DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SCIENCE

PH3256 – PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

UNIT V QUANTUM COMPUTING

Introduction quantum cellular automata - Quantum system for information

processing - quantum states – classical bits – quantum bits or qubits –CNOT

gate - multiple qubits – Bloch sphere – quantum gates – advantage of quantum

computing over classical computing.

FACULTY HOD DEAN

 5.7. Quantum Cellular Automata
Introduction
The continuing down scaling of device dimensions in microelectronics technology has led to
faster devices and denser circuit with obvious benefits to chip performance. There is much
expectation that the availability of very dense device arrays might lead to a new paradigms for
information processing based on locally interconnected architectures such as cellular automata
(CA)
We focus here on the idea of employing CA architectures which are compatible with nanometer
scale quantum devices. Quantum Cellular Automata is a new nanotechnology with potential
for applying in building future computers. This technology is a realization of the circuit design
at the nano scale.
Quantum Cellular Automata technology is one of the emerging technologies that can be used
for replacing CMOS technology. It has attracted significant attention in the recent years due to
its extremely low power dissipation, high operation frequently and smaller in size.
Definition
A quantum cellular automata consists of an array of quantum device cells in a locally
interconnected architectures.
Concept
According to quantum cellular automata, logical states or values are demonistrated by the
position of electrons rather than voltage levels. By applying proper implements of this QCA
technology, significant low density of 1012 devices/cm3 and very low power consumption (near
to zero) are achievable.
Thus quantum cellular automata (QCA) is an abstract model of quantum computation devised
in analogy to conventional models of cellular automata.
Advantages
1. Low power dissipation
2. High operating frequency
3. Smaller in size
4. It replaces CMOS technology.
Applications
1. It can used for designing general purpose computational circuits
2. It is used in memory circuits and other computational and sequential circuit designs.
5.8. QUANTUM SYSTEM FOR INFORMATION PROCESSING
The Quantum phenomena can be applied to Quantum Computing Quantum information
science and Quantum metrology. The Progresses of all these technologies are mutually
dependent on each other. They share the same laws of physics, Common hardware and related
works.

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 Quantum information science deals with the methods of the information in a quantum system.
It includes statistics of Quantum mechanics along with their limitations, it provides a core for
all other applications such as quantum Computing, networking, sensing and metrology
Quantum Communication and Networking explains the exchange of information by encoding
it in to a quantum Cryptography. It is the subset of quantum Communication in which Quantum
Properties help to design the secure communication System.
Quantum Sensing and metrology: is the Quantum systems which are used to measure important
physical Properties ( e.g. electric and magnetic fields, temperature, etc.,) . The system has more
accuracy than classical systems. Quantum Sensors are based on Qubits. They are carried out
using the experimental quantum systems.
Quantum Computing deals with the Quantum mechanical properties of Super position,
entanglement and interference to enact Computation In Common, a Quantum Computer
Consists of a collection of quantum bits (Qubits). The Qubits are isolated from the environment
for their Quantum state to perform the Computation
These Qubits are organized and manipulated to set an algorithms and to get a result. The high
Probability from the measurement of final state produces the result.
Several ways such as nuclear magnetic resonance, optical and solid state techniques and ion
traps are used to build Quantum Computers. The fundamental Concept that has been need to
handle the Quantum Computers using the above ways are given below.
(a) Harmonic oscillation Quantum Computer
In this system, discrete eigen states are represented as n x, where n = 0, 1, 2,.... ; these
represent qubits . The lifetime of Qubits depend on the Quality factor of the cavity.
A Single quantum harmonic oscillator will have a 2n energy states in Hilbert Space. But, a
classical harmonic oscillator has n energy states in the same Hilbert Space
(b) Optical Phonon Quantum Computer
In these Computers, Photon can represent a quantum bit. Photons can be made to interact with
eachother using non-linear optical media. Mirrors, Phase shifters and beam splitters are the
accessible devices for manipulating the photon states
The required Single photons can be created using attenuated laser. These photons are defected
with photo detectors. Thus a quantum Computer can be made using these optical components.
(c) Optical Cavity quantum electrodynamic Computer
In this, Coupling of Single atom to a few optical modes takes place. It is done by placing single
atom in optical cavities of very high Q.
The cavity electrodynamic system consists of Fabry Perot cavity containing a few atoms to
which the optical field is coupled. The photons in the cavity have an opportunity to interact
many times with the atoms before escaping.
The single photon can be good carrier of quantum information. They are created by attenuated
lasers and they are measured at the output wing photo multiplier.
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(d) Ion trap quantum Computer

In electromagnetic traps, a number of charged atoms are isolated and trapped. Then the atoms
are cooled so that their kinetic energy is much less than their spin energy. After this, the incident
monochromatic light can selectively cause transitions between energy states of lowest level
vibrational modes of ions. These transitions can be made to perform quantum computation.
The main components of the ion trap quantum computers are the electromagnetic trap with
lasers, photo detectors of ions.

(e) Nuclear magnetic resonance computer

These computers are based on the spins of atomic nucleus. This will be nearly ideal for quantum
computation if only spin - spin coupling be large and controllable. Magnetic field pulses are
applied to spins in a strong magnetic field.
The coupling between spins of atoms can be provided by chemical between the neighbouring
atoms. The processing magnetic moment induces the output. These proposals shows that the
quantum are more suitable for information processing.
5.9. Quantum states
The quantum state of a system is described by a complex function ψ, which depends on the
coordinate x and on time
i.e., Quantum state = ψ (x,t)
2
The wave function encodes all the information about the system. We know  ( x, t ) dx is the
probability of finding the position of the particles and yields a result in the interval x→ x + dx
The total probability of finding the particles somewhere along the real axis must be unity, thus
2
we can write    * dx    ( x, t ) dx  1
2

In quantum mechanics, a different notation is called Dirac notation is used to represent quantum
states. The inner product of two vectors u and v is denoted by <u │v>

The left part u is called bra and the right part v is called as ket. Thus in the direct notation,
also known as the bra-ket notation, an inner product is denoted by < > bracket.
5.10. Classical bit
A Classical bit can be either 0 or 1
Information in digital representation uses a sequence of bits. Each bit is basically the charge of
an electron. If the electron is charge, the bit is assumed to carry a value 1; alternatively if the
electron is not charged the bit carries a value 0.
Definition
Thus a bit also known as a classical bit can be in state 0 or state 1, and measuring a bit at any
time results in one of two possible outcomes.
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5.11. Single Quantum bit
Definition
A qubit (quantum bit) is the basic unit of information in quantum computing. A qubit uses the
quantum mechanical phenomena of superposition to achieve a linear combination of two states.
Explanation
A classical binary bit can only represent a single binary value such as either 0 or 1, i.e., it can
only be in one of two possible states.
A qubit, however, can be represented as 0, 1 or any portion of 0 and 1 in superposition of both
states, with a certain probability of being 0 and a certain probability of being 1.
Let us consider an electron in a hydrogen atom which will be in its ground state as shown in
figure or in an excited state as shown in figure.

Electrons

nucleus Excited state ()

Ground state ()

In classical system, it is assumed that excited state represent and the ground state represent.
But in qunatum system, the electron will exist in a linear superposution of the ground and
excited state . i.e., it will exist in the ground state with probability amplitude  and in excited
state with probability amplitude β.
This type of two state quantum system is referred to as single qubit, and its actual state ψ can
also be any linear combination (or superposition) of these states.

i.e.,    0   1 (1)

Where  is the state of the qubit and 0 and 1 are the computational basis states. The
coefficeints  and β are complex numbers and are called as probability amplitudes.

If  is the probability amplitude of 0 state, then the probability of qubit being in 0 state is
2
 *   where * is the complex conjugate of 
2 2
However,     1 (2)

The qunatum state ψ in equation (1) can be written as unit column vector in a two
dimensional complex plane (Hilbert space) spanned by the two basis vectors.

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 1 
Here, a qubit with state 0 is represented by column vector   (3)
0

0
A qubit with state 1 is represented by column vector   (4)
1 
Substitting (3) and (4) in (1), we get

1  0
     
0 1 

   0 
(or)       
0   

 
(or)     (5)
 
Equation (5) is the vector representing an arbitary qubit state
Interference
(1) As discussed, classical bit can only be in a single state, whereas, a qubit cannot only be in
one of the two discrete states, it can also exist simultaneously in a blend of some of these
states.

(2) The proportions of 0 and 1 in the blended states need not be equal and can be arbitary.

(3) Thus an infinite number of possible combinations of 0 and 1 is possible in a qubit,

2 2
provided the constraint     1 is satisified

5.12. Multiple Qubits

Consider a system of two qubits in a four dimensional vector space. In this Hilbert space, four
computational basis states represented as 00 , 01 , 10 and 11

The superposition of these states gives a state vector  given as linear combination of the
basis vectors    00 00   01 01  10 10  11 11 (1)

Where 00, 01, 10, 11 are complex coefficeints, the probabilities of the four states are
2 2 2 2
 00 ,  01 , 10 and 11 .

The normaziliation of equation (1) is the sum of the square of the probailities of the
coefficeint in the state is 1
2 2 2 2
i.e.,  00 +  01 + 10 + 11 .= 1 (2)

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Before the measurement, the state of the two qubits is uncertain. After the measurement, the
state is certain i.e., 00 , 01 , 10 and 11 . If only the first bit is observed,

The probability for the first qubit is 0

2 2
P0'   00   01 (3)

Similarly, probaility for 1 is

2 2
P1'  10  11 (4)

Sum of the two probabilities is unity

Therefore, P0'  P1'  1 (5)

Let  0' and  1' be the states after the measurement when the first qubits are 0 and 1
respectively. These states are given by

 00 00   01 01
 0'  2 2
and (6)
 00   01

10 10  11 11
 1'  2 2
(7)
10  11

Similarly, for the measurement for second qubit

The probability for second qubit to 0 and 1.
2 2
P0''   00  10 (8)
2 2
P1''   01  11 (9)

and the sum of the second probavility is unity (1)

Therefore P0''  P1''  1 (10)

The corresponding states after measurements are

 00 00  10 10
 0''  2 2
and (11)
 00  10

 01 01  11 11
 1''  2 2
(12)
 01  11

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 1
Now, let us consider special state of two qubits system with  00  11  and  01  10  0
2
.This state is called Bell state and this pair of qubit is called EPR (Einstein, Podoisky and
Rosen) pair
1
When the two qubit system is in the Bell state, the probability of first qubt as 0 is and that
2
1
of 1 is .
2
Therefore, after measurements, states are

 0'  00

 00 00  10 10
 0'  2 2
 00  10

1
 00  and 10  0
2

1 1
00  0 10 00
Therefore,  0'  2  2
2 1
 1 
 0
2
 2
 2

Therefore,  0'  00 (13)

Similarly,  1'  11 (14)

Likewise, for second qubit

 0''  00

 00 00  10 10
 0''  2 2
 00  10

1
 00  and 10  0
2

1 1
00  0 10 00
Therefore,  0''  2  2
2 1
 1 
   0 2
2
 2

Therefore,  0''  00 (15)

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Similarly,  1''  11 (16)

These are four special states called Bell states and form an orthonormal basis as

00  11
 00 
2

01  10
 01 
2

00  11
10 
2

01  10
11 
2

00  11
Where the first one  00  is involved in many quantum computation and
2
quantum information. The quantum state of n qubit system is specified by 2n amplitudes. So
far seven qubit quantum computer has been buid.
5.13. Quantum Gates
We know that classical logic gates are the building blocks of digital circuits. Similarly, a
quantum gate is a basic quantum circuit operating with a small number of qubits and are the
building blocks of qunatum gates.
1. Quantum gates are the unitary operator which are constructed with the help of basis
vector.
2. Here the basis vector of single qubit is 0 and 1 . Similarly for two qubits are 00 ,
01 , 10 and 11 .
1 
3. one qubit qunatum state of 0 is represented by column matrixby column vector  
0
0
and 1 by  
1 
1 0 
4. Identity matrix is I   
 0 1
5. Qunatum gate is unitary operator with U †U  I where U †  U 1 and Det U =1
6. The qunatum states satisify othronormal condition (self product is allowed)
7. Any single qubit qunatum state is represented by

     
U  ei  I cos    i ( .nˆ )sin   
 2  2 

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 In this equation the square bracket term represents the rotational operator about the
arbitary direction and ei is its phase.

 
Now, put     ;  
2

i      
U  e 2  I cos    i ( .nˆ )sin    (or) U  ( .nˆ )
 2  2 

Where σn is the polarization state of a qubit along any axis . Here there is only a single bit of
information (0 or 1)
5.13.1 SINGLE BIT QUANTUM STATES
Single bit qunatum gate can be constructed by condiering the unitary operator
U  ( .nˆ ) (or) U   x nx   y ny   z nz and

 0 1  0 -i  1 0 
if nx  (100); ny  (010); nz  (001) and  n is  x    ; y    ; z   
1 0  i 0   0 -1
(1) Pauli’s X – gate

X 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0

Then X  1 0  0 1

Output

(i) Y 0  0 1 0  0 1  1 (ii) Y 1  1  1 0  0 1   0

0 X 1

1 X 0

Hence, X gate is also a NOT gate which transpose the components of qubit.

(ii) Pauli’s Y - gate

Y 0 1
0 0 i
1 i 0

Then Y  i 1 0  i 0 1

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Output

(i) Y 0  i 0 1 0  i 0 1   i 1 (ii) Y 1  i 1  1 0  i 0 1   i 0

0 Y -i 1

1 Y i0

Hence, Y gate multiplies the input qubit by i and flip the two components of qubits.
(iii) Pauli’s Z – gate

Z 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1

Then Z  0 0  1 1

Output

(i) Z 0  0 0 0  1 1= 0 (ii) Z 1  1  0 0  1 1  =  1

0 Z 0

1 Z 1

Z-gate changes the phase (flips the sign) of a qubit

(iv) Hadamard – gate

1 1 1 
Here H   
2 1 -1

H 0 1
1 1
0
2 2
1 1
1 
2 2
1
Then H   0 0  0 1  1 0  1 1 
2

Output
1 1
(i) H 0  0
2
 0 0  0 1  1 0  1 1 
2
 0  1 = 0
1 1
(ii) H 0  1
2
 0 0  0 1  1 0  1 1 
2
0 1
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 1
0 H
2
0  1
1
1 H
2
0  1
H-gate creates superposition state from pure input states.
(v) S – gate (Phase gate)

1 0
Here, S   
0 i

S 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 i

Then S  0 0  i 1 1

Output

(i) S 0  0 0 0 i 1 1= 0 (ii) Z 1  1  0 0  i 1 1  = i 1

0 S 0

1 S i1

The S gate is also known as the phase gate, because it represents a 90-degree rotation around
the z-axis.
(vi) T – gate (Phase gate)

1 0 
Here, T    
 0 ei 4 
 

S 0 1
0 1 0

i
1 0 e4

i
Then T  0 0  e 4 1 1

Output
 
 i   i 
(i) T 0  0  0 0  e 4 1 1  = 0 (ii) T 1  1  0 0  e 4 1 1  = i 1
   

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 0 T 0

1
T i
e4 1


The S gate and T gate are connnected by S = T2.

5.13.2 TWO BITS QUANTUM STATES

Two bit qunatum states are represented by controlled unitary operator

I O 
CU   
O U
Where I and O are identity and zero matrix and hence the unitary operator U can be resolved
as

 0 1 1 0  1 0 
U  X   ;U  Z    ;U  S   
1 0   0 -1 0 i 
Here extension of Pauli’s X gate lead to CNOT gate, similarly Z and S gates lead to to CZ
and SWAP gates respectively

Here the identity matrix is obtained by the combination of basis states such as 00 ,
1  0 0  0  1 0 0 0
         
0 1  0 0 = 0 1 0 0
01 , 10 and 11 as  
0 0 1  0 0 0 1 0
         
0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1

Also, CNOT gate, is used to swap the 10 reversible

11 between third and fouth row in
identity matrix. The output after truth table is implemented is given by

Similarly, CZ gate is obtained, when two qubit quantum states involves in a phase change in
11 . As a result the four row has a phase change.The output of the truth table and
representation is given by
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 Further, SWAP gate is obtained by interchanging 01    10 in the identitiy matrix to
get this swap gate. The output and the symbolic representation are given by

5.14. CNOT gate

Principle
CNOT gate means controlled NOT gate. It is a quantum logic gate which plays a vital role in
the designing of quantum computers.
The CNOT gate will have two qubit operation, wherein the first qubit is referred as the
control qubit and the second qubit is referred as the target qubit.
Symbolic Representation
The Symbolic representation of CNOT gate is as shown in figure
X

y  a  b  ab  ba

Concept
A CNOT gate basically implements a reversible Ex-OR. It can be used to generate
entanglement. The CNOT gate can be logically represented as shown in figure.

a x

b y =a b
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From figure, we can see that the control (x) and the target (y) are shown as two horizontal lines.
Here, we can also notice that the count ‘y’ depends on the input source ‘a’ and is shown by an
interconnecting vertical line from ‘a’ to ‘y’ and to one of the inputs of the EX-OR gate i.e., the
target input ‘b’ as shown in figure.
Logical operation
Inputs
The input a is typically called the source, and input ‘b’ is known as the target input. Here the x
depends on the input a. i.e.,
(i) If source a = 0, then control x = 0; similarly if x = 1, then control x = 1.
Thus the source is called the control input and controls the application of the NOT operation
on the target input
Outputs

The output of CNOT gate is y  a  b  ab  ba

Here y depends on the source a and target b. i.e.,

(ii) If source a =0, Then the output y = b (i.e., 0)
(iii) When the source a = 1, then the output y will have inverse value of b
Truth table
INPUT OUTPUT
Source/Control input Target qubit Control qubit Target output
a b x y  a  b  ab  ba
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0

Case (i) When a = 0 and b = 0 or 1, then y = b

Case (ii) When a = 1 and b = 0 or 1, then y will be inverse of b
i.e., the inverted value y is controlled by the source a and hence the gate is named as Controlled
NOT gate (or) CNOT gate. Hence the inputs can be uniquely determined from outputs by
verifying the reversibility of the gate.
Matrix representation of CNOT gate:

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5.15. Quantum Entanglement

From the truth table, we can see that, the target qubit is 0 and the control qubit is either 0
or 1 , then the output target y takes the value of control qubit, i.e., it becomes the copy of the
control qubit, but control qubit itself does not change.
However, a superposition in the control qubit results in the entaglement of control and target
qubits.
Thus, when two or more particles link up in a certain way, no matter how far apart they are in
space, their state remains linked. That means they share a common, united quantum state.
So observations of one of the particles can automatically provide information about the other
entangled particles, regardless of the distance between them. Any action to one of these
particles will invariably impact the other in the entangled system. This united state is known
as qunatum entanglement.
5.16 Difference between classicial and qunatum cmputing
Comparison key Classical computer Quantum computer
Basis Large scale integrated High speed parallel computer
multipurpose computer based on quantum mechanics
based classical physics
Information storage Bit based information Qubit based information
storage using voltage/ charge storage using electron spin
or magnetism
Bit values Having either 0 or 1 with a Qubits have value of 0, 1 ,
single value at any instant sometime negative and can
have both values at the same
time
Possible states Two states, either 0 or 1 It is infinite, it holds
combinations of 0 and 1
along with some complex
information
Output Deterministic (repetition on Probabilistic (repetition of
the same input give the same computation on
output) superposition states gives
probabilistic answers)
Gates used for processing It is sequential. Example, Qubit gates process the
AND,, OR, NOT, etc., information parallel.
Scope Define and limited answer Probabilistic and multiple
due to algorithm design answers are considered due
to superposition and
entanglement properties.

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5.17. Advantages of quantum computing over classical computing
Sl.No Quantum computing Classical computing
1. It is done using qubits It is done using bits
2. Here states 0’s and 1‘s can be Here, we can represent either 0 or 1. Both
represented simultaneously cannot be represent simultaneously.
3. Here, the power increases The power increases in a 1:1 relationship to
exponentially in proportion to the the number of transistors.
number of qubits
4. It is incredibly fast and effective It is slow and ineffective
5. They solve complex problems They do not solve complex problems
6. It is used to run complex simulation It is not used for such complex simulation

5.18. Applications
1. It is used in Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning
2. It plays a vital role in drug design and development.
3. They are applied in cyber security and cryptography
4. It is used in weather forecasting.
5. They are used in logistics optimisation, financial modelling, etc.,
6. In research and development, quantum computing are used in computational science
research.
Part – A Questions
1. Define Nano materials.
Nano phase materials are newly developed materials with grain size at the nanometre
range (10-9) in the order of 1 – 100 nm.

2. What is quantum confinement?

The effect is achieved by reducing the volume of a solid so that the energy levels within
it becomes discrete is called quantum confinement.

3. What is quantum structure?

When the bulk material is reduced in its size, atleast one of its dimension, in order of few
nanometers, then the structure is known as quantum structure.
4. What is quantum size effect?
When the size of nanomaterial becomes smaller than the deBroglie wavelength, electrons
and holes gets spatially confined, electrical dipoles gets generated, the discrete energy
levels are formed. As the size of the material decreases, the energy separation between
adjacent level increases. The density of states of nanocrystals is positioned in between
discrete and continuous for atoms/molecules and crystals. This effect is significant for
semiconductor nanoparticles.
5. What is single electron phenomena?
The phenomena of keeping single electron or quantum dot in isolation without
tunnelling.

27 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 6. Define Coulomb-Blockade effect.
The charging effect which blocks the injection or rejection of a single charge into or
from a quantum dot is called Coulomb blockade effect.

7. What is single electron tunnelling?

The quantization of charge can dominate and tunnelling of single electron across leaky
capacitors carriers the current. This is called single electron tunnelling.

8. What is single electron transistor?

A transistor made from a quantum dot that controls the current from source to drain one
electron at a time is called single electron transistor.
9. Explain the rules which used for the single electron phenomena?
(i) The energy needed to add one electron to the dot, or charging energy EC must be
e2
Ec   K BT
2Cdot
significantly higher than the thermal energy of an electron
(ii) The uncertainity of the charging energy must be less than the charging energy itself.
h
Rt 
e2

10. What are the limitations of single electron transistor?

In order to operate SET at room temperature, the size of quantum dot should be less than
10nm.
It is very hard to fabricate optical lithography and semiconducting process by traditional
way.
The methods must be developed for connecting individual structures into logic circuits and
these circuits must be arranged in larger 2D particles.
11. What are the applications of single electron transistor?
A variety of digital logic functions are obtained based on SET operating at room
temperature.
Used for mass data storage
Used in high sensitive electrometer.
SET is used as temperature probe for very low temperature ranges.
SET is used for single electron spectroscopy.
SET is used in homo-dyan receiver operating between 10 and 300 MHz
12. What is Quantum cellular automata?
28 | P a g e Physics for Information science
 it is an emerging nanotechnology. CMOS technology has a lot of limitations while scaling
into a nano-level. In order to improve the performance of a system, new nano technology
approach should be taken into account. QCA is a optable replacement of CMOS.
13. What are the advantages of QCA?
It is edge driven meaning an input is brought to an edge of a QCA block. This also means
that no power line need to routed internally.
The QCA system should be very low power system because there is no current flowing.
Only enough energy needs to add to lift the electrons from their ground states to higher
states.
The QCA cells are very small.
14. Define Hilbert space.
Hilbert space is defined as an infinite dimensional vector space with an inner product and
its associated norm

 0   0 0  1 1  ........   n1 n  1

15. Define classical bits.

A Classical bit can be either 0 or 1
Information in digital representation uses a sequence of bits. Each bit is basically the
charge of an electron. If the electron is charge, the bit is assumed to carry a value 1;
alternatively if the electron is not charged the bit carries a value 0.
16. What is qubit?
A qubit is a mathematical model of microscopic physical system such as the spin of electron
or the polarization of a photon. It also exists in the continuum of intermediate states or
superposition states.
17. What are the difference between bits and qubits?
Sl.No Bits Qubits
1. The device computes by The device computes by manipulating
manipulating those bits using those bits using quantum logic gates
logic gates
2. A classical computer has a A qubits can hold a one, a zero or
memory made up of bits where crucially a superposition of these
each bit hold either a one or zero
3. Bits are used in classical Qubits are use in quantum computer
computers
4. Information is stored in bits which Information is stored in quantum bits. A
take the discrete values 0 and 1 qubit can be in state 0 and 1 , but it can

29 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 also be in a superposition of these states as
   0   1 . If we think a qubit as a
vector, then superposition of state is just
vector addition.
5. Processing of bits are slow Processing of qubits are faster
6. Circuit is based on classical Circuit is based on quantum mechanics
physics.

18. Define one qubit quantum state.

A one qubit gate transforms an input qubit    0   1 in to an output qubit

Mathematically a gate is represented by 2 x 2 unitary operator matrix with basis qunatum

states such as 0 and 1

19. What are advantages of quantum computer over classical computer?

Sl.No Quantum computing Classical computing
1. It is done using qubits It is done using bits
2. Here states 0’s and 1‘s can be Here, we can represent either 0 or 1. Both
represented simultaneously cannot be represent simultaneously.
3. Here, the power increases The power increases in a 1:1 relationship to
exponentially in proportion to the the number of transistors.
number of qubits
4. It is incredibly fast and effective It is slow and ineffective
5. They solve complex problems They do not solve complex problems
6. It is used to run complex It is not used for such complex simulation
simulation

20. What are the differences between classical and quantum computers?

Comparison key Classical computer Quantum computer

Basis Large scale integrated High speed parallel computer
multipurpose computer based on quantum mechanics
based classical physics
Information storage Bit based information Qubit based information
storage using voltage/ charge storage using electron spin
or magnetism
Bit values Having either 0 or 1 with a Qubits have value of 0, 1 ,
single value at any instant sometime negative and can
have both values at the same
time
Possible states Two states, either 0 or 1 It is infinite, it holds
combinations of 0 and 1
30 | P a g e Physics for Information science
 along with some complex
information
Output Deterministic (repetition on Probabilistic (repetition of
the same input give the same computation on
output) superposition states gives
probabilistic answers)
Gates used for It is sequential. Example, Qubit gates process the
processing AND,, OR, NOT, etc., information parallel.
Scope Define and limited answer Probabilistic and multiple
due to algorithm design answers are considered due
to superposition and
entanglement properties.

Part – B questions
1. Define quantum confinement and quantum structures in nanomaterial.
When the size of a nanocrystal becomes smaller than the deBroglie wavelength, electrons
and holes gets spatially confined, electrical dipoles gets generated, the discrete energy
levels are formed. As the size of the material decreases, the energy separation between
adjacent levels increases. The density of states of nanocrystals is positioned in between
discrete (as that of atoms and molecules) and continuous (as in crystals).
Quantum size effect is most significant for semiconductor nanoparticles. In
semiconductors, the bandgap energy is of the order of few electron volts and increases
with a decrease in particle size.

When photons of light fall in a semiconductor, only those photons with energy are
absorbed and a sudden rise in absorption is observed when the photon energy is equal to
the bandgap.
As the size of the particle decreases, absorption shifts towards the shorter wavelength (blue
shifts) indicating an increase in the bandgap energy .A change in absorption causes a
change in the colour of the semiconductor nanoparticle.
For example, bulk cadmium sulphide is orange in colour and has a bandgap of 2.42eV. It
becomes yellow and then ultimately white as its particle size decreases and the bandgap
increases.

31 | P a g e Physics for Information science

2. Discuss the electron density in bulk material and size dependent of Fermi energy.
The bulk material is a collection of atoms having properties that are from individual atoms.
The nanomaterials gives unique electronic properties.one of the mayor difference in
nanomaterials with respect to bulk materials is the number of available energy states. In a bulk
material, the states within each energy sublevel are so close that they blend into a band.
The total number of electron states N with energies up to E, can be determined based on the
3/2
 8m
equation N   2  E 3/2 .V (1)
3h 
Here, we represent the volume as V, m is the mass of an electron an h is the Planck’s
constant.
3/2
N   8m 
The number of energy states per unit volume is given by n    E 3/2 (2)
V 3  h2 
Density of states is defined as number of available electron energy states per unit volume,
per unit energy i.e., Z(E) = dn / dE (3)
Hence equation (2) becomes,
3/2
  8m  3
Z (E)    E1/2
3  h2  2

3/2
 8m
(or) Z ( E )    2  E1/2 (4)
2 h 

From equation (4), the density of states for a bulk material is directly proportional to square
root of energy
i.e., Z(E) α √E (5)
The relevant application of density of states is that it provides information about
nanomaterials.
Here, the Fermi function gives the probability of occupation by the free electrons in a given
energy state.
1
i.e., f ( E )  E E f
(6)
1 e kT


Then, the number of free electrons per unit volume is ne   F ( E )Z ( E )dE
0

3/2 

Put F(E) = 1 at T = 0K, then ne    2 
8m
E
1/2
dE
2 h 
0

3/2
  8m 
(or) ne   E f (0)3/2 (7)
3  h2 

Size dependence of Fermi energy

32 | P a g e Physics for Information science

In terms of the distribution of energy, solid have thick energy bands, whereas atoms have thin,
discrete energy states. Hence to make a solid behave electronically more like an atom, we need
to make it about the same size as an atom.
2/3
h 2  3ne 
Hence rearranging equation (7) , we get E f (0)   (8)
8m   

In the above equation, ‘n’ is the only variable.

Equation (8) suggests that the fermi energy of a conductor depends on the number of free
2/3
electrons ‘N’ per unit volume ‘V’ EF (0)  n 2/3  
N
 (9)
V
 

Since the electron density is a property of the material, the fermi energy does not vary with
material’s size. EF is same for a particle or for a brick of copper. Hence the energy state will
have the same range for small volume and large volume of atoms. But for small volume of
atoms we get larger spacing between states. This is applicable to semiconductors and insulators.
Let us consider that all states up to EF(0) are occupied by a total of free electrons (N).
EF (0)
E  (10)
N

1
From equation (9) & (10), E (11)
V
Thus, the spacing between energy states is inversely proportional to the volume of the solid.
The energy sublevel and the spacing between energy states within it will depend on the number
of atoms as shown in figure. At one point, we know that an energy sublevel must be divided as
many times as there are atoms in a solid, which eventually results too many splits to
differentiate. Hence, we just refer to each sublevel as a solid energy band. On the other hand,
a single atom in the sublevel contain only one discrete energy state. If we reduce the volume
of s solid, the tiny piece of material behaves electronically like an artificial atom.
3. Discuss density of states in quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot structure.
The quantum well can be displayed with dimensions of length a, where the electrons of effective
mass are confined in the well as shown in fig. ny
e- E+dE E n n+dn
o nx

0 a
The two dimensional density of states is the number of states per unit area and unit energy.
Consider the electron in a two dimensional bounded region of space. We want to find how
many quantum states lie within a particular energy, say, between E and E+dE as shown in
Figure.
The reduced phase space now consists only the x- y plane and nx and ny coordinates.

33 | P a g e Physics for Information science

In 2D space, n2 = nx2 + ny2
Derivation
1 2
The number of available states within a circle of radius ‘n’ is given by n
4

Here only one quarter of circle will have positive integer values
1
  n  dn 
2
The number of states within a circle of radius n+dn is given by
4

The number of available energy states lying in an energy interval E and E+dE

1
Z ' ( E )dE    (n  dn) 2  n 2 
4  

 2
 n  dn 2  2ndn  n 2 
4 

As dn2 is very small, we can neglect dn2. Therefore we get,

 
Z ' ( E )dE  [2ndn]  ndn (1)
4 2

8m* E 2
We know that n2  a (2)
h2
1/2
 8m* E 
(or) n 2  a (3)
 h 

1/2
 8m*  1
(or) dn   2 
a E 1/2 dE (4)
 h  2

Substitute the value of equation (3) and (4) in equation (1), we get
1/2 1/2
  8m* E   8m*  1
'
Z ( E )dE    a 2  a E 1/2dE
2  h2   h  2

m* is the effective mass in the quantum well

  8m* 
Z ' ( E )dE  2
 2  a dE (5)
4  h 

Put a2 = A area of circle

According to Pauli’s exclusion principle each energy level can occupy two electrons of
opposite spin

  8m* 
i.e., Z ' ( E )dE  2    AdE
4  h 2 

34 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 Number of quantum states per unit area and unit energy is

Z ' ( E )dE   8m* 

 2  2 
AdE 4  h 

  8m*    8m*  2 2
Z ' (E)    (or) Z ' ( E )    [ since h  4 ] (6)
2  h 2  2  (2 ) 2 

m*
The density of states in two dimensional is given by Z ' ( E )2 D  2
for E >= E0 (7)


Where E0 is the ground state of quantum well

m*
Z ' ( E )2 D 
 2  ( E  E )
n
n (8)

Where En are the energies of quantized states and  ( E  En ) is step function.

From equation (7), the density of states in two dimension is constant with respect to the energy.

i.e., Z ' ( E ) 2 D E 0  constant

2D 1D 0D

Z(E) Z(E) Z(E)

E E E
Density of states in quantum wire
Consider the one dimensional system, the quantum wire in which only one direction of motion
is allowed. (eg. Along x – direction).
In one dimension, such as for a quantum wire, the density of states is defined as the number of
available states per unit length per unit energy around an energy E. The electron inside the wire
are confined in a one dimensional infinite potential well with zero potential inside the wire and
infinite potential outside the wire.
At x = 0; V(x) = 0 for an electron inside the wire
At x = a; V(x) = α for an electron outside the wire
The reduced phase space now consists only the x plane and nx coordinates are shown in figure.
In one dimensional space n2 = nx2
The number of available energy states lying in an interval of length is
Z’(E)dE = n +dn –n = dn (1)
Substitute the value of dn from equation (4), we get
35 | P a g e Physics for Information science
 1 / 2
 8m*  1
Z '( E )dE   2  a E 1 / dE
2

 h  2
(2)
According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, two electrons of opposite spin can occupy each
energy state.
1/2
 8m*  1
Z '( E )dE  2   2  a E 1/2 dE
 h  2

1/2
Z '( E )dE  8m* 
Number of quantum states per unit length and unit energy is  2  E 1/2
adE  h 

1/2
 8m*   2m*1/2 
(or) Z '( E )   2 2
E 1/2 s = Z '( E )1D    E 1/2 (3)
 4  
 

1 2m*
If the electron has potential energy E0 we have Z ( E )1D  ( E  E0 ) (4)
 ( E  E0 )

From equation (4) the density of states in one dimensional system has a functional dependence
on energy Z(E)1D α E-1/2
For more than one quantized state, the one dimensional density of states is given by

1 2m*
Z ( E )1D 
  ( E  E0 )
 ( E  En ) (5)

Where En are the energies of the quantized states of the wire and  ( E  En ) is the step function.
The density of states in quasi-continum (or) quantum wire is shown in figure. The
discontinuities in the density of states are known as Van Hove Singularities
Density of states in Quantum dot
In a zero dimensional system, the density of states are truly discrete and they don’t form a quasi
continum.
In zero dimensional system (quantum dot), the electron is confined in all three spatial
dimensions and hence to motion of electron is possible. Each quantum state of a zero
dimensional system can therefore be occupied by only two electrons. So the density of states
for a quantum dot is merely a delta function.
Z ( E )0 D  2 ( E  E0 ) (6)

Here, the factor 2 accounts for spin. For more than one quantum state, the density of states is
given by Z ( E )0 D   2 ( E  E0 )
n

4. Describe the construction and working of single electron transistor.

Principle

36 | P a g e Physics for Information science

A transistor with three terminal switching device made from a quantum dot that controls the
current from source to rain one electron at a time is called single electron transistor
Construction
The single electron transistor (SET) is built like a conventional Field Emitting Transistor
(FET). It has tunnelling junctions in place of pn – junctions and quantum dot in place of the
channel region of the FET. To control tunnelling, a voltage bias to the gate electrode is applied.
A separate voltage bias is applied between source and drain electrodes for the current direction.
For current to flow, gate bias voltage must be large enough to overcome the coulomb blockade
energy.
Working
1. The purpose of SET is to individually control the tunnelling of electrons into an out of the
quantum dot. To do this, we must first stop random tunnelling by choosing the right circuit
geometry and materials. If an electron comes or goes from the dot. It will on purpose.

2. To control tunnelling, we apply a voltage bias to the gate electrode. There is also a voltage
difference between the source and the drain that indicates the direction of current. Here,
we can say that current and electron flow in the same direction and we will consider the
electrode from which the electrons originate.

37 | P a g e P h y s i c s f o r I n f o r m a t i o n s c i e n c e
 3. This is similar to the working of FET, where the gate voltage creates an electric field that
alters the conductivity of the semiconducting channel below it, enabling current to flow
from source to drain.
4. Applying a voltage to the gate in an SET creates an electric field and change the potential
energy of the dot with respect to the source and drain. This gate voltage controlled potential
difference can make electrons in the source attracted to the dot and simultaneously
electrons in the dot attracted to the drain.
5. For current to flow, this potential difference must be atleast large enough to overcome the
energy of the coulomb blockade.
The energy “E” needed to move a charge e across a potential difference V is given by E=Ve
So, the voltage that will move an electron onto or off the quantum dot is given by

Ec e2 e
V (or) V   (1)
e 2Cdot 2Cdot
e

With this voltage applied to quantum dot, an electron can tunnel through coulomb blockade of
the quantum dot.
Working for single electron transistor in nutshell
A single electron transistor is shown in figure. As opposed to the semiconductor channel in a
field effect transistor, the SET has an electrically isolated quantum dot located between the
source and drain.
1. The SET is OFF mode. The corresponding potential energy diagram shows that it is not
energetically favourable for electrons in the source to tunnel to the dot as shown in figure.
2. The SET is ON mode. At the lowest setting electrons tunnel one at a time, via the dot, from
the source to the drain as shown in figure.
3. This is made possible by first applying the proper gate voltage, Vgate = e/2Cdot, so that the
potential energy of the dot is made low enough to encourage an electron to tunnel through
the coulomb blockade energy barrier to the quantum dot.
4. Once the electron is on it, the dots potential energy rises as shown in figure
5. The electron then tunnels through the coulomb blockade on the other side to reach the
lower potential energy at the drain as shown in figure.
6. With the dot empty and the potential lower again the process repeats as shown in figure.
Advantages
1. The fast information transfer velocity between cells is carried out via electrostatic
interactions only.
2. No wire is needed between arrays. The size of each cell can be can be as small as 2.5nm.
This made them suitable for high density memory.
3. This can be used for the next generation quantum computer.
38 | P a g e Physics for Information science
 Limitations
1. In order to operate SET circuit at room temperature, the size of the quantum dot should
be smaller than 10nm
2. It is very hard to fabricate by traditional optical lithography and semiconductor
processes
3. The method must be developed for connecting the individual structures into logic
circuits and these circuits must be arranged into larger 2D patterns.
Applications
1. SET are used in sensor and digital electronic circuits
2. Variety of digital logic functions, including AND or NOR gates, is obtained based on
SET operating at room temperature.
3. It is used for mass storage
4. It is used in highly sensitive electrometer.
5. SET can be used as a temperature probe, particularly in the range of very low
temperatures.
6. SET is a suitable measurement setup for single electron spectroscopy.
7. It is used for the fabrication of homo-dyn receiver operating at frequencies between 10
and 300 MHz
5. Explain quantum cellular automata.
Introduction
The continuing down scaling of device dimensions in microelectronics technology has led to
faster devices and denser circuit with obvious benefits to chip performance. There is much
expectation that the availability of very dense device arrays might lead to a new paradigms for
information processing based on locally interconnected architectures such as cellular automata
(CA)
We focus here on the idea of employing CA architectures which are compatible with nanometer
scale quantum devices. Quantum Cellular Automata is a new nanotechnology with potential
for applying in building future computers. This technology is a realization of the circuit design
at the nano scale.
Quantum Cellular Automata technology is one of the emerging technologies that can be used
for replacing CMOS technology. It has attracted significant attention in the recent years due to
its extremely low power dissipation, high operation frequently and smaller in size.
Definition
A quantum cellular automata consists of an array of quantum device cells in a locally
interconnected architectures.
Concept
According to quantum cellular automata, logical states or values are demonistrated by the
position of electrons rather than voltage levels. By applying proper implements of this QCA

39 | P a g e Physics for Information science

technology, significant low density of 1012 devices/cm3 and very low power consumption (near
to zero) are achievable.
Thus quantum cellular automata (QCA) is an abstract model of quantum computation devised
in analogy to conventional models of cellular automata.
Advantages
1. Low power dissipation
2. High operating frequency
3. Smaller in size
4. It replaces CMOS technology.
Applications
1. It can used for designing general purpose computational circuits
2. It is used in memory circuits and other computational and sequential circuit designs.
6. Explain quantum computing for information processing.
The Quantum phenomena can be applied to Quantum Computing Quantum information
science and Quantum metrology. The Progresses of all these technologies are mutually
dependent on each other. They share the same laws of physics, Common hardware and related
works.
Quantum information science deals with the methods of the information in a quantum system.
It includes statistics of Quantum mechanics along with their limitations, it provides a core for
all other applications such as quantum Computing, networking, sensing and metrology
Quantum Communication and Networking explains the exchange of information by encoding
it in to a quantum Cryptography. It is the subset of quantum Communication in which
Quantum Properties help to design the secure communication System.
Quantum Sensing and metrology: is the Quantum systems which are used to measure
important physical Properties ( e.g. electric and magnetic fields, temperature, etc.,) . The
system has more accuracy than classical systems. Quantum Sensors are based on Qubits. They
are carried out using the experimental quantum systems.
Quantum Computing deals with the Quantum mechanical properties of Super position,
entanglement and interference to enact Computation In Common, a Quantum Computer
Consists of a collection of quantum bits (Qubits). The Qubits are isolated from the
environment for their Quantum state to perform the Computation
These Qubits are organized and manipulated to set an algorithms and to get a result. The high
Probability from the measurement of final state produces the result.
Several ways such as nuclear magnetic resonance, optical and solid state techniques and ion
traps are used to build Quantum Computers. The fundamental Concept that has been need to
handle the Quantum Computers using the above ways are given below.
(a) Harmonic oscillation Quantum Computer
In this system, discrete eigen states are represented as n x, where n = 0, 1, 2,.... ; these
represent qubits . The lifetime of Qubits depend on the Quality factor of the cavity.
A Single quantum harmonic oscillator will have a 2n energy states in Hilbert Space. But, a
classical harmonic oscillator has n energy states in the same Hilbert Space
40 | P a g e Physics for Information science
 (b) Optical Phonon Quantum Computer
In these Computers, Photon can represent a quantum bit. Photons can be made to interact with
eachother using non-linear optical media. Mirrors, Phase shifters and beam splitters are the
accessible devices for manipulating the photon states
The required Single photons can be created using attenuated laser. These photons are defected
with photo detectors. Thus a quantum Computer can be made using these optical components.
(c) Optical Cavity quantum electrodynamic Computer
In this, Coupling of Single atom to a few optical modes takes place. It is done by placing
single atom in optical cavities of very high Q.
The cavity electrodynamic system consists of Fabry Perot cavity containing a few atoms to
which the optical field is coupled. The photons in the cavity have an opportunity to interact
many times with the atoms before escaping.
The single photon can be good carrier of quantum information. They are created by attenuated
lasers and they are measured at the output wing photo multiplier.

(d) Ion trap quantum Computer

In electromagnetic traps, a number of charged atoms are isolated and trapped. Then the atoms
are cooled so that their kinetic energy is much less than their spin energy. After this, the
incident monochromatic light can selectively cause transitions between energy states of
lowest level vibrational modes of ions. These transitions can be made to perform quantum
computation. The main components of the ion trap quantum computers are the
electromagnetic trap with lasers, photo detectors of ions.

(e) Nuclear magnetic resonance computer

These computers are based on the spins of atomic nucleus. This will be nearly ideal for
quantum computation if only spin - spin coupling be large and controllable. Magnetic field
pulses are applied to spins in a strong magnetic field.
The coupling between spins of atoms can be provided by chemical between the neighbouring
atoms. The processing magnetic moment induces the output. These proposals shows that the
quantum are more suitable for information processing.
7. Explain single qubit and two qubit quantum gates.
We know that classical logic gates are the building blocks of digital circuits. Similarly, a
quantum gate is a basic quantum circuit operating with a small number of qubits and are the
building blocks of qunatum gates.
1. Quantum gates are the unitary operator which are constructed with the help of basis
vector.
2. Here the basis vector of single qubit is 0 and 1 . Similarly for two qubits are 00 ,
01 , 10 and 11 . This is obtained in 4x1 matrix by the tensor product of 0 and 1

41 | P a g e P h y s i c s f o r I n f o r m a t i o n s c i e n c e
 1 
3. one qubit qunatum state of 0 is represented by column matrixby column vector  
0
0
and 1 by   . Similarly for two qubits of 00 , 01 , 10 and 11 states as
1 
1  0 0 0
       
0 1  0 0
0 0 1  0
       
0 0 0 1 
1 0 
4. Identity matrix is I   
 0 1
5. Qunatum gate is unitary operator with U †U  I where U †  U 1 and Det U =1
6. The qunatum states satisify othronormal condition (self product is allowed)
7. Any single qubit qunatum state is represented by

     
U  ei  I cos    i ( .nˆ )sin   
 2  2 

In this equation the square bracket term represents the rotational operator about the arbitary
direction and ei is its phase.

 
Now, put     ;  
2

i      
U  e 2  I cos    i ( .nˆ )sin    (or) U  ( .nˆ )
 2  2 

Where σn is the polarization state of a qubit along any axis . Here there is only a single bit of
information (0 or 1)
SINGLE BIT QUANTUM STATES
Single bit qunatum gate can be constructed by condiering the unitary operator

U  ( .nˆ ) (or) U   x nx   y ny   z nz and

 0 1  0 -i  1 0 
if nx  (100); ny  (010); nz  (001) and  n is  x    ; y    ; z   
1 0  i 0   0 -1
(1) Pauli’s X – gate

X 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0

Then X  1 0  0 1

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Output

(i) Y 0  0 1 0  0 1  1 (ii) Y 1  1  1 0  0 1   0

0 X 1

1 X 0

Hence, X gate is also a NOT gate which transpose the components of qubit.

(ii) Pauli’s Y - gate

Y 0 1
0 0 i
1 i 0

Then Y  i 1 0  i 0 1

Output

(i) Y 0  i 0 1 0  i 0 1   i 1 (ii) Y 1  i 1  1 0  i 0 1   i 0

0 Y -i 1

1 Y i0

Hence, Y gate multiplies the input qubit by i and flip the two components of qubits.
(iii) Pauli’s Z – gate

Z 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1

Then Z  0 0  1 1

Output

(i) Z 0  0 0 0  1 1= 0 (ii) Z 1  1  0 0  1 1  =  1

0 Z 0

1 Z 1

Z-gate changes the phase (flips the sign) of a qubit

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(iv) Hadamard – gate

1 1 1 
Here H   
2 1 -1

H 0 1
1 1
0
2 2
1 1
1 
2 2
1
Then H   0 0  0 1  1 0  1 1 
2

Output
1 1
(i) H 0  0
2
 0 0  0 1  1 0  1 1 
2
 0  1 = 0
1 1
(ii) H 0  1
2
 0 0  0 1  1 0  1 1 
2
0 1
1
0 H
2
0  1
1
1 H
2
0  1
H-gate creates superposition state from pure input states.
(v) S – gate (Phase gate)

1 0
Here, S   
0 i

S 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 i

Then S  0 0  i 1 1

Output

(i) S 0  0 0 0 i 1 1= 0 (ii) Z 1  1  0 0  i 1 1  = i 1

0 S 0

1 S i1

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The S gate is also known as the phase gate, because it represents a 90-degree rotation around
the z-axis.
(vi) T – gate (Phase gate)

1 0 
Here, T    
 0 ei 4 
 

S 0 1
0 1 0

i
1 0 e4

i
Then T  0 0  e 4 1 1

Output
 
 i   i 
(i) T 0  0  0 0  e 4 1 1  = 0 (ii) T 1  1  0 0  e 4 1 1  = i 1
   

0 T 0

1
T i
e4 1


The S gate and T gate are connnected by S = T2.

TWO BITS QUANTUM STATES

Two bit qunatum states are represented by controlled unitary operator

I O 
CU   
O U
Where I and O are identity and orthogonal matrix and hence the unitary operator U can be
resolved as

 0 1 1 0  1 0 
U  X   ;U  Z    ;U  S   
1 0   0 -1 0 i 
Here extension of Pauli’s X gate lead to CNOT gate, similarly Z and S gates lead to to CZ
and SWAP gates respectively

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Here the identity matrix is obtained by the linear combination of basis states 00 ,
1  0 0  0  1 0 0 0
         
0 1  0 0 = 0 1 0 0
01 , 10 and 11 as  
0 0 1  0 0 0 1 0
         
0 0 0 1   0 0 0 1

Also, CNOT gate, is used to swap the 10 reversible

11 between third and fouth row in
identity matrix. The output after truth table is implemented is given by

Similarly, CZ gate is obtained, when two qubit quantum states involves in a phase change in
11 . As a result the four row has a phase change.The output of the truth table and
representation is given by

Further, SWAP gate is obtained by interchanging 01 swap

10 in the identitiy matrix to
get this swap gate. The output and the symbolic representation are given by

8. Write a short note on single qubit and multiple qubits.

Single Qubit
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Definition
A qubit (quantum bit) is the basic unit of information in quantum computing. A qubit uses the
quantum mechanical phenomena of superposition to achieve a linear combination of two states.
Explanation
A classical binary bit can only represent a single binary value such as either 0 or 1, i.e., it can
only be in one of two possible states.
A qubit, however, can be represented as 0, 1 or any portion of 0 and 1 in superposition of both
states, with a certain probability of being 0 and a certain probability of being 1.
Let us consider an electron in a hydrogen atom which will be in its ground state as shown in
figure or in an excited state as shown in figure.

Electrons

nucleus Excited state ()

Ground state ()

In classical system, it is assumed that excited state represent and the ground state represent.
But in quantum system, the electron will exist in a linear superposition of the ground and
excited state. i.e., it will exist in the ground state with probability amplitude  and in excited
state with probability amplitude β.
This type of two state quantum system is referred to as single qubit, and its actual state ψ can
also be any linear combination (or superposition) of these states.

i.e.,    0   1 (1)

Where  is the state of the qubit. Here, 0 and 1 are the computational basis states. The
coefficients  and β are complex numbers and are called as probability amplitudes.

If  is the probability amplitude of 0 state, then the probability of qubit being in 0 state is
2
 *   where * is the complex conjugate of 
2 2
However,     1 (2)

The quantum state ψ in equation (1) can be written as unit column vector in a two dimensional
complex plane (Hilbert space) spanned by the two basis vectors.

1 
Here, a qubit with state 0 is represented by column vector   (3)
0

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 0
A qubit with state 1 is represented by column vector   (4)
1 
Substituting (3) and (4) in (1), we get

1  0
     
0 1 

   0 
(or)       
0   

 
(or)     (5)
 
Equation (5) is the vector representing an arbitrary qubit state
Multiple Qubits
Consider a system of two qubits in a four dimensional vector space. In this Hilbert space, four
computational basis states represented as 00 , 01 , 10 and 11

The superposition of these states gives a state vector  given as linear combination of the
   00 00   01 01  10 10  11 11
basis vectors (1)
2
Where 00, 01, 10, 11 are complex coefficients, the probabilities of the four states are  00
2 2 2
,  01 , 10 and 11 .

The normalization of equation (1) is the sum of the square of the probabilities of the coefficient
in the state is 1
2 2 2 2
i.e.,  00 +  01 + 10 + 11 .= 1 (2)

Before the measurement, the state of the two qubits is uncertain. After the measurement, the
state is certain i.e., 00 , 01 , 10 and 11 . If only the first bit is observed,

The probability for the first qubit is 0

2 2
P0'   00   01 (3)

Similarly, probability for 1 is

2 2
P1'  10  11 (4)

Sum of the two probabilities is unity

Therefore, P0'  P1'  1 (5)

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Let  0' and  1' be the states after the measurement when the first qubits are 0 and 1
respectively. These states are given by

 00 00   01 01
 0'  2 2
and (6)
 00   01

10 10  11 11
 1'  2 2
(7)
10  11

Similarly, for the measurement for second qubit

The probability for second qubit to 0 and 1.
2 2
P0''   00  10 (8)
2 2
P1''   01  11 (9)

and the sum of the second probability is unity (1)

Therefore P0''  P1''  1 (10)

The corresponding states after measurements are

 00 00  10 10
 0''  2 2
and (11)
 00  10

 01 01  11 11
 1''  2 2
(12)
 01  11

1
Now, let us consider special state of two qubits system with  00  11  and  01  10  0
2
.This state is called Bell state and this pair of qubit is called EPR (Einstein, Podolsk and Rosen)
pair
1
When the two qubit system is in the Bell state, the probability of first qubit as 0 is and that
2
1
of 1 is . Therefore, after measurements, states are  0'  00
2

 00 00  10 10
 0'  2 2
 00  10

1
 00  and 10  0
2

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 1 1
00  0 10 00
Therefore,  0'  2  2
2 1
 1 
   0 2
2
 2

Therefore,  0'  00 (13)

Similarly,  1'  11 (14)

Likewise, for second qubit

 0''  00

 00 00  10 10
 0''  2 2
 00  10

1
 00  and 10  0
2

1 1
00  0 10 00
Therefore,  0''  2  2
2 1
 1 
 0
2
 2
 2

Therefore,  0''  00 (15)

Similarly,  1''  11 (16)

These are four special states called Bell states and form an orthonormal basis as

00  11
 00 
2

01  10
 01 
2

00  11
10 
2

01  10
11 
2

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 00  11
Where the first one  00  is involved in many quantum computation and quantum
2
information. The quantum state of n qubit system is specified by 2n amplitudes. So far seven
qubit quantum computer has been build.

9. Explain the difference between classical bits and qubits. Explain the process behind the
CNOT gate.
Sl.No Bits Qubits
1. The device computes by The device computes by manipulating
manipulating those bits using those bits using quantum logic gates
logic gates
2. A classical computer has a A qubits can hold a one, a zero or crucially
memory made up of bits where a superposition of these
each bit hold either a one or zero
3. Bits are used in classical Qubits are use in quantum computer
computers
4. Information is stored in bits which Information is stored in quantum bits. A
take the discrete values 0 and 1 0 1
qubit can be in state and , but it can
also be in a superposition of these states as
  0   1
. If we think a qubit as a
vector, then superposition of state is just
vector addition.
5. Processing of bits are slow Processing of qubits are faster
6. Circuit is based on classical Circuit is based on quantum mechanics
physics.

CNOT gate
Principle
CNOT gate means controlled NOT gate. It is a quantum logic gate which plays a vital role in
the designing of quantum computers. The CNOT gate will have two qubit operation, wherein
the first qubit is referred as the control qubit and the second qubit is referred as the target qubit.

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 Symbolic Representation
The Symbolic representation of CNOT gate is as shown in figure
X

y  a  b  ab  ba

Concept
A CNOT gate basically implements a reversible Ex-OR. It can be used to generate
entanglement. The CNOT gate can be logically represented as shown in figure.

a x

b y =a b

From figure, we can see that the control (x) and the target (y) are shown as two horizontal lines.
Here, we can also notice that the count ‘y’ depends on the input source ‘a’ and is shown by an
interconnecting vertical line from ‘a’ to ‘y’ and to one of the inputs of the EX-OR gate i.e., the
target input ‘b’ as shown in figure.
Logical operation
Inputs
The input a is typically called the source, and input ‘b’ is known as the target input. Here the x
depends on the input a. i.e.,
(i) If source a = 0, then control x = 0; similarly if x = 1, then control x = 1.
Thus the source is called the control input and controls the application of the NOT operation
on the target input
Outputs

The output of CNOT gate is y  a  b  ab  ba

Here y depends on the source a and target b. i.e.,

(ii) If source a =0, Then the output y = b (i.e., 0)
(iii) When the source a = 1, then the output y will have inverse value of b

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Truth table
INPUT OUTPUT
Source/Control input Target qubit Control qubit Target output
a b x y  a  b  ab  ba
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0

Case (i) When a = 0 and b = 0 or 1, then y = b

Case (ii) When a = 1 and b = 0 or 1, then y will be inverse of b
i.e., the inverted value y is controlled by the source a and hence the gate is named as Controlled
NOT gate (or) CNOT gate. Hence the inputs can be uniquely determined from outputs by
verifying the reversibility of the gate.
Matrix representation of CNOT gate:

Quantum Entanglement

From the truth table, we can see that, the target qubit is 0 and the control qubit is either 0
or 1 , then the output target y takes the value of control qubit, i.e., it becomes the copy of the
control qubit, but control qubit itself does not change.
However, a superposition in the control qubit results in the entanglement of control and target
qubits.
Thus, when two or more particles link up in a certain way, no matter how far apart they are in
space, their state remains linked. That means they share a common, united quantum state.
So observations of one of the particles can automatically provide information about the other
entangled particles, regardless of the distance between them. Any action to one of these
particles will invariably impact the other in the entangled system. This united state is known
as quantum entanglement.

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