dam to
prevent overflow and potential damage. They are essential for managing the water levels in
the reservoir and protecting the dam. This unit discusses the classification, design
consideration, causes of failure, estimation, and control of seepage for various types of dams
such as embankment dams and arch dams. In addition, this unit deals with components of
spillways and types of gates for spillway crests. The types, yield, regulation, and
sedimentation of a reservoir are also described in this unit.

RATIONALE
To learn about the dams and spillways, types of dams, control of seepage, spillway, types of
reservoirs, reservoir regulations, sedimentation, and selection of suitable sites for dams.

PRE-REQUISITE
Nil

UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U8-O1: Understand the fundamentals of dams and spillways
U8-O2: Understand the types of dams like gravity, embankment, and arch dams, and seepage
control from the dams.
U8-O3: Spillways, types, yield, sedimentation, and regulations of reservoirs
U8-O4: Selection of suitable sites for dams
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 396

Unit Expected Mapping with Course Outcomes

Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 CO-7 CO-8
U8-O1 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3
U8-O2 3 3 3 1 3 3 1 3
U8-O3 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3
U8-O4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

8.1 INTRODUCTION
An extensive wall built across a river or stream to restrict or stop the flow of water is called a
dam. The purpose of building dams is to create reservoirs that can hold water for industrial,
agricultural, and drinking purposes; producing power by turning turbines with the force of
flowing water Managing water levels and flow to support habitats and manage ecosystems;
providing possibilities for activities like boating, swimming, and fishing; reducing the
likelihood of downstream flooding during heavy rains or snowmelt. There are several
different kinds of dams, such as gravity dams, arch dams, and buttress dams, and each is
intended to address engineering and environmental issues. For them to be safe and effective,
proper design and upkeep are necessary. While constructing a dam, a big natural or man-
made lake is created behind the dam is called a reservoir. The primary purposes of reservoirs
are to store water for drinking, irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, flood control, and
recreational activities. A spillway is a structure designed for safely release of excess water
from a reservoir or dam. It helps to manage water levels and prevent overflow or damage to
the dam. The primary purpose of a spillway is to control the flow of water when it exceeds
the normal capacity of the reservoir.

8.2 EMBANKMENT DAMS

Embankment dams are commonly used for water storage, flood control, and hydropower
generation. Embankment dams are structures built using compacted earth, rock, or other
suitable materials to form a stable barrier across a river or watercourse. These materials are
distinct from one another and have spaces between them. The location, internal friction, and
mutual attraction of the particles in these materials give them their strength. These
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fragmentary components, as opposed to cemented materials, combine to form a somewhat

flexible structure that can flex slightly to accommodate the displacement of the foundation
without failing.
The following factors make choosing an embankment dam more likely:
a. A substantial layer of soil deposits covering bedrock,
b. Soft or weak bedrock that could not withstand the intense pressures of a concrete dam,
c. Abutments of weak rock or deep soil layers,
d. The presence of a suitable spillway position and
e. The availability of adequate and appropriate soils from neighboring borrows areas or
necessary excavation.
8.2.1 Classification
Embankment dams are mainly of two types:
a. Earth-fill or earth dams
b. Rock-fill or earth-rock dams.
In an earth-fill dam, the bulk of the mass is made up of dirt, whereas in a rock-fill dam, it is
made up of rock material. The two kinds of embankment dams share similar design concepts.
The two types of earth dams that are further separated/classified as:
a. Homogeneous earth dam, and
b. Zoned earth dam.
One type of earth material is used exclusively or almost entirely in the construction of
homogeneous earth dams. On the other hand, various materials are used in different sections
of the embankment of a zoned earth dam. When only one kind of material is commercially
feasible and/or the dam's height is not particularly high, a homogenous earth dam is typically
constructed. A drain of some kind made of material more pervious than the embankment soil
should always be present in a homogenous earth dam that is higher than around 6 to 8 meters.
These drains enhance the stability of the downstream slope by lowering pore pressures in the
dam's downstream section. Moreover, the drains also control the seepage water that emerges
from the earth to prevent "piping" from developing. A dam of this type is also classified as
homogeneous (or occasionally as "modified homogeneous") dams (Figure 8.1). A
homogenous earth dam can nonetheless reap some of the benefits of a zonal earth dam by
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 398

utilizing various building techniques in different sections of the embankment or by

selectively placing dirt to create zones with distinct characteristics. The zonal earth dam is
the most widely used earth dam because it results in a more stable and cost-effective design
for the dam.

Figure 8.1: Typical Sections of Homogenous Earth Dam

An embankment that uses large-sized rock fragments for stability and an impermeable
membrane for waterproofing is called a rock-fill dam (Figure 8.2). The membrane is made of
wood, steel, concrete, asphalt, and soil. The impermeable membrane can be positioned as a
core inside the embankment or on the dam's upstream face. However, it is better to place the
impermeable membrane on the dam's upstream face.

Figure 8.2: Typical Section of a Rock-fill Dam

8.2.2 Design Considerations

An embankment dam's design is derived from both experience and analytical factors. The
following are the primary steps involved in designing an embankment dam:
• A careful examination of the abutments and foundation.
• A review of all the materials for building embankments that are readily accessible within
a suitable driving distance of the dam site, including their amounts and qualities.
• An examination of every element that could affect the design.
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• Choosing the trial designs.

• Evaluation of the trial designs' safety.
• Changing the designs to meet the minimal requirements for stability.
• The creation of thorough cost projections.
• The chosen design appears to provide the optimal balance of construction economy,
safety, and convenience.

8.2.3 Factors Influencing the Design of an Embankment Dam

a. Materials Available for Construction
The free availability of construction materials near or adjacent to the embankment dam site is
one of its main advantages. The designed embankment can be either a zoned earth dam
(when both pervious and impervious soils are available), a rock-fill dam (if the rock is
available and impervious material is not), or a homogeneous earth dam (when the soil
available is impervious). This depends on the type of material available. For economic
reasons, the design may also include the utilization of materials from the necessary
excavation (for the construction of the spillway).
b. Foundation Characteristics
Almost any type of foundation can support the construction of an embankment dam. The
foundation treatment, which is often the most challenging and significant aspect of designing
and building an embankment dam, is primarily influenced by the features of the foundation.
Additionally, the embankment's size would be significantly impacted. for instance, a softer
foundation, would require an embankment with flatter slopes, a bigger cross-section, a larger
freeboard (To minimize the consequences of embankment settlement), considerations for
differential settlement cracks, and controls over under seepage to prevent the risk of piping.
c. Climate
Controlling the construction moisture content of fine-grained soils in arid places and working
with them during the rainy season are often challenging tasks. Therefore, a sloping core
embankment is recommended if the embankment construction must be completed during the
rainy season. Similarly, building a small reservoir to store flood water for the purpose of
building the dam may take an additional year in arid locations.
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d. Shape and Size of Valleys

A vast valley and gently sloping abutments at a dam site might not have an impact on an
embankment's design. Narrow valleys and steep abutments, however, might call for extra
design considerations. For example, a simpler design requiring few additional construction
provisions would be preferred due to the limited working space in a small valley. In the event
that building and maintaining haul roads on abutments at varying heights becomes
challenging and expensive, it might be necessary to design a rock-fill embankment, which
can be built by excavating rock in high lifts from comparatively few haul roads.
e. River Diversion
The difficulty for the designer increases if a river diversion strategy is to be carried out by the
contractor or construction engineer. The designer must consider every scenario and modify
the design to accommodate each one. However, it can be wise to specify the river diversion
system and build the embankment in accordance with it on large rivers. The river in a narrow
valley is diverted by a conduit or tunnel. In larger valleys, the river is allowed to flow
through the valley's centre while parts of the embankment on the two abutments are built.
Known as the "closure" section, this canter portion of the embankment is only built at its end.
In order to prevent the dam from overtopping, the closure section must be constructed
promptly. As a result, specific design and construction details are required, such as extra
filter drains, distinct embankment designs that maximize the material available on the two
abutments, compacting the closure section at higher water content, and maintaining a reserve
of borrowed material to achieve a rapid construction rate for closure. It would be cost-
effective to incorporate coffer dams with significant flows into the dam embankment if they
are used for diversion.
f. Probable Wave Action
The length of the reservoir and the wind speed are the most important factors of the intensity
of wave action and the quantity of protection required for the embankment's upstream face.
The embankment is constantly being driven against by the waves, which results in
embankment erosion. Wave protection which is simultaneously most affordable and effective
is a layer of riprap constructed from dumped rock.
g. Time Available for Construction
The amount of time allocated for construction determines how an embankment is designed.
In the case of high dams, a shorter construction period could cause higher pore pressures,
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requiring almost flatter slopes. It might not be possible to use all of the material from the
necessary excavation during construction, or perhaps just a portion of it could be utilized.
Similarly, the duration of time allotted for construction would also have an impact on under
seepage measures. It may be beneficial to provide a constructed impermeable barrier in order
to save time while handling fine-grained soils, as this can take an enormous amount of time.
h. The function of Reservoir
The permissible water loss from seepage through the foundation and embankment is
determined by the reservoir's objective. As a result, depending on whether the embankment
component was designed for flood control reservoirs or conservation reservoirs, it may be
comparatively more pervious. A flatter upstream slope may be required in hydroelectric
projects due to the "sudden drawdown" scenario that will affect the dam's upstream face.
i. Earthquake Activity
The designer might require more conservative design features in seismically prone areas,
such as stronger filters, greater capacity downstream drains, thicker cores made of more
piping-resistant materials, flatter side slopes, longer construction times, and furthermore.
8.2.4 General Design Criteria for Embankment Dams
Overtopping, piping, and earth movements in some sections of the embankment and its
foundation (due to the insufficient shear strength) are the primary causes of the embankment
dam’s collapse. Among these, overtopping is the most common reason for an embankment
dam to fail completely and disastrously. The following safety considerations should be
included in the construction of an embankment dam:
a. There is no possibility of an overturn. A spillway with a suitable capacity and enough
freeboard should be constructed for this purpose.
b. Horizontal piping is not possible since the seepage line is well within the downstream
face.
c. The slopes upstream and downstream are sufficiently level to provide stability of the
materials used to construct the embankment under all circumstances, including
construction, operation, and rapid drawdown.
d. The foundation's shear stress is less than the foundation material's shear strength. The
embankment slopes should be appropriate flat for this purpose.
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e. Appropriate protection is provided for the upstream and downstream faces from wave
and rainwater action, respectively.
f. There should be no means for water to flow freely through the embankment.
g. Seepage from the foundation should not cause pipework at the dam's downstream toe.
h. The dam's top needs to be high enough to permit the foundation and dam to settle.
i. For all operational and construction conditions (steady seepage and abrupt
drawdown), the foundations, abutments, and embankment should be stable.

8.2.5 Estimation and Control of Seepage

I. Seepage Analysis
The estimation of seepage through an embankment dam and its foundation is done using the
principle of flow through porous media. The Laplace equation (Equation 8.1) governs two-
dimensional seepage, which corresponds to whatever would happen in an embankment dam
and its foundation.
𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉
𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
+ 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
= 𝟎𝟎 ..…………(8.1)

Here, the seepage head is denoted by h. When incompressible water is entirely

saturated in homogeneous, isotropic, and incompressible soil, Equation (8.1) holds true. It is
possible to solve Equation (8.1) using graphical, analytical, numerical, or other appropriate
approaches, such analogue methods. Equation (8.1) can be solved graphically by sketching a
flow net.
Drawing flow nets for sections with single permeability enables the analysis of the
majority of seepage issues related to embankment dams. For instance, an investigation of the
seepage conditions in the dam's core alone may be sufficient if the outer shells of the dam are
more permeable than the core. Nonetheless, it is often necessary to analyze seepage through
components with varying permeability in seepage situations. Under these circumstances,
while moving from a soil with one permeability to one with a different permeability, a
fundamental deflection rule needs to be followed Water seeps through an area with
comparatively higher permeability using less energy. Water therefore moves in a way that
allows it to remain in the more permeable region for as long as possible when it moves from
a region of high permeability to lower permeability. Put another way, water searches out the
403 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

quickest route to save energy. If all other conditions remain the same, a smaller area of flow
cross-section is required in the greater permeability zone, which is another method to
understand the seepage behavior in sections with varying permeabilities.
The hydraulic gradient is a measure of the rate of energy loss through seepage when
media is porous. For such a reason, one should expect strong hydraulic gradients in low-
permeability areas. The deflection of flow lines within boundaries between soils with varying
permeabilities are shown in Figure 8.3. The following relationship (Equation 8.2) determines
how the flow lines bend:
𝐭𝐭𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝜷𝜷 𝑲𝑲𝟏𝟏
𝐭𝐭𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝜶𝜶
= ..…………(8.2)
𝑲𝑲𝟐𝟐

Figure 8.3: Flownet shape change on account of regions of different permeability

Additionally, the regions produced by the equipotential and flow lines intersecting
either shorten or elongate in accordance with the following relationship (Equation 8.3).
𝒄𝒄 𝑲𝑲𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅
= ..…………(8.3)
𝑲𝑲𝟏𝟏

It is necessary to measure the lengths and widths of the figures frequently while
drawing flow nets for sections with varying permeabilities to ensure that Equation (8.3) is
satisfied. Compacted embankments and natural soil deposits can occasionally exhibit
stratification, making them more permeable horizontally than vertically. Under anisotropic
conditions, the velocity components for two-dimensional flow are given by 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣, as
shown in the equation 8.4:
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝒖𝒖 = −𝑲𝑲𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
and 𝒗𝒗 = −𝑲𝑲𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
..…………(8.4)
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where,
𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥 = coefficients of permeability in the 𝑥𝑥 direction
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦= coefficients of permeability in the 𝑦𝑦 direction,
ℎ = hydraulic head causing the flow,
𝑢𝑢 = velocity component in the 𝑥𝑥 direction, and
𝒗𝒗 = velocity component in the 𝑦𝑦 direction
For two-dimensional flow, applying the continuity equation with ∂w/∂z = 0 and combining it
with Equation (8.4), yields equation 8.5:
𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉
𝑲𝑲𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 + 𝑲𝑲𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎 ..…………(8.5)

In other words, to manage the calculations efficiently, a new variable, xt is defined as

Equation 8.6 and 8.7:
𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝒉𝒉
𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙𝒕𝒕 𝟐𝟐
+ 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
= 𝟎𝟎 ..…………(8.6)

where,
𝑲𝑲𝒚𝒚
𝒙𝒙𝒕𝒕 = 𝒙𝒙�𝑲𝑲 ..…………(8.7)
𝒙𝒙

This transformation simplifies the anisotropic problem by effectively removing the

anisotropy through scaling the 𝑥𝑥-coordinate, thereby reducing it to an isotropic form.
Equation (8.8), a well-known Laplace equation utilizing a transformed coordinate system
involving x and y, determines flow under conditions of anisotropic seepage. All that is
required to create a flow net for the anisotropic condition is to reduce the cross-section's size
in the direction of higher permeability. The modified section's flow net is first created, and
after that, it is rebuilt on the cross-section that was drawn utilizing the original scale.
Rectangles extended in the direction of increased permeability would comprise the flow
network on the original cross-section rather than squares.
� ∆𝒉𝒉 𝒃𝒃 = 𝑲𝑲𝒙𝒙
∆𝒒𝒒 = 𝑲𝑲
∆𝒉𝒉
..…………(8.8)
𝒃𝒃 𝒃𝒃 �𝑲𝑲𝒙𝒙 ⁄𝑲𝑲𝒚𝒚

� = �𝑲𝑲𝒙𝒙 𝑲𝑲𝒚𝒚
𝑲𝑲 ..…………(8.9)
One can also determine the seepage quantity which is rewritten as equation 8.10:
405 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

𝑵𝑵
𝒒𝒒 = 𝑲𝑲𝒉𝒉 𝑵𝑵 𝒇𝒇 ..…………(8.10)
𝒅𝒅

By comparing the discharge ∆q through any one figure of the modified section with
the corresponding figure of the original section (Figure 8.4), one can ascertain the effective
permeability K. If the head drop between two consecutive equipotential lines is represented
by ∆h, then

Figure 8.4: Comparison of Flow net in the (I) Transformed and (II) Original Section.
� as the geometric mean of the permeabilities Kx, and Ky in an anisotropic medium,
K
ensuring it accommodates directional variability. Therefore, Equation (8.10) can be applied
���for K.
to both isotropic and anisotropic conditions by replacing effective permeability. 𝐾𝐾
Note that for both the original and modified sections, the shape factor (i.e., Nf /Nd) remained
the same.
The primary challenge in doing a seepage analysis of an embankment dam is from the
unknown topmost streamline, sometimes referred as the phreatic or seepage line. The line
that has hydrostatic pressure below it and no hydrostatic pressure above it is known as the
seepage line. The seepage line is essentially the line of saturation if the embankment
comprises of coarse material, and the capillary effects are negligible. However, in the case of
a fine-grained soil embankment, there is saturation without hydrostatic pressure, and the
capillary fringe above the seepage line experiences very little flow. The piping potential and
flow net drawing are aided by the seepage line prediction. The seepage line in a
homogeneous earth dam constructed on an impermeable foundation crosses the downstream
face above the dam's base unless, naturally, additional drainage techniques are used.
The seepage line and the equipotential lines are required to intersect at identical
vertical intervals (Figure 8.5). This requirement allows the seepage line to be graphically
determined concurrently with the creation of a flow net. As an alternative, the seepage line
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 406

can be found using Kozeny's solution, which gives the following expression (Equation 8.11)
for the seepage line equation: for an embankment with a parabolic upstream face and a
downstream horizontal drain (Figure 8.6),
y2 - y02 + 2xy0 = 0 ..…………(8.11)
where,
𝒚𝒚𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐𝒂𝒂𝟎𝟎 = √𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 + 𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐 − 𝒅𝒅 ..…………(8.12)
Additionally, using Kozeny's solution, the seepage flow through the embankment per unit
length, q (equation 8.13), is provided as:
𝒒𝒒 = 𝑲𝑲𝒚𝒚𝟎𝟎 = 𝑲𝑲�√𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 + 𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐 − 𝒅𝒅� ..…………(8.13)
where K is the permeability coefficient, and the other symbols correspond to the explanations
given in Figure 8.6.
Note that the seepage line location and the point at which it intersects the downstream
face (the downstream drain in Figure 8.6) are independent of the embankment material's
coefficient of permeability and solely depend on the dam's cross-section. Furthermore,
although many embankment dams feature a horizontal drain downstream, real embankment
dams lack parabolic upstream faces. Equation (8.11) shows that the seepage line is a
parabola, with minor deviations at the entrance and exit of popular embankment dam types.

Figure 8.5: General Conditions for Line of Seepage

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Figure 8.6: Embankment Dam with Kozeny’s Conditions

II. Slope Protection
An earth dam that retains a sizable reservoir needs to be shielded from wave action if its
upstream slope is made of materials other than rocks or cobbles. Experience from the past
has shown that the following techniques can be used to safeguard an upstream slope:
a. riprap made of dumped rock;
b. pitching stones by hand;
c. monolithic RCC slab and
d. asphaltic concrete.
Out of these four techniques, the riprap of dumped rock placed over a layer or layers
of finer filter material offers the best wave protection since it is less susceptible to damage
from post-construction embankment settlement and is a good dissipator of wave energy. It is
important to construct a riprap layer so that: (i) The wave forces do not push the individual
rocks out of position, and (ii) the filter beneath the riprap will not be washed out via the gaps
in the riprap layer. It should be possible for the filter to stop the underlying embankment
material from eroding. Table-1 lists the size and thickness of the riprap made of dumped
rock. The minimum thickness for the underlying filter layer suggested by the US Army
Corps of Engineers is provided in Table 8.1.
Surface water runoff during rainstorms or wind during windstorms in arid climates
may cause significant erosion if the surface of the downstream slope of an earth dam is
composed of fine-grained soil. Deep gullies, sometimes reaching a depth of three meters, are
caused by surface erosion in the middle section of the dam and at the abutment contacts on
the downstream slope.
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Table 8.1: Thickness and size of dumped rock riprap

Maximum Wave Minimum Average Layer Minimum Filter Layer

Height (m) Rock Size D50 (cm) Thickness (cm) thickness (cm)
0-0.6 25 30 15
0.6-1.2 30 45 15
1.2-1.8 38 60 22.5
1.8-2.4 45 75 22.5
2.4-3.0 52 90 30

A healthy grass cover on the downstream slope's surface stabilizes the surface soil
and offers the most effective and affordable slope protection. It might not be able to save
enough water in really dry regions for the grass cover to continue growing. Under such
circumstances, the downstream slope may also be protected by dumping rock riprap, which is
often utilized for upstream slopes.

8.3 GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam is a solid concrete or masonry structure that, without the use of beams or
arches, maintains stability against all applied loads solely via its own weight. These dams
typically have a straight plan and a cross-section that resembles a triangle. Gravity dams are
typically categorized according to their structural height, which is the difference in elevation
between the lowest point in the excavated foundation area, excluding features like narrow
fault zones, and the top of the dam, or the roadway's crown, if there is not one (1). In general,
gravity dams up to 100 feet (30.48 meters) height are referred to as low dams. Medium-
height dams are defined as those height are in between 100 feet (30.48 meters) and 300 feet
(91.44 meters). High dams are those that are more than 300 feet (91.44 meters) in height. A
gravity dam's downstream face often has a consistent slope that, if it were extended, would
meet the vertical upstream face at or close to the reservoir's maximum water level. In
addition to being thick enough to support the road or other necessary access, the upper
section of the dam is designed to withstand the impact of floating items in the reservoir. In
order to successfully withstand the tensile strains caused by the reservoir water loading, a
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gravity dam's upstream face is often kept vertical. This concentrates most of the dam's weight
toward the upstream face. Because the thickness of the dam resists sliding, it can determine
the downstream face's slope, which is typically between 0.7 and 0.8 (H):1(V). An upstream
batter has the potential to thicken the dam's lower section. If the spillway cannot be placed in
the abutment, it may be placed on a section of the dam; in this instance, the dam is changed at
the top to provide room for the spillway's crest and at the toe for the energy dissipator. Such
overflow sections of gravity dams would have different stability requirements than non-
overflow parts.

8.3.1 Forces on a Gravity Dam

Figure 8.7 displays the forces often included in a gravity dam's design. These are listed in the
following order:
(i) Dead Load
The weight of the appurtenances, such as piers, gates, and bridges, as well as the weight of
the concrete make up the dead load (Wc). It is believed that all dead weight is transferred
vertically to the foundation, with no shearing between blocks in between.

Figure 8.7: Usual Loading Combination for a Gravity Dam

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(ii) Reservoir and Tail-water Loads (Ww , Ww′, W1, and W1′)
These are derived from reservoir operation studies' tail-water curves and the reservoir's range
of water surface heights. Operating and hydrologic data, including reservoir capacity, storage
allotments, stream flow records, flood hydrographs, and reservoir releases for all purposes,
form the basis of these studies. Low overflow dams may have a substantial dynamic impact
from approach velocity; hence this should be considered. When it comes to applying water
pressure, gates and other control elements on the crest are considered a part of the dam.
Gravity dams that do not overflow should have their tail water modified for any
retrogression. When designing a gravity dam, it is important to consider any rise in tail-water
pressure brought on by the downstream bucket's curvature of flow n an overflow type gravity
dam.
(iii) Uplift Forces
Internal hydraulic pressures in a dam's pores, fissures, and seams within the dam itself, at the
point where the dam and foundation meet, and within the foundation itself cause uplift forces
(U). It is assumed that the distribution of internal hydrostatic pressure acts across the entire
horizontal section of a gravity dam and varies linearly from full reservoir pressure at the
upstream face to zero or tail-water pressure at the downstream face. Additionally, the
distribution of pressure is altered based on the dimensions, placement, and separation of
internal drains. According to experimental and analytical studies, the average pressure at the
drains will be reduced to about tail-water pressure plus one-third of the difference between
reservoir water and tail-water pressures if the drains are installed from the upstream face at
5% of the maximum reservoir depth and spaced laterally twice that distance (Figure 8.8). It is
considered that earthquakes have no effect on uplift forces.
(iv) Silt Load
Building a dam over a river that carries silt, always leads to reservoir sedimentation, which
exerts an extra strain (Ws) on the dam's upstream face. The fluid with a mass density of 1360
kg/m3 is considered to exert a hydrostatic load equal to the horizontal silt pressure. It is
assumed that the vertical silt pressure is equal to the pressure that a soil with a wet density of
1925 kg/m3 would exert.
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Figure 8.8: Modification in Uplift Force due to Drain

(v) Ice Pressure
A good method of estimating the ice pressures must be used if the designer expects an ice
sheet of considerable thickness to form and stay on the reservoir water surface for an
extended period of time. If such a method is not available, ice pressure can be estimated as
250 kPa (250 kN/m2) applied over the expected region where ice will meet the dam's face.
(vi) Wave Pressure
Wave impact is also experienced by the upper section of a dam. Generally, wave pressure
against large-scale dams has minimal impact. Wave height hw and wave pressure are related
in the following ways:
(a) The equation 8.14 gives the maximum wave pressure, or pw (in kilopascals), which
happens at 0.125 hw above the still water level.
𝒑𝒑𝒘𝒘 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉𝒘𝒘 ..…………(8.14)
where, hw= height of the wave (in metres).
(b) The total wave force Pw (in kilonewtons) is given by equation 8.15.
𝑷𝑷𝒘𝒘 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐𝒘𝒘 ..…………(8.15)
and acts at 0.375 hw above the still water level in the downstream direction.
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(c) The wave height hw can be obtained using the equations 8.16 and 8.17 as follows:
𝒉𝒉𝒘𝒘 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 √𝑽𝑽𝑭𝑭 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟔𝟔 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟕 𝑭𝑭𝟏𝟏/𝟒𝟒 For F < 32 km ..…………(8.16)
𝒉𝒉𝒘𝒘 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 √𝑽𝑽𝑭𝑭 For F < 32 km ..…………(8.17)
Here, V = wind velocity (kilometres/hour); and
F = fetch (in kilometres).
The vertical distance between the top of the dam and the still water level is known as the
freeboard, and it is determined by the wave height and wind configuration. The formula for
Zuider Zee (Equation 8.18) is used to get the wind set-up S (measured in meters).
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑭𝑭
𝑺𝑺 = 𝟔𝟔𝟐𝟐,𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑫𝑫
..…………(8.18)
where, D= average depth (in metres) over the fetch distance F.
In order to have a long crest elevation for the dam, the minimum freeboard should be
equal to the wind set-up plus 4/3 times the wave height over the usual pool elevation or
above the maximum reservoir level corresponding to the design flood. Nonetheless, the
freeboard must always be at least 1.0 m above the mean water level that corresponds to the
design flood.
(vii) Earthquake
Gravity dams are elastic constructions that seismic disturbances have the potential to cause to
resonate. When subjected to the anticipated earthquake, such dams need to be built to
maintain their elasticity. The design earthquake should be established considering the
following:
a. historical earthquake records to determine the frequency of occurrence versus magnitude,
b. the dam's useful life, and
c. A statistical approach to determine the likelihood of earthquakes of different magnitudes
occurring during the dam's lifetime.
Additionally, a gravity dam needs to be built to resist the maximum acceptable
earthquake, which is one that is typically larger than any earthquake that has ever been
recorded in history. The dam experiences random oscillations from earthquakes, which
enhance the strains and pressures from water and silt acting on it. Any direction can
experience seismic movement. It is important to apply earthquake loads both vertically and
horizontally in the direction that results in the least favorable circumstances. The most
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unfavorable direction for earthquake movement in a gravity dam when the reservoir is full is
upstream (since the inertial forces acting downstream may cause a resultant force to intersect
the dam's base outside the middle third of the base, in addition to increasing the water load
and, therefore, the increased overturning moment) and downward for vertical earthquake
movement because it reduces the weight of the concrete and water above the sloping faces of
the dam, reducing the stability of the structure. When the reservoir is empty, additional
harmful inertial forces resulting from downstream ground motion may meet the base of the
dam outside of its middle third. The following factors determine the influence of earthquake
forces:
a. their magnitude, which depends on the earthquake's severity;
b. the structure's mass and elasticity, and
c. whether the earthquake affects the water load.
Understanding earthquake acceleration or intensity, which typically represents relation
with acceleration due to gravity (g), is helpful for estimating earthquake load. The seismic
coefficient, abbreviated as αh, is the ratio of acceleration caused by earthquakes to that of
gravitational forces. The seismic coefficient values for the country’s various zones may be
obtained from the codes and varies in value for both horizontal and vertical earthquake
accelerations. When a structure of mass M moves horizontally during an earthquake with an
acceleration of αhg, the horizontal earthquake force acting on the structure, Pe, is given as:
𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 = 𝑀𝑀 𝛼𝛼ℎ 𝑔𝑔 = 𝛼𝛼 𝑔𝑔 = 𝛼𝛼ℎ 𝑊𝑊
𝑔𝑔 ℎ
where,
W = weight of the structure.
In the absence of any other specified value, the value of αh is often assumed to be 0.1.
Similarly, the value of the seismic coefficient in the vertical direction can be assumed to be
0.5. During an earthquake, a force is also applied to the dam's face by the reservoir's water's
inertia. Equations 8.19 and 8.20 provide the fluctuation of horizontal hydrodynamic
earthquake pressure with depth for dams with vertical or sloping upstream faces:
𝑷𝑷𝒆𝒆 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 𝜶𝜶𝒉𝒉 𝝆𝝆 𝒈𝒈 𝒉𝒉 ..…………(8.19)
𝒄𝒄𝒎𝒎 𝒚𝒚 𝒚𝒚 𝒚𝒚 𝒚𝒚
𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 = �𝒉𝒉 �𝟐𝟐 − 𝒉𝒉� + �𝒉𝒉 �𝟐𝟐 − 𝒉𝒉�� ..…………(8.20)
𝟐𝟐
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where Pe = hydrodynamic earthquake pressure normal to the face,

c1 = dimensionless pressure coefficient,
αh = horizontal acceleration factor (ratio of horizontal acceleration due to earthquake
and the gravitational acceleration),
ρ = mass density of water,
g = acceleration due to gravity,
h = depth of reservoir,
y=vertical distance from the reservoir surface to the elevation under consideration,
cm = the maximum value of c1 for a given slope (Figure8.9).
Let Vpe (or Vpe′) denote the change in the horizontal component of the reservoir (or
tail-water) load on the face above a section as a result of horizontal seismic loads. It is
calculated for each elevation increment chosen for the study, and because of the nonlinear
response, the totals are derived by summing. Similarly, Mpe (or Mpe′), which denotes the
moment of Vpe (or Vpe′) about the section's centre of gravity, is calculated. The average
acceleration factor for each height increment should be used to calculate the inertia forces for
the concrete in the dam. The total of all incremental forces above a given elevation and their
moment about the elevation's centre of gravity are the inertia forces that should be considered
while evaluating a dam elevation. It is possible to compute the horizontal concrete inertia
force (Ve) and associated moment (Me) using Simpson's rule. As an alternative, the following
Equations (Equation 8.21 and 8.22) can be used to obtain Vpe and Mpe.:
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 = 0.726 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 ..…………(8.21)
𝑀𝑀𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 = 0.299 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 2 ..…………(8.22)
With appropriate forces, moments, and the vertical acceleration factor αv, one may calculate
the implications of vertical accelerations. To calculate the increase (or reduction) brought on
by the vertical downward (or upward) accelerations, the forces and moments owing to dead
loads and water pressure normal to the dam's faces should be multiplied by the relevant
acceleration factors. It is believed that an earthquake has little impact on uplift forces.
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Figure 8.9: Variation of cm with Upstream Face Inclination

Dams having upstream faces as a combination of vertical and sloping faces are
analysed as follows:
a. Examine the dam with the assumption that it had a vertical upstream face all the way
around if the height of the vertical section of the upstream face is equal to or higher than
half the overall height of the dam.
b. Use the pressure that would result from the upstream face having a constant slope (equal
to the slope of the sloping portion of the upstream face) from the water surface elevation
to the heel of the dam if the height of the vertical portion of the upstream face of a dam is
less than half the total height of the dam.
(viii) Other Miscellaneous Loads
Apart from the forces previously described, there could also be thermal stresses and vertical
water loading. Load transmission across joints occurs if the contraction joints are grouted
because of the horizontal thrusts brought on by volumetric increases imposed by rising
temperatures. The loads at the abutments and the twist effects are increased by this load
transfer. The weight of the water on the dam's sloping upstream and downstream faces exerts
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vertical water loading. Since water tends to reach the spouting velocity, which lowers
pressure on the dam, the vertical component of the water moving over the spillway is not
considered in the analysis. Additionally, any potential negative pressure on the spillway crest
is disregarded. However, any sub-atmospheric pressure that forms on the spillway's
downstream sloping surface as a result of inadequate aeration should be considered and
imposed as a positive load (acting downstream) on the upstream face.
Gravity dam design needs to consider the worst-case scenario for potential load
situations. However, combinations of loads whose occurrence at the same time is extremely
unlikely may be disregarded. Most load combinations fall into one of three categories:
excessive, unusual, or typical. A typical ordinary sort of load combination could include, for
instance, a regular design reservoir height with suitable dead loads, uplift, silt, ice, tail-water,
and thermal loads corresponding to standard temperature. When combining loads of the
conventional type with unusual load combinations, the maximum design reservoir elevation
is considered. When the impacts of the maximum credible earthquake are included to the
usual load combination, an extreme load combination is created.
8.3.2 Causes of Failure of a Gravity Dam
A gravity dam overturning could cause it to fail. A gravity dam must have dimensions that
allow the combined forces to intersect the base of the dam inside the middle third of the dam
in order to be safe from overturning. Assuming that any horizontal portion of a gravity dam,
including the base, and the combined value of all the forces operating on the dam above the
section. Thus, the dam could collapse if the downstream edge of the segment was not crossed
by the dam's line of action. Nonetheless, a gravity dam's section is designed so that the force
generated will act only inside its upstream and downstream boundaries, preventing
overturning. However, the downstream edge of the section may be destroyed if the resultant's
line of action extends far enough beyond the middle third of the horizontal section. This
could lead to the resultant passing outside the dam section by reducing the effective breadth
and, thus, the section's sliding resistance. Additionally, the resultant develops tensile stresses
at the section's upstream edge when it traverses downstream of the middle third of the
horizontal section. The dam section may crack as a result of these tensile strains, increasing
the uplift pressure. As a result, the stabilizing forces would be decreased. Therefore, various
forms of failures, like crushing of toe material, sliding, tension-induced material cracking,
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and an increase in uplift, may happen before a gravity dam actually overturns. If the
following conditions are met, a gravity dam is considered safe against overturning:
a. there is no tension on the upstream face;
b. there is sufficient resistance against sliding, and
c. the concrete or masonry of the dam and its foundation are of an appropriate quality
and sufficient strength.
Considering that masonry and concrete are generally weak in tension, a gravity dam's
construction should ensure that no tensile stresses exist anywhere throughout the dam
section. However, in extremely high gravity dams, if maintaining such a state proves to be
challenging, minor tensile stresses up to 50 N/cm2 may be permitted under the worst loading
circumstances.
If the horizontal pressures acting on a dam above any horizontal plane are greater than the
resistance to sliding on the plane, the dam may fail as a result of sliding. The frictional
resistance and shearing strength of the material along the plane under consideration are
responsible for the resistance to sliding. The following Equation 8.23 is an expression for the
shear-friction factor of safety, or Fs, which is a measure of stability against sliding or
shearing:
𝑪𝑪𝑨𝑨+ ∑ 𝑾𝑾𝑾𝑾
𝑭𝑭𝒔𝒔 = ∑ 𝑯𝑯
..…………(8.23)

where,
C = unit cohesion,
A = area of the plane (substituted for the plane's width if one considers the unit length
of the dam),
ΣW = total vertical forces acting on the plane,
µ = internal friction coefficient, and
ΣH = driving shear forces/ resultant horizontal forces.
The stability against sliding or shearing at any horizontal component of a dam, at its
contact with the foundation, or through the foundation along any plane of weakness can be
ascertained utilizing the shear-friction factor of safety. For gravity dams, the lowest
permissible values of Fs are 3.0, 2.0, and 1.0 for typical, abnormal, and extreme loading
combinations, respectively. Under normal, exceptional, and extreme loading combinations,
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the value of Fs for any plane of weakness within the foundation should not be less than 4.0,
2.7, and 1.3, respectively.
In general, the acceptable factor of safety against shear and overturning under normal
or typical loading conditions is considered 2.0. On the other hand, 1.25 is an equivalent
number under extreme loading conditions. The ratio of the coefficient of the static friction to
the selected safety factor is the allowable value of the sliding factor, which is equal to the
total of the horizontal and vertical forces.
For typical, uncommon, and extreme load combinations, respectively, the maximum
permissible compressive stress for concrete in a gravity dam should be less than the
concrete's stated compressive strength divided by 3.0, 2.0, and 1.0. For both common and
uncommon load combinations, the compressive stress should not be greater than 1035 N/cm2
and 1550 N/cm2, respectively.
For typical, uncommon, and extreme load combinations, respectively, the maximum
permissible compressive stress in the foundation should be less than the compressive strength
of the foundation divided by 4.0, 2.7, and 1.3. To account for uncertainty when evaluating
the foundation qualities, these factor of safety values are larger than those for concrete.
8.3.3 Stress Analysis of Gravity Dams
Depending on the dam's configuration, block continuity, and level of refinement needed, one
of the following techniques can be used to do stress studies on gravity dams.
a. The gravity method,
b. The trial-load method, and
c. The finite element method
Straight gravity dams, whose transverse contraction joints are neither keyed nor grouted,
are designed using the gravity technique for analysis. Regardless, how they are grouted, a
gravity dam's transverse contraction joints become keyed, making it a three-dimensional
challenge for which the trial load approach should be applied. This approach assumes that the
dam is made up of three systems: twisted elements, horizontal beams, and vertical
cantilevers. It is believed that each of these systems exists independently of the others and
takes up the complete volume of the construction. These systems share the loads on the dam
in a way that results in equal rotations and deflections at conjugate sites.
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Experiments are implemented to achieve purpose. However, for a preliminary investigation

of keyed and grouted dams, the gravity method may be implemented. The finite element
method, which has been developed recently, can be used to challenges in two dimensions as
well as three dimensions. Only the gravity approach has been covered in this book.
Gravity Method
In the general scenario of a gravity section, where the blocks are not made monolithic by
keying and grouting the joints between them, the gravity technique for the stress analysis can
be applied. Each of these gravity section blocks functions separately, and the cantilever's
weight resists the load as it is delivered to the foundation. The gravity technique analysis
depends on the following assumptions:
a. The material used to construct the dam is homogenous, isotropic, and uniformly elastic.
b. Due to the water loads on the reservoir's walls and foundation, there are no differential
movements at the dam site.
c. All loads are transferred to the foundation by the gravity action of parallel and vertical
cantilevers; neither side's neighboring cantilever elements provide any support.
d. From the upstream face to the downstream face, normal stresses on horizontal planes
vary linearly.
e. From the dam's upstream face to its downstream face, horizontal shear stresses vary
parabolically across horizontal planes.
With the exception of horizontal planes close to the dam's base, where the effects of
foundation yielding alter the stress distributions within the structure, the assumptions at serial
numbers (d) and (e) above are precisely accurate. However, these impacts are typically
negligible in medium- or low-height dams. However, in high dam situations, these impacts
can be substantial, in that case, stresses close to the base should be examined using additional
appropriate stress analysis techniques.
However, in high dam situations, these impacts can be substantial, in which case stresses
close to the base should be examined using additional appropriate stress analysis techniques.
As seen in Figure 8.10, ΣW and ΣH stand for the total of the consequent vertical and
horizontal forces operating on a gravity dam's horizontal plane (seen as section PQ). The
centroid of the plane under discussion is represented by O, and the consequent R of ΣW and
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ΣH intersects the section PQ at O′. The eccentricity of loading, e, is the distance between O
and O′. When e is not equal to zero, indicating that the loading on the plane is eccentric.,
the normal stress σyx at any point (on the section PQ) x distant from the centroid O is given as
equation 8.24.
∑ 𝑾𝑾 (∑ 𝑾𝑾)𝒆𝒆
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝒙𝒙 = 𝑨𝑨
± 𝑰𝑰
𝒙𝒙 ..…………(8.24)
In this case, A stands for the plane PQ's area, and I is the plane PQ's moment of
inertia about an axis that passes through its centroid and passes parallel to the dam's length. It
should be noticed that the nature of the bending stress (= (ΣW) e x/I) depends on the location
of O′ with respect to O, while the direct stress (= ΣW/A) at every point of the section PQ is
always compressive. Any point between O and Q and any point between O and P will
experience tensile bending stress and compressive bending stress, respectively, if O′ is
located between O and Q. As a result, when the reservoir is full, all points between O and Q
in Fig. (8.10) should be represented by the positive sign, and all locations between O and P
by the negative sign. Similar to this, one should use the positive sign for all points between O
and P and the negative sign for all sites between O and Q when the reservoir is empty (in
which case ΣH may represent an earthquake force acting in the upstream direction) and O′
sits between O and P.

Figure 8.10: Resultant Force on Gravity Dam

One can write A = T and I = T3/12 by taking the unit length of the dam and the
horizontal distance (T) between the upstream edge P and the downstream edge Q of the plane
PQ. Equation (8.24) thus reduces to:
∑ 𝑾𝑾 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝒙𝒙 = 𝑻𝑻
�𝟏𝟏 ± 𝑻𝑻𝟐𝟐
� ..………… (8.25)
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This equation (8.25) can also be used to find the normal stress at the dam's base, BB′
(Figure 8.11). Equation (8.25) for the base of the dam simplifies to equation 8.26, if the
width of the base BB′ is b.
∑ 𝑾𝑾 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒙
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝒙𝒙 = 𝒃𝒃
�𝟏𝟏 ± 𝒃𝒃𝟐𝟐
� .…………(8.26)

Figure 8.11: Normal Stresses on the Base of a Gravity Dam

x = b/2 holds true for both the dam's heel (B) and toe (B′). Therefore, the typical
stresses at the dam's heel (σyU) and toe (σyD) are given in equation 8.27 to 8.30 as follows:
When the reservoir is full,
∑ 𝑾𝑾 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑫𝑫 = 𝒃𝒃
�𝟏𝟏 + 𝒃𝒃
� ..…………(8.27)
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∑ 𝑾𝑾 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑼𝑼 = 𝒃𝒃
�𝟏𝟏 − 𝒃𝒃
� ..…………(8.28)
When the reservoir is empty,
∑ 𝑾𝑾 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑫𝑫 = 𝒃𝒃
�𝟏𝟏 − 𝒃𝒃
� ..…………(8.29)
∑ 𝑾𝑾 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑼𝑼 = 𝒃𝒃
�𝟏𝟏 + 𝒃𝒃
� ..…………(8.30)
According to these equations, the stress along the base is compressive if e is less than
or equal to b/6, and the base may experience tensile pressures if e is larger than b/6. Figure
8.12 displays the stress distributions for various values of e when the reservoir is full. This
implies that the resultant for all loading situations must reach the base inside the middle third
of the base if there is to be no strain at any point in the dam's base. By using the principal
planes and primary stresses, one may determine the range of stresses operating at a certain
site and use that information to build the structure based on extreme values. A primary plane
is one that experiences just typical stresses. Such a plane does not experience shear loads.
Because water pressure applies normally on these surfaces, the upstream and downstream
faces of a gravity dam, which have tail water, are therefore the primary planes because no
other force acts on them.

Figure 8.12: Principal Stresses in a Gravity Dam

Moreover, the primary planes of a structure are mutually perpendicular at every location.
Therefore, the upstream and downstream faces of a gravity dam would be at right angles to
other major planes. The plane QR at the toe of a gravity dam forms an infinite triangle
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element PQR at a right angle to the downstream face PQ. Therefore, PQ and QR are the
principal planes, and PR is a component of the dam's base. The major stresses operating on
the principal planes PQ and QR are σ1D and p′ (tail-water pressure), respectively. σyD and
(τyx)D are the normal and tangential stresses acting on PR, respectively. It is possible to
consider all of the stresses as taking place at a point due to the tiny size of the element. Given
the element, PQR's equilibrium, the sum of all the vertical forces should be zero. When the
dam's unit length is considered, then

σ1D (QR) cos φD+ p′ (PQ) sin φD – σyD (PR) = 0

σ1D (PR) cos2φD + p′ (PR) sin2φD – σyD (PR) = 0
∴ σ1D= σyD sec2φD – p′ tan2φD ..…………(8.31)
Thus, the primary stress σ1D at the dam's toe can be obtained from Equation (8.31) by
knowing p′ and σyD [from Equation (8.27)]. Typically, p′ is very small compared to σ1D or
zero (no tail-water). As a result, the major primary stress is σ1D, and the minor principal
stress is p′. Upon p′ being equal to zero, Equation (8.31) can be re-written as equation 8.32.
σ1D = σyD sec2φD ..…………(8.32)
The effective minor primary stress becomes p′ – pe′ when the hydrodynamic pressure pe′
induced by the earthquake acceleration (towards the reservoir) is considered, and Equation
(8.31) can be rewritten as equation 8.33.
σ1D = σyD sec2φD – (p′ – pe′) tan2φD .…………(8.33)
In the absence of tailwater, p′ and pe′ are both zero, and σ1D is determined using Equation
(8.32). Similarly, the expression for σ1U can be obtained by considering an insignificant
element at the heel of the dam (Fig. 8.12) from equation 8.34 as follows:
σ1U = σyU sec2φU – (p + pe) tan2φU .…………(8.34)
In the case of an empty reservoir, p = pe = 0, therefore,
σ1U = σyU sec2φU . …………(8.35)
The intensity of water pressure p is frequently higher than the average stress σ1U when
the reservoir is full. Consequently, p represents the main primary stress and σ1U the minor
principal stress at the heel. Since φU = 0 for the vertical upstream face, σ1U = σyU. This is
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obtained by once more estimating the forces acting in the horizontal direction on the
infinitesimal element PQR and equating their algebraic sum to zero for the equilibrium
condition.
∴(τyx)D (PR) + p′ (PQ) cos φD – σ1D (QR) sin φD = 0
(τyx)D = (σ1D – p′) sin φD cos φD= (σyD sec2 φD – p′ tan2 φD – p′) sin φD cos φD
(τyx)D = (σyD – p′) tan φD .…………(8.36)
In the same way, considering the element's equilibrium at the dam's heel,
(τyx)U = – (σyU – p) tan φU .…………(8.37)
When the effects of seismic acceleration are considered, equations 8.36 and 8.37 reduce to
(τyx)D = [σyD – (p′ – pe′)] tan φD .…………(8.38)
and
(τyx)U = – [σyU – (p + pe)] tan φU .…………(8.39)
Similarly, by considering only the forces acting above the section, one may determine
the main and shear stresses at the downstream and upstream sides of the dam at any
horizontal section.
8.3.4 Elementary Profile of a Gravity Dam
The right-angled triangular section (Figure 8.13), with its apex as the maximum water level
in the reservoir with a wide base where the water pressure is maximum, is termed the
elementary profile of a gravity dam. This section is subject to its self-weight W, force due to
water pressure P, and uplift force U. The only force operating on the dam in the empty
reservoir situation is its own weight, which will reach the base at b/3 from the dam's heel,
and thus, it meets the stability criteria with no tension. The elementary profile's base width is
chosen by determining which of the two base widths is higher in order to satisfy the no
tension and no sliding conditions, as stated below. For the elementary profile depicted in Fig.
8.13, if the downstream middle third point is passed through by the resultant R of all three
forces Wc (= 0.5 s ρgbh), W1 (= 0.5 ρgh2), and U (= 0.5 ρghbc′), (where s = concrete's
specific gravity and c′ = correction factor for uplift force), one gets:
𝑏𝑏 ℎ 𝑏𝑏
(0.5 𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏ℎ) − (0.5 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ2 ) − (0.5 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ𝑏𝑏𝑐𝑐 ′ ) = 0
3 3 3
𝑏𝑏 2 (𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐 ′ ) = ℎ2
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ℎ
or, 𝑏𝑏 = √𝑠𝑠−𝑐𝑐 ′
ℎ
for c' = 1,𝑏𝑏 =
√𝑠𝑠−1
ℎ
in case the uplift is ignored c' = 0 and 𝑏𝑏 =
√𝑠𝑠

Result for no-sliding requirement = µ (Wc – U) = P = W1

where, µ = shear-friction coefficient.
or, 𝜇𝜇(0.5 𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑏𝑏ℎ − 0.5 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ𝑏𝑏𝑐𝑐 ′ ) = 0.5 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ2
ℎ
or, 𝑏𝑏 = 𝜇𝜇(𝑠𝑠−𝑐𝑐 ′ )
ℎ
for c' = 1,𝑏𝑏 = 𝜇𝜇(𝑠𝑠−1)
ℎ
in case of no uplift c' = 0 and 𝑏𝑏 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

It is evident that, the elementary profile of a gravity dam must have a minimum base
width equal to the greater of the base widths established from the no-sliding and no-tension
criteria to satisfy the stability criterion.
Again, for an elementary profile, ΣW = (Wc – U)
1
∑𝑊𝑊 = 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏ℎ(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐 ′ )
2
∑ 𝑊𝑊 12𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥
𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 = �1 ± �
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 2

Figure 8.13: Elementary profile of a Gravity Dam

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For no tension in the dam, e = b/6

Therefore, at the toe of the dam (i.e., x=b/2)
𝟐𝟐 ∑ 𝑾𝑾
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑫𝑫 =
𝒃𝒃
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑫𝑫 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝒉𝒉(𝒔𝒔 − 𝒄𝒄′ )
and at the heel of the dam (i.e., x= -b/2) :𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑼𝑼 = 𝟎𝟎;
Accordingly, the principal stress σ1D = σyD sec2φD
𝜎𝜎1𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐 ′ )[1 + (𝑏𝑏/ℎ)2 ]
1
𝜎𝜎1𝐷𝐷 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ((𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐 ′ ) �1 + �
(𝒔𝒔 − 𝒄𝒄′ )
𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝒉𝒉((𝒔𝒔 − 𝒄𝒄′ + 𝟏𝟏)
Similarly,
𝒃𝒃 𝟏𝟏
(τyx)D = σyD tan φD= 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝒉𝒉(𝒔𝒔 − 𝒄𝒄′ ) 𝒉𝒉 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝒉𝒉(𝒔𝒔 − 𝒄𝒄′ ) √𝒔𝒔−𝒄𝒄′

= 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝒉𝒉�𝒔𝒔 − 𝒄𝒄′ )
The principal and shear stress at the heel are, obviously, zero. Accordingly, when the
reservoir is empty, ΣW = 0.5 𝑠𝑠 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏ℎ
𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑫𝑫 = 𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟐 ∑ 𝑾𝑾
𝝈𝝈𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝝈𝝈𝒚𝒚𝑼𝑼 = = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉
𝒃𝒃
A gravity dam may be referred to as a "high" or "low" dam, depending on whether the
compressive stress at the toe (σ1D) exceeds the maximum allowable stress (σm) for the dam's
material. Based on this, the expression (Equation 8.40 and 8.41) for σ1D is equivalent with σm
to yield the limiting height hl. Consequently,
𝝈𝝈𝒎𝒎 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝒉𝒉𝒍𝒍 (𝒔𝒔 − 𝒄𝒄′ + 𝟏𝟏) .…………(8.40)
𝝈𝝈
𝒉𝒉𝒍𝒍 = 𝒎𝒎
.…………(8.41)
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆(𝒔𝒔−𝒄𝒄′ +𝟏𝟏)

A gravity dam is considered as low dam if its height is less than hl; otherwise, it is
considered as high dam.
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8.3.5 Design of a Gravity Dam

A basic profile must be adjusted before being used in real-world situations. It is merely an
ideal profile. A finite crest width, an appropriate freeboard, a batter in the lower portion of
the upstream face, and a flatter downstream face are some of the modifications that would be
made. A gravity dam's design entails assuming its approximate profile and then segmenting it
into several zones using horizontal planes so that stability analysis may be done at the level
of each dividing plane. Three-dimensional or two-dimensional analysis is possible for design
of gravity dam.

8.4 ARCH DAMS

An arch dam (Figure 8.14) is a dam with a curved design that uses arch action to transfer
most of its water load horizontally to the abutments. The amount of curvature is the main
determinant of this portion of the water load. Cantilever action transfers the remaining water
load to the foundation. Strong canyon side walls are primarily necessary for supporting the
arch forces and the thrust created by the water load carried by the arch motion. It is not
anticipated that the weight of arch dams will significantly contribute to the resistance against
external loads. Uplift on the base is therefore not a crucial design consideration.

8.4.1 Advantages of Arch Dams

a. Arch dams work best in gorges when the length is relatively small compared to the
height.
b. The section of an arch dam is significantly smaller compared to the size of a matching
gravity dam for a given height. As a result, an arch dam requires less material and is
less expensive.
c. The uplift pressure concerns are negligible due to the considerably smaller base
width.
d. In moderate foundations, where a gravity dam requiring sound foundation rock may
not be suitable, an arch dam can be constructed since cantilever action only transfers a
tiny portion of the water load to the foundation.
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Figure 8.14: Arch Dam

8.4.2 Disadvantages
a. It needs advanced form of work and specialized labour. An arch dam's design is
likewise very specialized.
b. Construction of arch dam typically moves slowly.
c. It needs extraordinarily solid rock abutments that can support arch thrust. Because of
this, it is inappropriate in areas lacking stable abutments. Regretfully, there are not
many locations that work well for this kind of dam.

8.5 BUTTRESS DAMS

A buttress dam (Figure 8.15) is made up of several piers or buttresses that divide the space
that needs to be dammed into several spans. Horizontal arches or flat slabs are used in the
construction of panels to support and hold the water in between these buttresses.
When the panels are made up of arches, the dam is known as a multiple arches type buttress
dam. When panels are made of a single, flat slab, the term "deck type buttress dam" is used.
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Figure 8.15: Buttress Dams

8.5.1 Advantages of Buttress Dams
a. The mass of a buttress dam is lower than that of a gravity dam. As a result, buttress
dams can be built even on unstable foundations that cannot support gravity dams
since they have less foundation pressures.
b. The inclined deck experiences normal water load behavior. As a result of this, the
vertical component of the water force stabilizes the dam against sliding and
overturning, and the buttress dam has a safety factor that is significantly higher than
that of a gravity dam.
c. The inclined deck experiences normal water load behavior. As a result of this, the
vertical component of the water force stabilizes the dam against sliding and
overturning, and the buttress dam has a safety factor that is significantly higher than
that of a gravity dam.
d. Since the ice tends to slide over the slanted U/S deck, the ice pressure turns to be
irrelevant.
e. For a gravity dam, the only way to increase the dam's height is to install a crest
shutter at the overflow section. But in the case of a buttress dam, it is convenient and
practical to raise the height even further by extending the slab and buttress as
illustrated in Figure 8.16. Therefore, in situations where an increase in reservoir
capacity is anticipated in the future, buttress dams are employed.
f. By placing power houses and water treatment facilities between buttresses, building
costs can be reduced.
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g. About half to one-third as much concrete is utilized in buttress dams as in gravity

dams of the same height. Buttress dam construction is not economical in that ratio,
though, due to the higher expense of formwork and reinforcing.
h. The back of the upstream face and the foundations between the buttresses are
accessible for routine inspections, as well as for the optional sub-sequent grouting and
drilling of pressure relief holes.
i. The design of buttress dams can allow for moderate foundation movement without
causing significant damage, dependent on the level of articulation or structural
isolation offered.
j. Although the financial economy may not always be directly proportionate to the
quantity of concrete saved, the mass efficient use of concrete's strength produces an
economy in the quantity needed.
k. Because of the greater exposed area and thinner section that do not present a cooling
issue, the decreased volume of concrete and increased surface area to volume ratio
enables for improved heat dissipation during construction and may even speed up the
process.

Figure 8.16: Raising Height of Buttress Dam

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8.5.2 Disadvantages of Buttress Dams

a. Compared to solid dams, skilled labour is needed more frequently, and the shuttering
concrete ratio is greater here. This could result in higher limit rates, compensating
some of the savings from using less concrete.
b. Buttress dams with extremely thin concrete faces are severely impacted by the
deterioration of the upstream concrete surface.
c. Buttress dams are more prone to intentional harm. The thickness of the upstream face
and the difficulty of access from the downstream side will likely to determine the
degree of hazards.

8.6 SPILLWAYS
When a flood occurs in an open natural stream, it is considered as a natural phenomenon for
which no person or organization is responsible. However, the organization in charge of
building the blockage is held responsible if a flood results from the failure of an artificial
obstacle (such a dam) built across a natural stream. If overtopped, embankment dams made
of rockfill or earth are almost certainly to be destroyed. However, moderate overtopping may
be tolerated by concrete dams. A dam failure would result in catastrophic loss of life and
property destruction.
As such, there must always be a provision to release excess water safely when the reservoir
has been filled to its capacity so that the dam itself is not overtopped. This is achieved by
constructing a spillway. Spillways release safely the surplus water which cannot be contained
in the reservoir created by the dam. The surplus water is usually drawn from the top of the
reservoir and conveyed through an artificial waterway back to the river downstream of the
dam or to some other natural drainage channel. Spillway can be constructed either as part of
the main dam, such as in overflow section of a concrete dam or as a separate structure
altogether. Besides being capable of releasing surplus water, a spillway must be able to meet
hydraulic and structural requirements and must be located such that spillway discharges do
not damage the toe of the dam. Insufficient spillway capacity and/or the failure of a spillway
will cause widespread damage and loss of life. As such, the design criteria for a spillway are
usually conservative. The inflow design flood, used to determine the spillway capacity, is
also estimated conservatively. In addition to having the capacity to discharge excess water, a
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spillway must meet the structural and hydraulic specifications and be positioned in such
way that spillway discharges do not harm the dam's toe. There will be casualties and
extensive damage if a spillway fails or has insufficient capacity. As a result, spillway design
specifications are typically conservative. To estimate the spillway capacity, the input design
flood is also conservatively estimated.

8.6.1 Components of Spillway

The main components of a spillway are:
• control structure,
• conveyance structure,
• terminal structure, and
• entrance and exit channels.
I. Control Structure
A spillway's control structure controls and directs the reservoir's outflow. It often consists of
an overflow crest or a particular kind of opening and is situated at the upstream end of the
spillway. On the other hand, the downstream end may have control in some circumstances.
For instance, in a "morning glory" spillway, the flow at greater heads is controlled by the
downstream tunnel rather than the orifice's crest. The outflow crest in a plan might be
circular, semicircular, U-shaped, straight, or curved. The crest may have a different cross-
sectional shape, be broad, ogee-shaped, or pointed. Additionally, an orifice can be placed
horizontally, vertically, or inclinedly, and it can take on a variety of geometries. Orifices can
also have a bell-mouth form, a round edge, or a sharp edge.
II. Conveyance Structure
A discharge channel or waterway typically transports the outflow that is released through the
control structure to the river channel downstream. However, no such conveyance system is
necessary for free fall spillways. If the spillway has been built into the main body of the dam,
the conveyance structure may consist of the downstream face of the dam, or an open channel
constructed along the abutment's ground surface, or an underground tunnel constructed
through an abutment. Depending on the hydraulic needs and the site's geology and
topography, the conveyance structure may also have a range of cross-sections.
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III. Terminal Structure

Water moves from the reservoir level to the river level downstream, converting static energy
into kinetic energy. If this energy is not adequately released, it could generate enough scour
near the dam's toe to cause damage to the spillway, the dam, and other nearby buildings. As a
result, appropriate stilling basins are typically installed at the spillway's downstream end to
disperse any extra kinetic energy and prevent undesirable scour from being discharged into
the river. An appropriate energy dissipator or absorber, such as a roller bucket or hydraulic
jump basin, can be used to release the surplus kinetic energy. On the other hand, if the stream
bed is made of bed rock that is resistant to erosion, the overflowing water might occasionally
be sent straight to the stream. By using structures like flip buckets or cantilevered extensions,
the incoming jet should always be expanded downstream from the end of the structure.
IV. Entrance and Exit Channel
While the exit channel transports flow from the terminal structure to the stream channel
downstream of the dam, the entrance channel transports water from the reservoir to the
control structure. However, as these spillways pull water straight from the reservoir and
discharge it directly into the stream channel, as is the situation, for example, with the
overflow spillway of a concrete dam, entrance and exit channels are not necessary. Entry and
departure channels are required in spillways that are situated next to saddles, ridges, or along
abutments.

8.7 TYPES OF GATES FOR SPILLWAY CRESTS

The most basic type of control for a spillway is the free or uncontrolled overflow crest, which
releases water automatically whenever the reservoir water level rises above the crest level.
Such crests do not require an operator to monitor and regulate the control devices on a
continuous basis. Additionally, there are no issues with the controlling device's maintenance
or repairs. On the other hand, a regulation gate might be required if an uncontrolled crest or
adequate surcharge head cannot be obtained for the required spillway capacity. When the
reservoir's water level falls below its typical water surface, these regulating mechanisms
allow the spillway to discharge storage. All types of spillways, except for the siphon
spillway, can have gates. Installing gates requires extra money for both the initial expense
and periodic maintenance and repairs. Numerous factors influence one's decision to control
device type and size, such as:
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• discharge characteristics of the device,

• climate,
• frequency and nature of floods,
• winter storage requirements,
• need for handling ice and debris, and
• special operating requirements, such as the presence of an operator during flood
duration,
• the availability of electricity, operating mechanism,
• economy, reliability, efficiency, and adaptability of the regulating device etc
Typically, the following kinds of regulating devices are employed:
• Flashboards and stoplogs,
• Rectangular lift gates,
• Radial gates, and
• Drum gates.
These can be operated mechanically or hydraulically and can be controlled manually or
automatically.

8.7.1 Flashboards and Stoplogs

When the spillway is not needed to release floodwaters, flashboards and stop logs increase
the reservoir storage level above a fixed spillway crest level. Typically, flashboards are made
up of individual 1.0–1.25 m-tall boards or panels. These have a bottom hinge and struts to
support them against the pressure of the water. A bulkhead is formed by stacking individual
beams or girders called stoplogs, which are held in place by grooves at both ends of the span.
Before the flood, the flashboards or stoplogs are removed to boost the spillway capacity. As
an alternative, they are made and placed in a way that allows them to be taken out while
being topped. When removed, flashboards and stoplogs, a low-cost, basic kind of controlling
device, provide an open crest. Nevertheless, they have the following drawbacks:
a. They pose a hazard if not removed in time to prevent flooding, particularly in areas
with small reservoirs and flash floods;
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b. Unless they are made to collapse automatically, they require the presence of an
operator or crew to remove;
c. They are typically not able to be put back in place while water is flowing over the
crest;
d. If they are made to fail when the water reaches a certain point, their operation is
unpredictable, and when it performs, it releases large, unexpected outflows and
e. If the spillway operates frequently, replacing flashboards that could be expensive.

8.7.2 Vertical Lift Gates

Normally, rectangular in shape, these are formed by steel and move vertically in their own
plane while extending horizontally between guide grooves in supporting piers. An overhead
hoist raises and lowers the gates, and an exceeded orifice flow discharges water at each gate
opening. Due to the significant sliding friction produced by water pressure, sliding gates
necessitate a high lifting capacity. By adding wheels to both sides of the gate, the sliding
friction would be decreased allowing a smaller hoist to be used. It has proven possible to
employ vertical lift gates with spans and heights of up to 20 and 15 meters, respectively.
However, the issue of an elevated operating platform becomes significant at higher altitudes.

8.7.3 Radial (or Tainter) Gates

These consist of steel plates that are joined to a supporting bearing by radial arms to form a
section of a cylinder. For the entire thrust of the water load to flow through the supporting
pins and for only a small amount of time to be overcome to raise or lower the gate, the
cylindrical plate must be kept concentric to the pins. The weight of the gate, the sliding
friction, and the frictional resistance at the pins are the only components that make up the
hoisting loads. Hand operations at small installations are feasible since the radial gates
require a minimal hoisting effort to operate. Additionally, they need less headroom than
vertical lift gates. The radial gates are more flexible due to all these benefits.

8.7.4 Drum Gates

The drum gates are composed of steel plates, have a triangular form, and are hollow, making
them buoyant. The hydraulic chamber of the weir construction, where the drum gate floats,
has a hinge at its upstream lip. The hydraulic chamber's intake of water or withdrawals
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causes the gate to swing up or down. Controls in the piers adjacent to the chambers regulate
the amount of water that flows in and out of the chamber.

8.8 RESERVOIRS
A man-made lake or reservoir is created behind a dam that has been constructed over a river
or stream. The most significant and costly components of developing a multipurpose river
basin are dams and reservoirs. They need to be designed, planned, and operated with extreme
caution. The design, building, and operation of dams and reservoirs provide several
challenges, such as site selection, the relative benefits of various dam designs, storage
capacity and optimal yield, and the coordinated use of storage for various objectives. Storage
works are built with a variety of applications in consideration, such as:
a. Storage and control of water for irrigation
b. Storage and diversion of water for domestic uses
c. Water supplies for industrial uses
d. Development of hydroelectric power
e. Increasing water depths for navigation
f. Storage space for flood control
g. Reclamation of low-lying lands
h. Debris control
i. Preservation and cultivation of useful aquatic life
j. Recreation.
8.8.1 Types of Reservoirs
Based on the purposes served, reservoirs may be classified under the following categories:
• Storage or conservation reservoirs
• Flood protection reservoirs
• Distribution reservoirs
• Multipurpose reservoirs.
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I. Storage or Conservation Reservoir

Water supplies for irrigation, hydroelectric development, household, and industrial supplies
are the main uses of storage reservoirs. A river may carry significant amounts of water during
certain seasons of the year; however, its annual flow varies. When there are plenty of water
available, excess water is stored in a storage reservoir, which is subsequently incrementally
released when needed.
II. Flood Control Reservoirs
Reservoirs designed to defend against flooding are ones that hold water during a flood and
release it gradually and safely as the flood subsides. Flood damage downstream is decreased
by providing artificial storage during the floods. Planning for flood avoidance is based on
two main principles: flood disposition, which directs floodwaters to travel downstream
without causing harm, and riverbed stabilization, which stabilizes the river channel from the
upper stream to the estuary. Planning for the entire river system's flood disposition includes
flood control via dams, and occasionally it also includes riverbank stabilization.
III. Distribution Reservoir
A distribution reservoir is a low storage tank that utilized by the cities to supply water. The
different rates of water throughout the day are defined by a distribution reservoir. Such a
distribution reservoir enables the continuous operation of water treatment facilities, pumping
plants, etc. The distribution reservoir supplies the variable demand rate that exceeds the
constant pumping rate.
IV. Multipurpose Reservoir
A reservoir that fulfils more than one purposes is referred to as multipurpose reservoir. A
multipurpose reservoir would be one that is intended to store water for domestic uses,
hydroelectric power generation, irrigation, and industrial uses. The multipurpose reservoir
can also be used for safeguarding the downstream region from flooding.

8.9 RESERVOIR CAPACITY AND YIELD OF RESERVOIRS

8.9.1 Yield
The volume of water that can be drawn from the reservoir in a predetermined amount of time
is known as the yield. For small distribution reservoirs, the design interval is one day; for
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 438

large conservation reservoirs, it is one year. For example, if 25,000 cubic meters of water is
supplied from a reservoir in one year, its yield is 25,000 cubic meters/year or 2.5 hectare-
meters/year.

8.9.2 Safe yield or firm yield

The safe yield, sometimes referred to as the firm yield, is the largest quantity of water that
can be assured during a severe dry spell.

8.9.3 Secondary yield

Secondary yield is the amount of water that is accessible during heavy flood events in excess
of the safe yield.

8.9.4 Average yield

Average yield is defined as the long-term arithmetic mean of the secondary yield and the firm
yield.

8.9.5 Mass inflow curve

The demand curve and the mass inflow curve are used to calculate the reservoir capacity that
corresponds to a specified yield. A plot of the reservoir's cumulative inflow over a period is
referred to as a mass inflow curve.
A flood hydrograph of inflow for multiple years is shown in Figure 8.17. A mass
inflow curve generated from the flood hydrograph in Figure 8.17 is displayed in Figure 8.18.
Using 1957 as the base year, the hatched area represents the entire amount of water that has
passed through the river from 1957 to a period t1 (let us say 1960). The amount of water
represented by the hatched region of Fig. 8.18 will thus be equal to the corresponding
ordinate at time t1 (ordinate AB) in the mass curve (Fig. 8.19). In a similar manner, it is
possible to calculate and represent the ordinates of the mass curve for subsequent years using
Fig. 8.18. A mass curve that displays the cumulative inflow rises steadily. The mass curve
will be horizontal for a period when there is no inflow. The high flood period will cause the
mass curve to climb extremely sharply. The mass curve's steepness, therefore, indicates the
flow rate for that particular time period. The mass curve's gaps indicate comparatively dry
times.
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Figure 8.17: Flood Hydrograph of Inflow

Figure 8.18: Mass Inflow Curve

8.9.6 Demand curve
A graph of the accumulated demand over a period is called a demand curve (Figure 8.19). A
straight line having a slope equal to the demand rate represents the demand curve for a
uniform rate of demand. Additionally, a demand curve can indicate a fluctuating rate of
demand.
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Figure 8.19: Demand Curves

8.9.7 Calculation of Reservoir Capacity for a Specified Yield from the Mass Inflow
Curve Procedure (Figure 8.20):
a. Create the mass inflow curve using the flood hydrograph of inflow for several years.
Prepare the demand mass curve on the same scale as well.
b. Draw tangents parallel to the demand curve from the apices A1, A2, A3, ... of the
mass curve.
c. Calculate the highest vertical intercepts between the mass curve and the tangent, such
as E1D1, E2D2, E3D3, etc. The volume by which the intake falls short of the demand
is indicated by the vertical intercepts. For example, C1D1 denotes the net inflow and
C1E1 the demand during a time that corresponds to locations A1 and C1. Therefore,
the reservoir storage must supply the volume E1D1.
d. The vertical ordinate with the largest value, amongst E1D1, E2D2, E3D3, etc.,
indicates the necessary reservoir capacity.
It should be remembered that the water lost over the spillway is represented by the
vertical distance between the subsequent tangents. The spillway's capacity must be adequate
to release this amount of floodwater.
In accordance with the numerical figures displayed in Figure 8.21, we observe that:
1) A reservoir capacity of 2100 ha-m is required.
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2) Assuming the reservoir to be full at A1, it is depleted to (2100 — 800) =1300 ha-m at
D1 and is again full at B1.
3) Assuming the reservoir is full at A2, it is empty at D2 and is full again at B2.
4) The reservoir is full between B1 and A2, and the spill volume is 800 ha-m.

Figure 8.20: Determination of Reservoir Capacity

8.9.8 Determination of Safe Yield from a Reservoir of a Given Capacity

The process for calculating the safe yield from a reservoir with a particular storage capacity
using a mass inflow curve is as follows:
1. Get the mass inflow curve ready. Draw straight lines from a similar origin on the
same picture to reflect needs at different rates, say ranging from 0 to 5000 ha-m
annually.
2. Draw tangents from the mass curve's apices, Al, A2, A3, etc., making sure that their
greatest deviance from the mass curve stays within the designated reservoir capacity.
As a result, in Figure 8.21, the reservoir capacity (let us say 1500 ha-m) is equivalent
to the ordinates E1D1, E2D2, E3D3, etc.
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3. Calculate each of these tangents' slopes. The yield that may be obtained annually
from a reservoir with a particular capacity is indicated by the slopes. The firm yield is
the slope of the flattest demand line.

8.10 SEDIMENTATION
A reservoir is created, when a hydraulic construction, such as a dam, is built across a river.
As a result, due to decreased velocity of river water, the suspended silt load settles down and
begins to accumulate sediment. The continuous phenomena of reservoir storage
encroachment have a detrimental effect on the project's intended goal. Therefore, to evaluate
a reservoir's viability and economic life, sedimentation studies are crucial. Depleting the
reservoir's design capacity, the sediment load not only settles in the dead storage region as
previously considered, but also encroaches on the active storage area. Determining the
amount of silt accumulated and its distribution at different levels is therefore crucial for
estimating the harm to the reservoir's economic life. The rate and pattern of silt deposition in
the reservoir are the two parameters of the sedimentation problem, whose understanding is
crucial.

Figure 8.21: Determination of Yield from Reservoir of Specified Capacity

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8.10.1 Silting Rate

The river catchment above the dam is the source of silt to the reservoir. The catchment's rate
of erosion and the river's transport capacity are the factors which determine the amount of silt
that enters the reservoir. When measuring or estimating the sediment yield from the
watershed is not practical, similar reservoirs' observed data may be utilized to plan a new
reservoir.
In any storage reservoir, the two main factors affecting the rate of silting are:
a. sediment from the river flow and
b. the capacity inflow ratio.
The other factors which affect the loss of storage capacity in the long run are:
a. The trap efficiency
b. Sediment characteristics, and
c. The reservoir operation.
These factors are inter-related. If the capacity is small the reservoir can be filled up by
sediment much earlier than big reservoir having large capacity-inflow ratio. On the other
hand, reservoirs having large capacity-inflow ratio will trap large amount of sediment
entering the reservoir i.e., these will have high trap efficiency.
Brune (1953) established an empirical relationship between the capacity-inflow ratio
(c/i) and the observed trap efficiency of reservoirs in the United States to estimate long-term
trap efficiency, which is defined as the ratio of deposited sediment to the total sediment
inflow in typically impounded reservoirs. In Figure 8.22, the relationship is displayed. A
reservoir's trap efficiency varies over the time as sedimentation diminishes capacity. Table
8.2 lists the trap efficiencies found in a few Indian reservoirs.
The observed data of Table 8.2 supports the trend of Brune's curve for trap efficiency.
It demonstrates that when the c/i ratio is one or higher, the trap efficiency is almost 100%,
and when it is less than 0.2, the trap efficiency drops significantly.
M.A. Churchill created a link between the reservoir's sedimentation index and the
proportion of incoming silt using data from the Tennessee Valley Authority. She then
provided a curve, which is depicted in Figure 8.23.
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Table 8.2: Observed trap efficiency of Indian reservoirs

Name of Reservoirs Period of observation Trap efficiency in% c/i ratio
Matatila 1962-72 66.5 to 89.2 0.19
Hirakund 1957-73 64.3 to 91.1 0.20
Bhakra 1962-73 98.4 to 99.8 1.0
Maithon 1963-67 92 to 95 0.58
Lower Bhawani 1953-65 79 to 89 0.49

Capacity — Reservoir capacity at FRL; Inflow - Average annual inflow in volumetric units.

Figure 8.22: Brune's curve for trap efficiency

8.10.2 Description of Terms in Churchill's Curve
Capacity: Capacity of the reservoir during the considered time at the mean
operational pool elevation.
Inflow Average monthly inflow during the duration of the study
Period of Retention The ratio of capacity to inflow rate
Length length of reservoir at the level of mean operation pool.
Velocity Mean velocity is obtained by dividing the inflow by the average cross
sectional area. The average cross-sectional area is computed by
dividing capacity by length.
Sedimentation Index Periods of retention divided by velocity.
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Figure 8.23: Churchill curve for trap efficiency

Example 8.1: Reservoir Data for a reservoir is given as below. Obtain trap efficiency
using Brune’s method and Churchill's Method.
• Full reservoir level (FRL)= 400 m
• Mean operating pool elevation = 399 m
• Capacity at FRL, C1= 55.1 x 106 m3
• Capacity at mean operating pool elevation, C2 = 51.5 x 106 m3
• Average inflow, I, over the study period of 10 years = 1380.06 x 106 m3/year
• Length of the reservoir, L, at the mean operating level = 19312.13 m
Solution
Brune's Method
Capacity inflow ratio (C1/I) = 55.1/1380.06 = 0.0399 year.
Trap efficiency corresponding to the above ratio as read from the median curve of Fig. 8.22
for normally ponded reservoir = 75 per cent
Dendy added more data to Brune’s curve and developed a prediction Equation 8.42 for the
median curve as:
E = 100 * 0.97 ** 0.19 ** log (C/I) .…………(8.42)
Churchill's Method
Average inflow = 1380.06 m3/year = 43.76 m3/sec
Retention period (C2/I) = 51.5 x 106 / 43.76 = 1.1769 x 106 sec
Average cross-sectional area (A) = C2/ L = 515.5 x 106 / 1.9312.13 = 2666.7 m2
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 446

Velocity = I/ A = 0.01641 m/sec

Sedimentation Index = period of retention/ velocity = 7.1718 x 107 sec2 / m
Percentage of incoming sediment passing through as read from Fig. 8.24 corresponding to
above sedimentation index = 15 percent.
Trap efficiency = 100 - 15 = 85 percent.
Absence of definite trend between C/I ratio and annual rate of silting indicates that
there are factors other than C/I ratio, which are responsible for annual rate of silting.
The other factor influencing the rate of silting is sediment characteristic i.e., the size
of sediment and its concentration in the inflow. If C/I ratio is less but size of sediment is
large the trap efficiency will be more. Similarly, if concentration is large and C/I is less more
silting will occur and the converse will be true.
8.10.3 Prediction of Rate of Reservoir Sedimentation
Numerous researchers have attempted to build empirical relations to forecast the rate of
sediment deposition in a reservoir based on observations, field measurements, and surveys
conducted on numerous reservoirs in India and overseas. These relations relate to sediment
volume and catchment area. These are specific to a given area and cannot be applied
globally. However, when no other data is available, these should be used carefully when
planning a reservoir. Below are a few relationships that were created with Indian conditions
in consideration:
a. CBIP Research Committee Method: In the lack of long-term records, the Central Board
of Irrigation & Power Research Committee has recommended Equation 8.43 for
calculating silt deposition in reservoirs. Maximum silt deposition rate suggested for
catchments larger than 2600 km2 = 3.57 ha m/100 km2/year
S =KA3/4 .…………(8.43)
where,
S = Sediment volume (in acre-ft/100 sq. mile/year)
A = Catchment area (in sq. mile)
K = Coefficient of proportionality (depending on type of catchment Table 8.3).
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Table 8.3: Coefficient of proportionality (K)

Type of catchment Coefficient of proportionality (K)
(Based on reservoirs of USA, India, and Burma)
Rocky catchment 0.5
Normal catchment 1.7
Alluvial catchment 5.5

(The Maximum silt deposition rate suggested for catchments larger than 2600 km2 = 3.57 ha
m/100 km2/year)
b. Khosla's Method: Khosla proposes the following empirical relation (Equation 8.44) for
catchments with an area of less than 2600 km2 (1000 sq miles).
Y = 5.19/A0.28 .…………(8.44)
where,
Y = annual sediment deposition (in acre ft per 100 sq. miles of catchment)
A = catchment area (in sq. miles);
(The recommended range of annual sedimentation rate for catchments larger than 2600 km2
is 75 to 90 acre ft/100 km2 (3.57 to 4.3 ha m/100 km2).
Alternatively,
Qs = 0.323 (A)-0.28 .…………(8.45)
where,
Qs = Annual siltation rate (in M. m3/100 sq. km/ year)
A = Catchment area (in sq. km).
For example, for the proposed Jamrani project, the catchment area = 450 sq. km. Thus, the
Annual sedimentation rate = 0.058 M m3/ 100 sq. km (5.8 ha. m/ 100 sq. km / year).
c. CWPRS, Pune Method: The CWPRS, Pune has proposed the following relationship
(Equation 8.46), which is comparable to Khosla equation
S = 10/A0.24 .…………(8.46)
where,
S = Sedimentation rate (in acre-ft/sq. mile/year);
A = Catchment area (in sq. miles).
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For catchments up to 10 sq. miles; S = 0.2743 ha-m/km2 (5.7 acre ft/sq. mile)
and for catchments up to 1000 sq. Miles; S = 0.03 ha-m/km2 (0.63 acre ft/sq. mile).
d. Raichur Method: After dividing the data from Indian reservoirs into Himalayan and
non-Himalayan regions according to catchment area, Raichur examined the data and
proposed the following relationships (Equation 8.47 to 8.51):
• Catchment area up to 130 km2
Y = 0.395/A0.311 for Himalayan rivers in mountains .…………(8.47)
0.202
Y = 0.392/A for Himalayan rivers in trough and plains .…………(8.48)
Y = 0.460/A04.468 for non-Himalayan rivers .…………(8.49)
• Catchment area larger than 130 km2
Y = 1.534/A0.311 for Himalayan rivers .…………(8.50)
Y = 0.159/A0.01 for non-Himalayan rivers .…………(8.51)
where,
Y = Annual silting rate (in Mm3/100 km.2);
A = Catchment area (in km.2).
e. Varshney's Method: Varshney examined Indian reservoir data and proposed the
relationship (Equation 8.52 and 8.53) for Himalayan catchments larger than 5000 km2
catchment area,
S = 141/A0.264 (for) .…………(8.52)
Or
Qs = 1.534 (A) 0.264 .…………(8.53)
where,
Qs = Annual siltation rate (in M. m3/100 sq. km./ year)
A = Catchment area (in sq. km.).
For example, for the proposed Jamrani project, the catchment area = 450 sq. km. Thus, the
Annual sedimentation rate = 0.306 M m3/ 100 sq. km (30.6 ha. m/ 100 sq. km / year).
f. Lagwankar et al.: Lagwankar proposed the following relationship (Equation 8.54 for
catchment area between 100-2500 km2 based on data of selected Indian reservoirs
449 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Qs = 0.278 (A)0.815 .…………(8.54)

where, Qs = Annual siltation rate (in ha. m/ year)
A = Catchment area (in sq. km.)
For example, for the proposed Jamrani project, the catchment area = 450 sq. km. Thus, the
annual sedimentation rate =8.98 ha. m / 100 sq. km./ year (0.09 M m3/100 sq. km./ year)
g. Jogelkar’s Equation: The following relationship (Equation 8,55) has been proposed by
Jogelkar.
Qs = 0.59 (A) 0.24 .…………(8.55)
where,
Qs = Annual siltation rate (in M. m3/100 sq. km./ year)
A = Catchment area (in sq. km.).
For example, for the proposed Jamrani project, the catchment area = 450 sq. km. Thus, the
annual sedimentation rate = 0.1362 M m3/ 100 sq. km. (13.62 ha. m/ 100 sq. km. / year).

8.10.4 Prediction of Sediment Distribution

I. Pattern of Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs
Before the capacity surveys of reservoirs were carried out, it was the assumption that
sediment gets deposited in the dead storage and so sufficient space should be provided in the
reservoir as dead storage to accommodate the sediment entering the reservoir during its
lifetime. However, the hydrographic surveys have proved this assumption is incorrect, and it
has been revealed that sediment deposits all over the reservoir and starts reducing the live
storage from the first year of its operation.
The flow velocity of a river lowers and silt load begins to deposit when it enters a
reservoir. Delta deposits are formed in the reservoir's head reach by the bed load and
sediment made up of coarse fractions. Lower settling velocity carries fine fractions of the
sediment load into the reservoir in the direction of the dam. They either move in a non-
stratified or stratified flow.
In this process of sediment deposition, a variety of depositional patterns can occur
depending on factors like hydrologic conditions, sediment particle size, reservoir geometry,
reservoir operation. Figure 8.24 displays a generalized longitudinal deposition profile.
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.
Figure 8.24: Generalized Sediment Deposition Zones in a Reservoir.
It shows the main three zones of deposition in a reservoir. Top set beds match coarse
sediment delta deposits. Fine sediment deposits found in the reservoir's deepest sections and
close to the dam compose the bottom set beds. The fore set beds, which differ from top set
beds in that they have a steeper incline and smaller grain size, are the zones that lie between
top set and bottom set zones. Although most of the sediment in bottom set beds is fine-
grained, there are occasionally layers or isolated zones of coarser silt due to streams meeting
the reservoir, landslides, reservoir decline, severe floods, etc.
Surveys have revealed different patterns of sediment deposition in reservoirs, and the
research has demonstrated that a multitude of elements, including the following, control
deposition:
a. Reservoir shape.
b. Reservoir operation
c. Sediment characteristics such as size, bed load, total load
d. River valley slope and fluctuations in bed of river
e. Location and size of outlets in dams.
f. Growth of vegetation at the reservoir head.
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However, the basic four types of deposition patterns based on sediment

characteristics, reservoir shape and reservoir operation are as follows. These are
demonstrated in Figure 8.25.

Figure 8.25: Longitudinal Patterns of Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs.

a. Delta deposits: These are formed at the head of reservoir and consist of coarse
sediment (d >.062mm).
b. Wedge-shaped deposits: Most of these deposits are formed near the dam and are
made of fine sediments. These are formed in small reservoirs or in large reservoirs
operated at low water levels during floods,
c. Tapering deposits: In this kind, the deposits gradually get thinner in the direction of
the dam. These happen when lengthy reservoirs with fine silt migrating in the
direction of the dam are regularly operated at high pool elevation.
d. Uniform deposits: These could happen in small reservoirs with a modest percentage
of finer silt and a changing operating level. These formations are unique.
The techniques for estimating the amount of sediment present and estimating the
likely sediment distribution in the reservoir below the normal (full) reservoir level (F.R.L.)
are described in IS 5477 (part 2) 1994. The amount of dead and live storage capacity in a
storage reservoir is decreased as sediment enters and deposits gradually over time. As a
result, the bed level adjacent to the dam rises; this elevated bed level is known as the "new
zero elevation." Therefore, to verify the reservoir performance and the new zero elevation in
simulation studies, it is important to evaluate the revised areas and capacities at various
reservoir elevations that will become available in the future.
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Example 8.2: A case study of a multipurpose project in Uttarakhand is conducted in order to

determine the trap efficiency and classify the sediment problem. By calculating the capacity
inflow ratio (C/I), the severity of the sedimentation problem can be ascertained.
For example, the C /I ratio for this Project is 208.6/605 = 0.345. The trap efficiency,
calculated using Brune's median trap curve, is 93.65%. Assuming sediment rate of 0.1429
Mm3 / 100 sq. km/ year for this project, the average annual sediment volume works out as
0.643 MCM as the catchment area of the project is 450 km2 (See Table 8.4). The percentage
ratio of average sediment volume and gross storage capacity of the reservoir is found to be
0.31% which is between 0.1 to 0.5 %. Hence the problem of sedimentation is significant and
requires further studies.
The depth of the proposed reservoir is 127 m (762-635), and the capacity of the reservoir is
20860 ha-m. The depth-capacity curve's reciprocal slope, measured on a log-log scale, is
2.74. Therefore, it is a Type II (Floodplain – Foothill) reservoir. The Equation for the design
curve used is Ap = Cpm (1 – p)n
where,
Ap= a non-dimensional relative area situated above the stream bed at a relative distance of p.
C, m, and n = non-dimensional constants that are fixed according to the reservoir type.
For type- II reservoir, C= 2.487, m = 0.57, and n = 0.41.
Table 8.4: Calculation of Trap Efficiency and Sediment Volume
Volume at FRL 762 m 208.6 Mm3
Average Annual Sediment flow 0.643 Mm3
Average Annual Inflow 605 Mm3
Time Capacity/Inflow Trap Efficiency Sediment End period
(years) (Mm )3
(in %) Volume capacity
(Mm3) (Mm3)
208.600
0-5 0.345 93.65 3.011 205.589
6-10 0.340 93.58 3.009 202.581
11-15 0.335 93.51 3.006 199.574
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16-20 0.330 93.45 3.004 196.570

21-25 0.325 93.38 3.002 193.568
26-30 0.320 93.31 3.000 190.568
31-35 0.315 93.23 2.997 187.571
36-40 0.310 93.16 2.995 184.576
41-45 0.305 93.08 2.993 181.583
46-50 0.300 93.00 2.990 178.593
51-55 0.295 92.92 2.987 175.606
56-60 0.290 92.84 2.985 172.621
61-65 0.285 92.75 2.982 169.639
66-70 0.280 92.66 2.979 166.660
71-75 0.275 92.57 2.976 163.684
76-80 0.271 92.48 2.973 160.711
81-85 0.266 92.38 2.970 157.741
86-90 0.261 92.28 2.967 154.774
91-95 0.256 92.18 2.964 151.810
96-100 0.251 92.08 2.960 148.850
Total sediment Volume = 59.750 Mm3

8.10.5 Elevation Area Capacity

The elevation area capacity for the proposed project is given in Table 8.5 below. The annual
sediment load is 64.3 ha.m. Bed Elevation is 635 m. Normal reservoir level is 762 m.
Period of simulation 100 years (total sediment for the period = 6430 ha.m. The gross storage
capacity of the dam at F R L (762 m) is 208.6 MCM and dead storage at RL 716.63 m is 64.3
MCM.

8.10.6 Computation of Revised Area and Capacity after 100 Years

Using the empirical area reduction approach, the revised area and capacity are determined by
assuming that the reservoir has been silted up to the New Zero Elevation. The resulting silt
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volume, 64.58 MCM, is found to be just near 64.3 MCM. The Revised Areas and Capacities
after 100 years of sedimentation is shown in Table 8.5.

8.11 SELECTION OF SUITABLE SITE

The following elements should be considered to determine the reservoir's final site selection:
a. The catchment area's geology should be such that the area experiences minimum
percolation losses as possible and maximum run-off is obtained.
b. The location of the reservoir ought to decrease the rate of spilling through it. The
presence of highly permeable rocks at the reservoir site increases the water tightness
of the reservoir. Rocks such as gneisses, schists, slates, and crystalline igneous rocks
like granite are unlikely to permit much water to flow through them.
c. A suitable location for a dam must exist. There should be very little percolation
beneath the dam and it should be constructed on a solid, waterproof rock basis. When
choosing a location, the cost of the dam is frequently a deciding challenge.
d. The cost of real estate for the reservoir, including the relocation of homes, railroads,
and roads, must be kept to a minimum.

Table 8.5: Elevation-Area-Capacity and Sediment Deposition Computation by Empirical

Area Reduction Method
Elevation Original Relative Ap Sediment Accumulated Revised Revised
(m) Depth (Type Sediment Area Capacity
(m) II) Volume (ha) (ha-m_
Area Capacity Area Volume
(ha-m) (ha) (ha-m) (ha-m)
(ha)
762.00 452.0 20860 1.00 0.00 0.00 0 6457.88 452.00 14402.12
760.00 432.5 19750 0.98 0.45 23.10 23.10 6434.77 409.40 13315.23
750.00 365.0 15750 0.91 0.89 45.93 345.18 6089.60 319.07 9660.40
740.00 315.0 11750 0.83 1.09 55.91 509.21 5580.38 259.09 6169.62
730.00 266.5 9800 0.75 1.20 61.58 587.47 4992.91 204.92 4807.09
720.00 222.5 7000 0.67 1.26 64.62 630.99 4361.92 157.88 2638.08
716.63 205.0 6430 0.64 1.27 65.17 218.69 4143.23 139.83 2286.77
710.00 172.5 4750 0.59 1.28 65.67 433.75 3709.48 106.83 1040.52
455 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Elevation Original Relative Ap Sediment Accumulated Revised Revised

(m) Depth (Type Sediment Area Capacity
(m) II) Volume (ha) (ha-m_
Area Capacity Area Volume
(ha-m) (ha) (ha-m) (ha-m)
(ha)
700.00 132.5 3250 0.51 1.27 65.05 653.64 3055.84 67.45 194.16
690.00 99.9 2260 0.43 1.22 62.89 639.70 2416.14 36.98 0.00
680.00 72.5 1470 0.35 1.15 59.16 610.23 1805.91 13.34 0.00
675.00 62.5 1360 0.31 1.10 56.68 289.60 1516.31 5.82 0.00
671.00 54.5 1261 0.28 1.06 54.37 222.09 1294.22 0.00 0.00
670.00 52.5 1250 0.28 1.05 53.74 54.05 1240.16 0.00 0.00
660.00 32.5 800 0.20 0.90 46.28 500.11 740.06 0.00 0.00
650.00 15.0 0 0.12 0.70 35.94 411.10 328.96 0.00 0.00
640.00 5.0 0 0.04 0.39 19.90 279.21 49.75 0.00 0.00
635.00 0.0 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 49.75 0.00 0.00 0.00
6457.88

e. The reservoir site's topography should allow for a sufficient capacity without
overflowing too much land or other resources.
f. The location ought to allow for the formation of a deep reservoir. Because a deep
reservoir will cost less to submerge per unit of capacity, it will reduce evaporation
losses due to a smaller water spread area, and it will probably be less likely to support
vegetation development than a shallow reservoir.
g. The location of the reservoir should be such that water from streams that include a
large proportion of silt in water is avoided or prohibited.
h. The location of the reservoir should ensure that the water it holds is appropriate for
the project's intended use. At the reservoir site, there must be no undesirable minerals
or salts in the soil or rock mass.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 456

SUMMARY
A crucial component of water management systems are spillways and dams. To control water
flow, build reservoirs, and store water, dams are structures that are built across rivers or
streams. They facilitate recreational activities, flood management, hydroelectric power
generation, and water supply. There are several numerous types of dams, such as earthen
dams, arch dams, and gravity dams. To properly release surplus water from a dam and avoid
overflow and possible damage, spillways are outlets or structures. They are crucial for
safeguarding the dam and controlling the reservoir's water levels. This unit covers the
classification, design considerations, failure reasons, seepage estimation, and control of
different dam types, including embankment dams and arch dams. Furthermore, this unit also
covers spillway components and spillway crest gate types, reservoir types, yield, regulation,
and sedimentation.

EXERCISE
Revision Questions
1. What are embankment dams, and why are they commonly used for water storage,
flood control, and hydropower generation?
2. What are the critical considerations in the design of an embankment dam?
3. How does earthquake activity influence the design features of an embankment dam in
seismically active areas?
4. Explain the general design criteria for constructing embankment dams.
5. How does a homogeneous earth dam differ from a zoned earth dam, and what are the
advantages of each?
6. What principle governs the estimation of seepage through an embankment dam and
its foundation?
7. Explain the various methods used to control seepage in an embankment dam.
8. How are the upstream and downstream faces of an embankment dam protected from
wave and rainwater action?
457 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

9. Describe the issues caused by surface water runoff and wind erosion on the
downstream slope of an embankment dam.
10. How does vegetation contribute to slope protection on the downstream slope of an
embankment dam, and what are the challenges in maintaining it in arid regions?
11. Describe the primary forces that act on a gravity dam.
12. Explain the stability conditions that is essential for the design of a gravity dam and
how the elementary profile of a right-angled triangular section satisfies these
conditions.
13. Identify the primary causes of a gravity dam failure.
14. Write notes on
a) Gravity, trial-load, and finite element method
b) Arch and Buttress Dam
c) Mass inflow and demand curve
15. Explain the importance of spillways in dam construction and describe the
consequences of inadequate spillway capacity.
16. What are the primary components of a spillway, and how does each component
function to ensure the safe release of excess water?
17. Compare and contrast the flashboards and stoplogs as types of spillway gates,
including their operational challenges and advantages.
18. Describe the functioning and applications of vertical lift gates in spillways. What are
the limitations of these gates in large installations?
19. Explain how safe yield is determined using a mass inflow curve. Discuss its
significance for ensuring water availability during periods of drought.
20. Discuss the factors influencing sediment deposition and its impact on reservoir
capacity over time.
21. Discuss the key factors and considerations involved in selecting a suitable site for a
reservoir and dam construction.
22. Compare and contrast the different types of reservoirs based on their purposes and
functionalities.
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 458

Numerical Problems
1. For an earth dam with a homogeneous section and a horizontal drain, as illustrated in
Figure8.26, construct the top flow line and the flow net. Additionally, calculate the
discharge per meter length through the dam's body, given K = 3 × 10⁻⁴ cm/s.

Figure 8.26: Sketch for Problems 1 and 2.

2. For the embankment section shown in Fig. 8.26, with 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥=7×10−4 cm/s and 𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦=4×10−4
cm/s, calculate the discharge through the dam section per meter length.
3. A gravity dam has a profile, as shown in Figure 8.27. If the water on the downstream
side is completely removed, what will the uplift force be exerted on the dam?
(Assume the unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3)

Figure 8.27: Sketch for Problem 3.

4. For a gravity dam with the following parameters: height ℎ= 30 meters, specific
gravity of concrete 𝑠𝑠= 2.4, density of water 𝜌𝜌= 1000 kg/m3, and the correction factor
for uplift force 𝑐𝑐′=1. Calculate the base width 𝑏𝑏 of the dam to satisfy the no tension
condition.
5. Figure 8.28 shows the cross-section of a gravity dam with the following data:
459 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

The angle of internal friction of silt: 35°

Submerged unit weight of silt: 16 kN/m³
Horizontal earthquake acceleration: 0.20 g
Vertical earthquake acceleration: 0.10 g
Shear strength between dam and foundation: 1600 kN/m²
Coefficient of friction: 0.80
Determine, for extreme load combinations (excluding ice pressure), the following:
(a) The various relevant stresses at the toe and heel and
(b) The factors of safety against overturning and sliding, as well as the shear friction
factor.

Figure 8.28: Sketch for Problem 5.

6. Given the following data for a reservoir:
Full Reservoir Level (FRL) = 400 m
Mean Operating Pool Elevation = 399 m
Capacity at FRL, 𝐶𝐶1= 55.1 x 10^6 m³
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 460

Capacity at mean operating pool elevation, 𝐶𝐶2= 51.5 x 10^6 m³

Average annual inflow, 𝐼𝐼over 10 years = 1380.06 x 10^6 m³/year
Length of reservoir, 𝐿𝐿, at the mean operating level = 19,312.13 m
Calculate the following:
a) Capacity Inflow Ratio (C/I)for the reservoir
b) Trap Efficiency using Brune's method
c) Sedimentation Index using Churchill's method
d) Trap Efficiency from Churchill's curve
7. A concrete gravity dam has a maximum reservoir level at 240 meters and the
foundation level at 120 meters. The maximum permissible compressive stress in
concrete is 3500 kN/m², and the specific gravity of concrete is 2.4. Calculate the
height of the dam and determine if it qualifies as a high dam or low dam based on
standard classifications.
8. Evaluate the stability of the gravity dam depicted in Figure8.29 and compute the
stresses at the toe and heel under both empty and full-reservoir conditions. For the
full-reservoir scenario, consider an earthquake acceleration of 0.15 g. Assume a
coefficient of shear friction of 0.65, specific gravity of concrete as 2.50, and shear
strength at the concrete-rock contact surface as 120 × 10⁴ N/m². Assume any other
necessary data accordingly.

Figure 8.29: Sketch for Problem 8.

461 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is the primary purpose of a dam?
A) To provide recreational space B) To control water flow and create a reservoir
C) To generate electricity D) All of the above
2. What is a reservoir?
A) A natural body of water B) An artificial lake created by a dam
C) A river that flows into the ocean D) A storage tank for drinking water
3. Which type of dam is designed to hold back water using its weight?
A) Arch dam B) Gravity dam
C) Embankment dam D) Roller compacted concrete dam
4. What is one major environmental concern associated with dam construction?
A) Increased biodiversity B) Displacement of communities and wildlife
C) Improved water quality D) Enhanced recreational opportunities
5. What is the term for the area behind a dam where water accumulates?
A) Spillway B) Waterway
C) Reservoir D) Floodplain
6. Which of the following is a benefit of reservoirs?
A) Flood control B) Water supply for irrigation and drinking
C) Hydroelectric power generation D) All of the above
7. What is a spillway?
A) A channel for diverting water
B) A structure that allows excess water to flow out of a reservoir
C) A type of dam
D) An area where water is stored
8. Which of the following can happen if a dam fails?
A) Increased water supply B) Flooding downstream
C) Improved fish migration D) Enhanced water quality
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 462

9. What is the primary design characteristic of an arch dam?

A) It is built on a flat surface
B) It is curved upstream to withstand water pressure
C) It is made entirely of earth materials
D) It has a wide base and narrow top
10. Which of the following materials is commonly used to construct arch dams?
A) Wood B) Steel
C) Concrete D) Earth and rock
11. What is a key advantage of an arch dam compared to a gravity dam?
A) Lower construction cost
B) Greater ability to store water
C) Reduced amount of material needed due to its design
D) Easier to construct in flat terrain
12. What type of topography is most suitable for constructing an arch dam?
A) Flat plains B) Rugged, mountainous areas
C) Coastal regions D) Low-lying areas
13. How does an arch dam transfer the pressure of the water it holds?
A) By pushing water straight down B) By arching the force into the canyon walls
C) By using mechanical pumps D) By creating a vacuum
14. What is a common use for an arch dam?
A) Irrigation B) Flood control
C) Hydroelectric power generation D) All of the above
15. Which of the following is a potential risk associated with arch dams?
A) Erosion of the dam structure B) Failure due to extreme seismic activity
C) Difficulty in controlling water levels D) High evaporation losses
16. What is a "spillway" in the context of an arch dam?
A) A structure to divert water away from the dam
B) An area where excess water can safely flow out of the reservoir
C) A type of water treatment facility
D) A mechanism to generate electricity
463 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

17. What is an embankment dam primarily made of?

A) Concrete B) Steel
C) Earth and rock materials D) Wood
18. What is the main purpose of an embankment dam?
A) To generate hydroelectric power
B) To provide recreational areas
C) To store water for irrigation and flood control
D) To facilitate navigation
19. Which of the following is a characteristic feature of embankment dams?
A) Curved design to resist water pressure B) Wide base tapering to a narrower top
C) Built on steep slopes D) Made entirely of reinforced concrete
20. What is a key advantage of embankment dams?
A) Lower risk of failure B) Flexibility in design
C) Reduced construction time D) Minimal environmental impact
21. What is the term for the materials used to construct an embankment dam?
A) Fill B) Aggregate
C) Reinforcement D) Structural material
22. Which type of monitoring is essential for the safety of embankment dams?
A) Temperature monitoring B) Structural integrity assessment
C) Vegetation health assessment D) Air quality testing
23. What is a potential risk associated with embankment dams?
A) High costs of construction B) Erosion and slope failure
C) Limited storage capacity D) Inability to generate electricity
24. What is the purpose of a spillway in an embankment dam?
A) To increase water pressure
B) To divert water for irrigation
C) To safely release excess water from the reservoir
D) To generate hydroelectric power
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 464

25. What is the primary cause of sedimentation in reservoirs?

A) Water temperature variations B) Erosion of surrounding land
C) Biological activity D) Chemical reactions in water
26. Which of the following factors can influence the rate of sedimentation in a reservoir?
A) Flow velocity of inflowing water B) Reservoir depth
C) Vegetation cover in the watershed D) All of the above
27. What is the primary impact of sedimentation on reservoir capacity?
A) Increases water quality B) Decreases water storage capacity
C) Enhances aquatic habitat D) Improves recreational opportunities
28. What is a common method for managing sedimentation in reservoirs?
A) Dredging B) Adding chemical flocculants
C) Constructing sediment traps D) All of the above
29. Which of the following best describes the term "reservoir sedimentation"?
A) The accumulation of nutrients in water
B) The deposition of sediment particles in the reservoir
C) The evaporation of water from the reservoir
D) The filtering of pollutants by sediment
30. What is the main consequence of excessive sedimentation in a reservoir?
A) Increased fish population B) Decreased water quality
C) Enhanced water supply D) Improved flood control
31. Which type of sediment is most found in reservoirs?
A) Organic matter B) Silt and clay
C) Gravel D) Sand
32. What role do vegetation and land management practices play in sedimentation?
A) They have no effect on sedimentation B) They can reduce sediment runoff
C) They increase sedimentation D) They solely improve aesthetics
33. What is the primary structural feature of a buttress dam?
A) A curved arch B) Vertical walls
C) Series of buttresses D) Gravitational foundation
465 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

34. Which of the following is a key advantage of buttress dams over gravity dams?
A) Lower construction costs B) Better resistance to seismic forces
C) Greater water storage capacity D) Increased height
35. What materials are commonly used in the construction of buttress dams?
A) Steel and plastic B) Concrete and stone
C) Wood and clay D) Aluminium and glass
36. In which type of terrain are buttress dams most effectively constructed?
A) Flat plains B) Rocky or mountainous regions
C) Coastal areas D) Swampy lowlands
37. What is the primary purpose of the buttresses in a buttress dam?
A) To provide aesthetic appeal
B) To support the dam and transfer water pressure to the foundation
C) To facilitate fish passage
D) To reduce evaporation
38. What type of load does a buttress dam primarily resist?
A) Tensile load B) Shear load
C) Hydrostatic load D) Thermal load
39. Which of the following is a disadvantage of buttress dams?
A) Limited height B) Complex construction
C) Vulnerability to overtopping D) High maintenance costs
40. What is a common application for buttress dams?
A) Flood control B) Water supply
C) Hydroelectric power generation D) All of the above
41. Which of the following is a primary type of reservoir?
A) Natural reservoir B) Artificial reservoir
C) Both A and B D) Neither A nor B
42. What is the main purpose of a spillway in a reservoir?
A) To increase water storage B) To control water level and prevent overflow
C) To enhance recreational activities D) To generate hydroelectric power
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 466

43. Which type of spillway is designed to handle large amounts of water flow during floods?
A) Chute spillway B) Side channel spillway
C) Controlled spillway D) Weir spillway
44. What is a key characteristic of a rockfill reservoir?
A) It is entirely man-made B) It utilizes natural terrain for support
C) It is primarily used for irrigation D) It has no spillway
45. Which type of spillway uses a gate or valve to control water flow?
A) Ogee spillway B) Controlled spillway
C) Labyrinth spillway D) Free-flowing spillway
46. What is an example of a natural reservoir?
A) A dammed river B) A large lake
C) An artificial pond D) A water tank
47. Which type of reservoir is primarily constructed for the purpose of hydropower
generation?
A) Retention reservoir B) Run-of-the-river reservoir
C) Flood control reservoir D) Recreational reservoir
48. What is a common concern with spillways during heavy rainfall?
A) Sedimentation build-up B) Structural failure
C) Erosion of downstream banks D) All of the above
Answer: 1-D; 2-B; 3-B; 4-B; 5-C; 6-D; 7-B; 8-B; 9-B; 10-C; 11-C; 12-; 13-B; 14-D; 15-B;
16-B; 17-C; 18-C; 19-B;20-B; 21-A; 22-B; 23-B; 24-C; 25-B; 26-D; 27-B; 28-D; 29-B; 30-
B; 31-B; 32-B; 33-C; 34-A; 35-B; 36-B; 37-B; 38-C; 39-B; 40-D; 41-C; 42-A; 43-A; 44-B;
45-B; 46-B; 47-B; 48-D.

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467 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Asawa, G.L. (1993), “Irrigation Engineering”, Published by Willey Eastern Limited,
ISBN 81-224-0457-X.
2. Asawa, G.L. (2005), “Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering, New Age
International (P) Ltd., ISBN-13: 978-8122416732
3. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, 1964.
4. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources
of India, Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland,
ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4(HB).
5. Punmia, B.C. and Lal, Pande B.B., (1992), “Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering”, Twelfth Edition. Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
6. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
7. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India)
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN(13): 978-1-25902997-4.
8. Varshney, R.S., Gupta, S.C and Gupta R. L.(2009), “Theory and design of Irrigation
structures (Vol-1: Channels and Tubewells)”, Published by Nem Chand & Bros, Civil
Lines, Roorkee, ISBN 81-85240-73-6.
9. Varshney, R.S., Gupta, S.C and Gupta R. L.(2009), “Theory and design of Irrigation
structures (Vol-I1: Canal and Storage works)”, Published by Nem Chand & Bros,
Civil Lines, Roorkee, ISBN 81-85240-48-5.
10. Working Group (1999), The national Commission for Integrated Water Resources
Development, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India.
A
H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 468

References for Further

Learning

1. Asawa, G.L. (1993), “Irrigation Engineering”, Published by Willey Eastern Limited,

ISBN 81-224-0457-X.
2. Asawa, G.L. (2005), “Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering, New Age
International (P) Ltd., ISBN-13: 978-8122416732
3. Bouwer, H. (1978) Groundwater Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Book, New York, 480.
4. Chow. V.T, (Ed), (1964), “Handbook of Applied Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, 1964.
5. Ghosh, S.N. (2014), “Flood control and drainage engineering”, Published by CRC
Press/Balkema, The Netherlands, ISBN: 978-1-138-02627-8.
6. Heath, R. C. (1987). Basic ground-water hydrology (Vol. 2220). US Department of
the Interior, US Geological Survey.
7. IMD (1971), “Scientific Report No. 136, India Meteorological Department,1971,
Government of India.
8. Jain S. K., Agarwal, P. K. And Singh, V. P. (2007), Hydrology and Water Resources
of India, Water Science and Technology Library, Vol 57, Springer, The Netherland,
ISBN-10 1-4020-5179-4(HB).
9. McQueen, I.S. (1963), Development of a Hand Portable Rainfall-Simulator
Infiltrometer, Geological Survey Circular, 482, Washington, 1963.
10. Punmia, B.C. and Lal, Pande B.B., (1992), “Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering”, Twelfth Edition. Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
11. RBA (1980), “Report of National Commission of Flood, Govt. of India.
12. Schendel, V, (1975), “The world's water resources and water balance”, Natural
Resources and Development, Inst. for Sci. Coop, Hannover, Germany, pp. 8-14, Vol.
1, 1975.
469 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

13. Shiklomanov (2000), “Appraisal and assessment of world water resources”, Water Int
(25(1):11-32.
14. Singh, V. P. (1992). Elementary hydrology. Prentice Hall, New Jersy, 973.
15. Subramanya, K. (2015), “Engineering Hydrology”, McGraw-Hill Education (India)
Private Limited, New Delhi, 2015, ISBN(13): 978-1-25902997-4.
16. Todd, D.K. and L. Mays (2004), Groundwater Hydrology, 3rd Edition, ISBN: 978-0-
471-05937-0, 656 Pages, Wiley.
17. UNESCO, (1978), “World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth”, Studies
and Reports in Hydrology, 25, UNESCO, Paris, France, 1978.
18. Van der Leeden, (1975), “Water Resources of the World”, Water Information Center,
Port Washington, N.Y., USA, 1975.
19. Varshney, R.S., Gupta, S.C and Gupta R. L.(2009), “Theory and design of Irrigation
structures (Vol-1: Channels and Tubewells)”, Published by Nem Chand & Bros, Civil
Lines, Roorkee, ISBN 81-85240-73-6.
20. Varshney, R.S., Gupta, S.C and Gupta R. L.(2009), “Theory and design of Irrigation
structures (Vol-I1: Canal and Storage works)”, Published by Nem Chand & Bros,
Civil Lines, Roorkee, ISBN 81-85240-48-5.
21. Working Group (1999), The national Commission for Integrated Water Resources
Development, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India.
22. https://indiawris.gov.in/wiki/doku.php?id=india_s_water_wealth)
 B
H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 470

CO and PO Attainable

Course outcomes (COs) for this course can be mapped with the programme outcomes (POs)
after the completion of the course, and a correlation can be made for the attainment of POs to
analyze the gap. After proper analysis of the gap in attaining POs, necessary measures can be
taken to overcome the gaps.

Table for CO and PO attainment

Course Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
PO- PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12
CO-1
CO-2
CO-3
CO-4
CO-5
CO-6
CO-7
CO-8
 C
471 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Index

Page No.
A
Abstraction loss 1, 25
Abstraction from precipitation 14,92,142
Acoustic rain gauge 51,471
Actual evapotranspiration 92,111,143,146
Adaptive management and monitoring 208
Adequacy of rain gauge stations 52
Advancing monsoon season 43
Afforestation 15,26,168,292
Agricultural land 22,183
Alluvial channels 334,258,383
Analysis of surface water supply 294,323
Annual Precipitation in India 36,45
Annual rainfall 14,26,80,85
Antecedent moisture condition 125,180,190
Applications in engineering 1,21,93,368
Aquiclude 227, 272
Aquifer 171,216,227
Aquifer properties 171,224
Aquifer recharge 19,295
Aquifer test 224,257,261
Aquifuge 228,272
Aquitard 227,229,272
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 472

Page No.
Arch dams 395,354,
Arithmetical-mean method 63
Artesian aquifer 228,233
Atmospheric pressure 33,229,416
Average yield 438
Avulsion and shifts 359
B
Barren land 183
Base flow 8,207,222
Base flow generation 170,215
Base flow separation 154,172
Basin irrigation 315
Basin lag 212,213
Bed load 449,450
Blaney-Criddle formula 121,147
Braided channel 359
Brune’s method 445
Building block method 204
Buttress dams 396,428,465
C
Calculation of storage volume 198
Canal distribution system 334,386
Canal losses 342,392
Canal outlets 334,385
Capillary action 309
Cash crops 299
Catchment area 3,31,446
Catchment characteristics 154,167
Causes of canal losses 342,384
473 | H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g

Page No.
Causes of floods 288
Channelization 169,292,357
Channel morphology 359
Channel network 168
Characteristics of soil 132
Check dams 382
Chemical and Isotopic Tracers 172
Chemical characteristics 302
Chezy’s equation 384
Churchill curve 445
Clark’s model 352
Class A evaporation pan 96,99
Classification of canals 336
Clay lining 379,380
Classification of infiltration capacities 139
Climate change adaptation 23,296
Climate variability 32,169,171
Clogging risk 318
Coastal flood 288,327
Coefficient of permeability 235,250,306,406
Coefficient of storage 232,272
Cold winter season 42
Colorado sunken pan 97,99
Command area 339,389
Components of natural hydrograph 164,215
Condensation 15,25,109,151
Confined aquifer 229,234,241,262
Consumptive use 111,311,324
Conventional hydropower 285
 H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 474

Page No.
Convolution 351,352
Conveyance structure 432
Copula model 354
Crop rotation 298,389
Cropping pattern 298,323
Cultivable command area 344,384
Culverts and bridges 372,382
Curve number (CN) 350,392
Cyclone 43,87
D
DAD curves 70,71
Dams and reservoirs 206,285,436
Dam safety 296
Darcy’s law 272,306
Dead load 414,416
Delay index 234
Delta 281,301,323
Demand curve 438,439,457
Depression storage 125,144,152
Depth-Area-Duration curve 76,78
Depth-Area-Duration frequency curve 71,72
Design discharge 345,391
Design of channels 371
Design storm 62,210,390
Direct runoff 141,158
Discharge in canals 343
Distance drawdown analysis 266
Distributary channel 337
Distribution reservoir 436,437
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Domestic water supply 162,282
Double-mass curve 58
Double-ring infiltrometer 133,134
Drainage density 168
Drainage factor 234
Drip irrigation 108,312,317
Drizzle 40,84
Drought analysis 294
Drought stress 110,308
Duty and Delta 281,300,322
E
Earth dams 397
Earthen lining 379
Earthquake activity 401,456
Ecosystem services 202,356
Effluent stream 166,272
Elevated structures 292
Elevation-Area-Capacity 454
Embankment dams 395,401,431
Emergency preparedness 293
Empirical evaporation equations 95,100
Energy-budget method 104
Entrance and exit channel 432,433
Environmental flow assessment 195,204
Environmental Impact assessment 211,221,296,373
Erosion control 22,134,371
Erosion and Sediment Control 22,158
Estimation of missing data 55
Evaporation losses 107,160,462
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Evaporation process 92,126,143
Evaporimeters 92,149
Evapotranspiration 111,112,150
Evapotranspiration equations 115
Excess rainfall 77,141,209
Extreme events 83,169,346
F
Fertigation 318,322
Field capacity 111,144,307
Field channels 337,338
Field measurements 25,172,446
Flash flood 287,327,434
Flood control canals 338
Flood control reservoirs 401,437
Flood control strategies 290
Flood forecasting 21,90,163,351
Flood hydrograph 154,410,439
Flood management measures 289,323
Floodplains 203,293,359
Floodplain management 293
Flood risk assessment 33,69
Floodwalls 289,292,327
Flow-duration curves 192,196,215
Flow-mass curve 197,215
Flow rates 164,192,220,375
Flow regime design 207
Flow routing models 206
Fluid characteristics 132
Flumes 374
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Fluvial processes 356
Food crops 300,477
Forest and woodland 183
Forms of Precipitation 36,78,156
Forms of subsurface water 225
Frequency analysis 72,194,346
Frequency of irrigation 307,312,324
Furrow irrigation 315,326
G
Gamma model 353
Ganguillet and Kutter equation 360
Geologic formations 226,230
Glaze 40,41
Glaciers 8,33
Global freshwater resources 18
Global Water balance 15,32
Grassland and open spaces 183
Gravity dams 396,408,417
Gross command area 339,384
Groundwater flow 8,21,165,170
Groundwater hydraulics 240
Groundwater seepage 8,170
Grouted lining 380
H
Hail 36,77,126,156
Hazen’s formula 237
Head discharge 344
Heavy metals 294,303
Horton’s equation 137
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Page No.
Hot summer season 42
Hydraulic conductivity 132,232,268
Hydraulic design 211,358,371
Hydraulic diffusivity 233,272
Hydraulic geometry 69,360
Hydraulic modelling 346,347
Hydraulic resistance 234
Hydroelectric canals 338
Hydrologic budget equation 112
Hydrological connectivity 169,355
Hydrograph analysis 71,133,170
Hydrograph generation 163
Hydrograph separation 171,175
Hydrologic cycle 6,11,26,273
Hydrologic soil groups 179,184,350
Hydrological methods 204,206
Hydrological processes 126,129,355
Hydrological variability 357
Hyetograph 62,210,352
I
Ice jams 288
Ice pressure 411,429,459
Index of wetness 38,78
Infiltration capacity 93,138,290,309
Infiltration indices 92,140
Infiltration losses 342
Infiltration rate 30,130,308
Initial loss 151,152
Instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUH) 353
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Intensity-duration-frequency curves 352
Interception 174,351
Irrigation canals 338,357,387
Irrigation efficiency 313,388
ISI standard pan 96
Isohyet method 66
K
Kennedy’s silt theory 365
Kostiakov model 139
L
Lacey’s theory 384,368
Land use changes 90,158,390
Land use and land cover changes 157,171
Leakage factor 234
Levees 22,288,290,316
Lining of canals 379,385
M
Main canal 336,344,386
Manning’s equation 222,361,384
Mass inflow curve 438,457
Mass outflow 9
Meandering channel 359
Mean precipitation 36,68,82
Measurement of evapotranspiration 113
Measurement of infiltration 133
Measurement of precipitation 47
Methods of irrigation 281,314,324
Meyer’s formula 102,145
Minors 338
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Page No.
Model outputs 356
Modular canal outlets 377
Monsoon depressions 44
Monte Carlo simulation 354
Multiple cropping 299,323
Multipurpose reservoir 436,437
N
Nash model 353
Natural channels 356,357
Natural flow 4,159,199
Natural disasters 34,287,323
Natural events 158,170
Navigation canals 338
Non-food crops 300
Non-linear relationship 300,301
Non-modular canal outlets 376
Non-recording rain gauges 48,78
Non-structural flood control measures 292
Normal ratio method 56,79
Nuclear power 287
O
Optical rain gauge 50
Orographic precipitation 37,83,85
P
Pan coefficient 107,144
Peak flow estimation 347
Penman’s equation 115
Percolation 115,129,165,276
Permeability 156,159,219
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Penman-Monteith equation 119,150
Permafrost 15,19
Permanent wilting point 111,144,324
Perennial stream 159,219
pH value 302
Philip’s model 138
Piezometric surface 228,272
Pluvial flooding 288
Point rainfall 62,66,88
Pollution sources 295
Porosity 305,324
Potential evapotranspiration 111,143
Precipitation 36
Precipitation intensity and duration 156,217
Precision irrigation 303,318
Probabilistic methods 353
Probable maximum precipitation 36,79
Pumped storage hydropower 285
Q
Quality analysis 294
Quality of irrigation water 281,303,383
Quantity analysis 294
Quick flow 164,165
R
Rabi season 299
Radial gates 434,435
Raichur method 448
Rainfall data in India 76,78
Rainfall - depth - duration frequency 74
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curve
Rainfall distribution 63,89,350
Rainfall excess 147,174,351
Rain gauges 49,50,90
Rainfall intensity 50,51,87,141
Rainfall-runoff models 206,352
Rainfall simulator 333
Rainfall variability 77
Rate of evaporation 95,97,102,48
Rational method 222,348
Recession limb 163,171
Recording Rain gauges 48,49,78
Reference crop evapotranspiration 119,124
Reforestation 292
Regional variations 300
Regulation structures 206,340,344
Reservoir capacity 410,438,440
Reservoir evaporation 106
Reservoir sedimentation 410,446
Retreating monsoon season 43
Retention basin 292
Return period 71,346
Rigid boundary channel 357,383
Riparian zone 217,356
Rising limb 163,167,217
River-aquifer interaction 171
River channels 206,345,368
Riverine floods 287
Rock-fill dam 397,399
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Rohwer’s formula 100,102
Root depth 151,314
Root zone management 308
Root zone soil water 281,306,322
Rugosity coefficient 361,365
Runoff classification 158
Runoff coefficient 27,144,218
Runoff curve number 183,191,220
Runoff potential 179,182
Runoff volume 14,161,176
S
Safe yield 438,441
Salinity 7,150,302
Satellite-based Rain Gauge 51
Saturated vapour pressure 105
Saturated zone 129,225
SCS-CN method 177,183
Seasonal cropping patterns 298
Seasonal variation 157,221,294
Seasons in India 78,323
Secondary yield 438
Sedimentation 4,464
Sediment distribution 449,451
Sediment load 170,222,302,358
Seepage analysis 402,405
Seepage losses 144,342,380
Semi-confined aquifers 228
Semi-modular canal outlets 377
Siphons 373
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Page No.
Silting rate 443,448
Simple (tube type) infiltrometer 133
Single well test 268
Sleet 84,156
Slichter’s formula 237,238
Slope protection 407,457
Sluice gates 373,385
Snowboard 51
Snow course 52
Snow depth sensor 52
Snow gauges 51
Snowmelt dynamics 169
Snow pillow 52
Snow stake 51
Soil aeration 381
Soil characteristics 24,111,314
Soil salinity 150,381
Soil porosity 305
Soil structure 157,305,309,371
Soil properties 8,89,304
Soil texture 111,305,330
Soil-water relationship 304,324
Solar power 32,287
Specific capacity 234,235,251
Specific capacity index 235
Specific retention 231,273
Specific yield 231,236,273
Spillways 236,243,460
Springs 16,225,227
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Sprinkler irrigation 284,315
Storage reservoirs 290,437
Storability 232,272,274
Storm analysis 68
Storm surges 287,288
Stormwater management 22,90,211,354
Streamflow distribution 71
Structural losses 342,343
Structural flood control measures 292
Sublimation 9
Surface drainage 382
Surface irrigation 284,315,321
Surface retention 129,130
Surface runoff 3,131,152,309
Surface water resources of India 199
Synthetic unit hydrograph 211,215,222
Syphon’s rain gauge 49
T
Tennant method 204
Theis equation 259
Thermal power plants 286
Thiem’s equation 242
Thiessen polygon method 63,89
Time drawdown analysis 262
Tipping bucket rain gauge 49,86
Trace elements 303
Transboundary cooperation 293
Transmissivity 232,265,272
Transpiration 310,330
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Page No.
Trap efficiency 443,460
Triangular texture diagram 304,324
Trickle irrigation 316
Types of aquifers 229,272
Types of Evaporimeters 95,149
Types of hydropower 285
U
Unconfined aquifer 224,279
Unit hydrograph approach 209,352
Uplift forces 410,414
Urban flooding 288,309
Urban storm-water canals 338
Urban water logging 379
V
Vapour pressure 93,120,483
Variation of AET 112,113
Variation of PET 122
Vegetative measures 382
Vertical lift gates 435,457
W
W- index 142
Water balance equation 1,5,177,214
Water budgeting 112,123,294
Water conveyance system 296,301,345
Water cycle 7,15,193,308
Water demand 281,296,371
Water efficiency 317,318
Water flow control 301
Water for agriculture 284,315,335
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Water holding capacity 307
Water logging 379,385
Water management practices 21,206,298,319
Water requirement of crops 297
Water resources at a glance 200
Water resources planning 211
Water resources management 22,134,300,355
Watershed area 67,349
Watershed characteristics 171,345
Water supply canals 338
Water treatment 437,462
Water quality management 33,158,303
Water quality testing 294
Water withdrawals and uses 281,322
Wave pressure 411
Weather conditions 38,293,312,374
Weather stations 25,52,114
Weighing bucket rain gauge 50
Weirs 337,343,372
Well loss 251,270,273
Wilting point 111,144,325
World water balance 15,35
Y
Yield-drawdown curve 253
H y d r o l o g y & W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g | 488