Student’S Names : Ahmed Mohamed Ragab

Asim Omar gabr

Hussien Essam Hussien
Heba Ashraf Desoky
Mario Emad Ayyad
Mohsen Ahmed Kamel

Student’S Codes : 140928

141001
140828
140625
140974
140840

Research about : seismic refraction method

Subject’S Code : Gph 201

Supervision Of : Dr / Nadia A.Fattah

 Abstract
In this project we have presented the seismic refraction
method in exploration, we first introduced the principles of
this method and then we discussed the different types of
surveys and the different sources of the energy needed to
operate the survey, then we displayed the different types of
detectors which are linked with a recorder device that record
our data from the survey, then we discussed the data
processing and the different methods of interpretation for
our data in a different multilayer cases and dipping interfaces
and the raypaths of the refracted wave for every single case
and finally we mentioned the variant applications for the
seismic refraction method.

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Introduction:

In the refraction method, refracted waves through the sediments are recorded at various distances
from the shot-point. Care must be taken in locating the refraction shooting so that the line of
profile is substantially in the line of the strike of the sedimentary layers. This is important because
success of the method demands that the velocity discontinuities, if present, be horizontal beneath
the observations. The ideal situation would be encountered when working over areas where the
strata are parallel to the surface. Reasons for this will become obvious from a study of refraction
shooting methods, which are covered in a subsequent section.
The velocity depth function is calculated by making a Herglotz Bateman-Weichert integration of the
measured time-distance function.
The slope (dT/dX) of the time-distance curve is the reciprocal of the apparent velocity l/V. Under
the condition of horizontal stratification of the velocity discontinuities, the apparent velocity Vp is
equal to the velocity of the seismic wave corresponding to the depth of deepest penetration (Zp) of
the ray recorded at a distance (X^). If (Vp) is the
velocity at distance (Xp), the depth of deepest penetration, (Zp), is given by the integral.

1 �� −1 ��
Zp= ∫ ���ℎ ��
π 0 �1

This integration can be carried out with the use of Simpson's rule or other methods of numerical
integration. In the general case the mathematical difficulties are somewhat formidable in obtaining
an expression for the velocity distribution. However, in the special case where velocity distribution
is of the type V = Vi + aZ, it is relatively simple to fit the time-distance curve. In this case of a linear
velocity increase with depth, the travel time-distance function has the form :

T= 2/a sinh-1(aX/2V 1 )

If the observed refraction travel-time distance curve can be fitted to this function, then the values
of the constants a and Vi may be directly determined.
In ca-ses where the refraction travel-time distance curve cannot be fitted to this expression 86 for
T, the integration 85 must first be carried out, then a velocity distribution function found to fit the
calculated values of Z and the measured values of V.
In California, where there are considerable thicknesses of rather similar sediments, good fits of the
travel-time curve to Equation 86 have been obtained. Subsequent to this early refraction work, well
velocity surveys have indicated that the values of a and Vt established by refraction work were
essentially correct within the first order of magnitude.
Experience in shooting long refraction profiles in California indicates that this method is rather
impractical for the investigation of depths below 4,000 feet, because of the long distances
necessary, between shot-point and receiving stations, to obtain the required penetration. A

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distance of approximately five miles is necessary to obtain sufficient data on penetration of 4,000
feet.
Using the simple analytical velocity-depth function found by fitting the travel-time curve to
Equation 86, it is easy to compute data for depths well below the deepest point at which refraction
velocity information is available. This requires the assumption that the linear increase of velocity
with depth gives the best available extrapolation of data to these depths. In this case the
computations of very deep reflections are to be regarded as predictions subject to correction if a
later measurement of velocities at greater depths shows the extrapolation to be in error.
The low velocity layer has a similar effect on both refraction and reflection data and the corrections
are of the same nature, except that during refraction shots the rays travel a much greater distance
through this layer. Both the reflection and refraction methods give way to a far more accurate
method, i.e., to the direct measurement of seismic velocity by the method designated as seismic
velocity well surveying.

Data acquisition and recording:

Field Surveying:
Usually we analyse P wave refraction data, but S wave data occasionally recorded

Land Survey:
Typically 12 or 24 geophones are laid out to record a shot along a cable, with takeouts to which
geophones can be connected.

• Geophones and cable comprise a spread.

• Shot would usually be placed at one end of spread for first recording, then second
recordingmade at other end.
• Off-end and split-spread shooting also possible.

Marine Survey:
Shot firing and seismograph recording systems are housed on a boat.

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Two options for receivers:
A) Bottom-cable:
• Hydrophones contained in a ~55 m cable which is deployed or dragged along bottom of river
orseabed.
B) Sonobouys
• Hydrophone is suspended from floating buoy containing radio telemetry to
transmitseismogram to boat.
• Boat steams away from sonobouy firing an airgun.

Seismic Refraction Energy Sources:

Source for a seismic survey source has to be chosen bearing in mind the possible signal attenuation
thatcan occur, often a function of the geology.

Requirements:
• Sufficient energy to generate a measurable signal at receiver
• Short duration pulse, i.e. containing enough high frequencies, to resolve the desired
subsurfacelayering
• Repeatable source with a known, consistent waveform
• Minimal mechanical noise
• Ease of operation

There are many different seismic refraction sources, but the most important are:
On land:
• sledge hammer, weight drop, shotgun (shallow work)
• dynamite (crustal studies)

At sea:
• airgun (oil exploration, crustal studies)
• Land Seismic Sources: Mechanical
Sledge Hammer:
A sledge hammer is struck against a metal plate:
• Vertically down on plate to generate P waves
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 • Horizontally against side of plate to produce S
waves
• Inertial switch on hammer triggers data recording
on impact.
• Problems with repeatability and possible bouncing
of hammer.
• Used for refraction spreads up to 200 m.

Accelerated weight–drop:
Mechanical system, using compressed air or thick
elastic slings, forces weight onto baseplate
withgreater force

• Better repeatability than sledge hammer

Land Seismic Sources: Explosive:

Buffalo Gun:
Metal pipe inserted up to 1 m into the ground,
and a blank shotgun cartridge fired.
Exploding gases from gun impact ground and
generate the seismic pulse.

Dynamite:
Shot holes up to 30 m are drilled, and loaded with
dynamite, which usually comes in 0.5 m
plasticcylinders that can be screwed together.

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Marine Seismic Sources:
Airgun:
Airguns are most common seismic source used at sea.
Essentially, an airgun is a cylinder that is filled with compressed air, and then releases the air into
thewater.
The sudden release of air creates a sharp pressure impulse in the water:

Airgun Bubble Oscillation:

1. Air bubble from airgun expands until pressure of surrounding water overcomes its expansion,
andforces it to contract.
2. Bubble then collapses, compressing the air until the air pressure exceeds the water pressure,
and thebubble can expand again.
3. Expansion and collapse continues as bubble rises to surface, giving oscillatory signal
characteristic ofsingle airgun.

Airguns are usually deployed at a depth of a few metres, so there is always a reflection from
seasurface, called the ghost.
The sea surface RC is –1, so ghost is almost as strong as original signal, producing a trough-
peakresponse.

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Land detector( The Geophone) :
Geophone is essentially only type of sensor used on land.
A geophone comprises a coil suspended from springs inside a magnet.
When the ground vibrates in response to a passing seismic wave, the coil moves inside the
magnet,producing a voltage, and thus a current, in the coil by induction.

• As coil can only move in one direction, usually vertical, the geophone only senses
thecomponent of seismic motion along axis of coil.
• Three orthogonal geophones necessary to fully characterise seismic ground motion.
• Geophones respond to the rate of movement of the ground, i.e. particle velocity, and are
oftenlaid in arrays of several phones.

Principle of Geophone :
Geophone Damping
As geophone coil moves inside magnet, current induced in coil produces a magnetic field that
opposes,i.e. damps, the movement of the coil.
• If a geophone is tapped, the oscillation of coil will die out.

• At critical damping, coil will return to rest most quickly.

• If damping very small, coil will oscillate at the natural frequency of the
electromechanicalsystem.
• Normal damping is 70% critical.

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Natural Frequency
Natural frequency and damping affect the range of frequencies the geophone can record:
• 14 Hz geophones used in oil exploration
• 30 Hz geophones used in high resolution studies
• 100 Hz geophones used in very shallow work
Marine detector ( The Hydrophone):
Hydrophones used to detect the pressure variations in water due to a passing seismic wave.
A hydrophone comprises two piezoelectric ceramic discs cemented to a sealed hollow canister.
• A pressure wave squeezes the canister, bending the ceramic and generating a voltage.
• The two discs are connected in series so that the output generated by acceleration of
thehydrophone cancels
• Pressure will squeeze ceramics and so produce output.

Recording Instruments:
Electrical output from geophone, i.e. voltage, is digitised by recording instrumentation and written
ontotape or disk.
Data are viewed on monitor records in field to check quality.
Many different type of recording instrument available.Example (Strataview, Geometrics)
Face of a Strataview seismograph commonly used in shallow seismic work, and able to record up to
24channels.

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Recording Channel
Channel refers to electrical input to recording system. Might be from a single geophone as
inengineering work, or a group of 9 geophones, common in oil exploration.

data processing and Interpretation for seismic refraction:

Refraction surveys use the process of critical refraction to infer interface depths and layer
velocities.
Critical refraction requires an increase in velocity with depth. If not, then there is no critical;
refraction:Hidden layer problem.

• Geophones laid out in a line to record arrivals from a shot. Recording at each
geophone is a waveform called a seismogram.
• Direct signal from shot travels along top of first layer.
• Critical refraction is also recorded at distance beyond which angle of incidence
• becomes critical.

Example:

For a shallow survey, 12-24 vertical 30 Hz geophones would be laid out to record a
hammer or shotgun shot.
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First Arrival Picking:

In most refraction analysis, we only use the travel times of the first arrival on each recorded
seismogram.
As velocity increases at an interface, critical refraction will become first arrival at some
source-receiveroffset.

First Break Picking:

The onset of the first seismic wave, the first break, on each seismogram is identified and its
arrival timepicked.
Example of first break picking on Strataview field monitor

Travel Time Curves:

Analysis of seismic refraction data is primarily based on interpretation of critical refraction

travel times.
Plots of seismic arrival times vs. source-receiver offset are called travel time curves.

Example:
Travel time curves for three arrivals shown previously:
• Direct arrival from source to receiver in top layer

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 • Critical refraction along top of second layer
• Reflection from top of second layer

Critical Distance:

Offset at which critical refraction first appears.

• Critical refraction has same travel time asreflection
• Angle of reflection same as critical angle

Crossover Distance:
Offset at which critical refraction becomes first arrival.

Interpretation of Refraction Traveltime Data:

After completion of a refraction survey first arrival times are picked from seismograms and
plotted as traveltime curves
Interpretation objective is to infer interface depths and layer velocities
Data interpretation requires making assumption about layering insubsurface: look at shape
and number of different first arrivals.

Assumptions:
• Subsurface composed of stack of layers, usually separated by plane interfaces
• Seismic velocity is uniform in each layer
• Layer velocities increase in depth
• All ray paths are located in vertical plane, i.e. no 3-D effects with layers dipping out of
plane of profile
Analysis based on considering critical refraction raypaths through subsurface.

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[There are more sophisticated approaches to handle non-uniform velocity and 3-D
layering.]

Planar Interfaces( Two Layers)

For critical refraction at top of second layer, total travel time from source S to receiver G is
given by:

Hypoteneuse and horizontal side of end 90o-triangle are:

So, as two end triangles are the same:

At critical angle, Snell’s law becomes:

Substituting for V 1 / V 2 , and using cos2θ + sin2θ = 1:

12
This equation represents a straight line of slope 1/V 2 and intercept:

Interpretation of Two Layer Case:

From traveltimes of direct arrival and critical refraction, wecan find velocities of two layers
and depth to interface:
1. Velocity of layer 1 given by slope of direct arrival
2. Velocity of layer 2 given by slope of critical refraction
3. Estimate t i from plot and solve for Z:

Depth from Crossover Distance:

At crossover point, traveltime of direct and refraction areequal:

Solve for Z to get: [Depth to interface is always less than half the crossoverdistance]

Planar Interfaces( Three Layer Case):

In same way as for 2-layer case, can consider triangles atends of raypath, to get expression
for traveltime.
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After simplification as before:

The cosine functions can be expressed in terms ofvelocities using Snell’s law along raypath
of the criticalrefraction:

Again traveltime equation is a straight line, with slope1/V 3 and intercept time t 2 .note:
θ 1 is NOT the critical angle for refraction at the first interface.
It is an angle of incidence along a completely differentraypath!

Interpretation of Three Layer Case:

In three layer case, the arrivals are:

1. Direct arrival in first layer
2. Critical refraction at top of seconds layer
3. Critical refraction at top of third layer

Because, intercept time of traveltime curve from third layeris a function of the two overlying
layer thicknesses, wemust solve for these first.
Use a layer-stripping approach:
1. Solve two-layer case using direct arrival and criticalrefraction from second layer to get
thickness of firstlayer.
2. Solve for thickness of second layer using all threevelocities and thickness of first layer
just calculated.

Planar Interfaces(Multi-Layer Case):

For a subsurface of many plane horizontal layers, theplanar interface travel time equation
can be generalisedto:

14
where θ i is the angle of incidence at the ith interface,which lies at depth Z i at the base of a
layer of velocity V i .

Interpretation:
Proceeds by a layer-stripping approach, solving two-layer,three-layer, four-layer etc. cases
in turn.

Dipping Planar Interfaces:

When a refractor dips, the slope of the traveltime curvedoes not represent the "true" layer
velocity:
• shooting updip, i.e. geophones are on updip side ofshot, apparent refractor velocity is
higher
• shooting downdip apparent velocity is lower
To determine both the layer velocity and the interfacedip, forward and reverse refraction
profiles must beacquired.

Note: Travel times are equal in forward and reversedirections for switched, reciprocal,
source/receiverpositions.

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Dipping Planar Interface( Two Layer Case):

Geometry is same as flat 2-layer case, but rotatedthrough α, with extra time delay at D. So
traveltime is:

Formulae for up/downdip times are (not proved here):

where V u / V d and t u / t d are the apparent refractor velocitiesand intercept times.

Can now solve for dip, depth and velocities:

1. Adding and subtracting, we can solve for interfacedip α and critical angle θ C :

;
[V 1 is known from direct arrival, and V u and V d areestimated from the refraction traveltime
curves]
2. Can find layer 2 velocity from Snell’s law:

3. Can get slant interface depth from intercept times,and convert to vertical depth at
source position:

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Faulted Planar Interface:

If refractor faulted, then there will be a sharp offset in thetravel time curve:

Can estimate throw on fault from offset in curves, i.e.difference between two
intercept times, from simpleformula:

Interpretation of Realistic Traveltime Data:

With field data it is necessary to examine traveltime curvescarefully to decide on best

method to use:
• How many refraction branches are there, i.e. howmany layers?
• Are anomalous times due to mispicking or real?
• Small anomalies can be ignored, but larger onesrequire other methods, e.g. Plus-
Minus.
• Multiple source positions allow, some inference ofdepth of anomaly: near-surface
anomalies align
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Surface Topography Intervening Velocity Anomaly:

Refractor Topography and Refractor Velocity Variation:

Delay Times:
For irregular traveltime curves, e.g. due to bedrocktopography or glacial fill, much analysis
is based on delaytimes.

Total Delay Time:

Difference in traveltime along actual raypath andprojection of raypath along refracting
interface:

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Total delay time is delay time at shot plus delay time atgeophone:

For small dips, can assume x=xI .

Refractor Depth from Delay Time:

If velocities of both layers are known, then refractor depth at point A can be calculated from
delay time at point A:

Using RH triangle to get lengths in terms of z:

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Using Snell’s law to express angles in terms of velocities:

Simplifying:

So refractor depth at A is:

Varying Interface & Refractor Velocity: Plus-Minus Method

Hagedoorn’s Plus-Minus method used for more complexcases:
• Undulating interfaces
• Changes in refractor velocity along the profile

Plus-Minus method:

• Requires forward and reverse travel times atgeophone location to find delay time and
refractorvelocity at geophone
• Assumes interface is planar between D and E, canresult in smoothing of actual
topography
• Assumes dips less than ~10o.

Delay time at G given by:

which can be found from observed data.

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Plus and Minus Terms:
Using previous figure can write down forward/ reversetraveltimes:

Minus Term:
Used to determine laterally varying refractor velocity, i.e.V 2 (x):

• Velocity given by local slope of plot of (T-) vs. x,distance along profile. Note factor of 2
compared withthe plane layer method.
• Velocity may change along profile, so written as V 2 (x).Different values of V 2 can be
used for calculation ofinterface depth using Plus term

Plus Term:
Determines refractor depth at a location from delay timethere:

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So from delay time formula for depth, depth at G given by:

• Depth can be determined at each geophone locationwhere forward and reverse

traveltimes recorded usingV 2 estimated for that position

Plot of Minus Term:

A . Composite traveltime distance plots for four differentshots.

B. Plot of Minus Terms: note lateral changes in refractorvelocity.

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Generalized reciprocal method:

The plus-minus method assumes a linear interface between points where the ray leaves the
interface. A more powerful technique is the Generalized reciprocal method in which pairs of
rays are chosen that leave the interface at the same location.
-GRM requires more receivers than Plus-Minus
-multiple estimates of the depth are made below each point, using different separations between X
and Y.
-geophysicist must select the optimal distance (XY) (most linearT- and the most detail in a T+profile)

XY = Optimal distance.

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24
Fan Shooting:
Discontinuous targets can be mapped using radial transects: called “Fan Shooting” A form of
seismic tomography

Technique first used in the 1920’s in the search for salt domes. The higher velocity of the salt causes
earlier arrivals for signals that travel though the salt.

25
Hidden Layer Problem:

Layers may not be detected by first arrival analysis:

A. Velocity inversion produces no critical refraction fromlayer 2
B. Insufficient velocity contrast makes refraction difficultto identify
C.Refraction from thin layer does not become firstarrival
D.Geophone spacing too large to identify secondrefraction

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Shallow applications of seismic refraction:
1. Depth to bedrock
•velocity of bedrock greater than unconsolidated layer
• in this example, a shot point was located every 30 m
• depth to bedrock increases with x

Depth to bedrock (example from Northern Alberta):

Seismic refraction was used to determine depth to bedrock at the location where a
pipeline was planned to cross a creek.

Note that the direct wave is only the first arrival at the first 2 geophones. This is
because of a very high velocity contrast between the upper and lower layers.

27
 The model below was derived from the seismic data using the general reciprocal
method.

2.Locating a water table

3. Determine rippability
2. Depth of Moho from seismic refraction:
• the head wave that travels in the upper mantle is called Pn
● reflection from the Moho is called PmP
● reduced travel time is sometimes plotted on the vertical axis.
t' = t – x/v(red), where v red is the reduction velocity this has the effect ofmaking
arrivals with v=v(red) plot horizontally on a t-x plot.

● in the figure on the left, the crustal P-wave velocity was used as the reduction
velocity.

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Tectonic studies of the continental lithosphere with seismic refraction:
corman, A.R. et al, Deep probe: imaging the roots of western North America, Canadian
Journal of Earth Sciences, 39, 375-398, 2002.
Explosive shots up to 2400 kg with seismic recorders deployed on a profile from 60°N
to 43°N

The figure above shows ray tracing used to model the data. Measures the variation in
Moho depth and crustal structure. Note that with a reduction velocity of 8 km/s,
Pnplots as horizontal line , while the slower pg has a positive slope.

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References:
• EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICSBY/ j.j. JAKOSKY, ScD.Consultant LOS
ANGELES CALIFORNIA , Copyright 1940 and 1950 by J. J. Jakosky.
2nd edition.

• Fundamentals of Geophysics/ WILLIAM LOWRIE , Cambridge, New

York ,published in print format in 2007 .2nd Edition.

• Applied geophysics/Telford_W.M.,_Geldart_L.P.,_Sheriff_R.E., 2nd

Edition.

• An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics/ by

Reynolds, Published 1997 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

• Basic Exploration Geophysics/ by Edwin S. Robinson & Cahit Coruh,

copyright 1988 by John Wiley & Sons inc.

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