Web Mod 1

Definition of Clickstream Analysis

Clickstream analysis is formally defined as the process of tracking and analyzing the sequence of
web pages visited by a user during a single session on a website. The term "clickstream" refers to the
path or sequence of clicks a user makes, which can be visualized as a flow from one page to another
(e.g., Homepage → Product Page → Checkout). The analysis involves collecting data on:

• Pages visited: Which specific URLs or sections of the website are accessed.

• Order of visits: The sequence in which pages are navigated.

• Time spent: Duration on each page or overall session time.

• Actions taken: Clicks, form submissions, or interactions with elements like buttons or links.

This data is typically collected using web analytics tools (e.g., Google Analytics, Adobe Analytics) that
operate at the server level or through client-side scripts. The collected data is then aggregated and
analyzed to generate reports that provide actionable insights for improving website design, user
experience, and business performance.

Levels of Clickstream Analysis

Clickstream analysis can be categorized into two primary levels, each serving distinct purposes:

1. Traffic Analytics

Traffic analytics focuses on server-level data to monitor the technical performance and user
navigation patterns on a website. It tracks metrics such as:

• Number of pages served: How many pages are loaded for a user during a session.

• Page load time: The time taken for each page to fully render in the user’s browser.

• User interactions with browser controls: Frequency of actions like pressing the Back button,
Stop button, or refreshing the page.

• Data transmitted: The amount of data (e.g., images, scripts) sent to the user before they
navigate away.

Example: If a user visits an e-commerce website and navigates from the homepage to a product page
but presses the Back button due to slow loading, traffic analytics will record the page views, load
time, and the Back button action. This helps developers identify performance bottlenecks, such as
slow-loading pages.

2. E-commerce Analytics

E-commerce analytics uses clickstream data to evaluate the effectiveness of a website in driving
conversions or transactions. It focuses on business-oriented metrics, such as:

• Conversion rates: Percentage of users who complete a desired action (e.g., purchasing a
product, signing up for a newsletter).

• Funnel analysis: Identifying where users drop off in the conversion process (e.g., abandoning
a shopping cart).
 • Revenue impact: Linking user paths to sales or revenue generated.

Example: An e-commerce site like Amazon uses e-commerce analytics to track a user’s clickstream
from a product search to adding an item to the cart and completing the checkout. If many users
abandon the cart, the analysis can pinpoint issues like complex checkout processes or unexpected
shipping costs.

Applications of Clickstream Analysis

Clickstream analysis has a wide range of applications, particularly in optimizing websites, improving
user experience, and driving business growth. Below are the key applications, with examples to
illustrate their practical use:

1. Identify Customer Trends

Clickstream analysis helps businesses identify emerging patterns in user behavior. By analyzing the
paths users take, companies can understand preferences, popular products, or trending content.

• Example: A fashion retailer notices that many users navigate from the homepage to the
“Summer Dresses” category. This trend indicates high demand, prompting the retailer to
promote summer dresses more prominently.

• Benefit: Enables data-driven decisions to align website content with user interests.

2. Discover New Mediums

Clickstream data reveals how users arrive at a website (e.g., via search engines, social media, or ads)
and their navigation patterns. This helps businesses identify effective marketing channels or new
platforms to target.

• Example: A blog site finds that many users arrive from Instagram links and spend time on
specific articles. The site can then invest more in Instagram campaigns to drive traffic.

• Benefit: Optimizes marketing budgets by focusing on high-performing channels.

3. Increase Conversion Rates

By analyzing clickstreams, businesses can identify barriers to conversion and optimize the user
journey to improve transaction completion rates.

• Example: An online bookstore observes that users frequently abandon their carts at the
payment page. Clickstream analysis reveals that a mandatory account creation step is
causing drop-offs. Simplifying the checkout process (e.g., offering guest checkout) increases
conversions.

• Benefit: Directly impacts revenue by reducing drop-off rates.

4. Understand User Behavior

Clickstream analysis provides deep insights into how users interact with a website, including their
preferences, pain points, and navigation habits. This helps tailor the website to meet user needs.

• Example: A news website finds that users often visit the homepage, then sports articles, but
rarely click on opinion pieces. The site can rearrange its layout to make sports content more
accessible while promoting opinion pieces strategically.
 • Benefit: Enhances user satisfaction and engagement by aligning the website with user
expectations.

5. Optimize Website Design and Navigation

Clickstream data highlights popular and unpopular pages, allowing designers to improve navigation,
layout, and content placement.

• Example: A travel booking site notices that users struggle to find the “Flight Deals” page,
leading to low clicks. By adding a prominent link to the homepage, the site improves
navigation and increases deal bookings.

• Benefit: Creates a seamless user experience, reducing bounce rates.

6. Personalize User Experience

By analyzing clickstreams, businesses can personalize content or recommendations based on user

behavior, increasing engagement and loyalty.

• Example: Netflix uses clickstream data to track which shows a user watches and suggests
similar content, improving user retention.

• Benefit: Enhances user satisfaction and encourages repeat visits.

Benefits of Clickstream Analysis

The benefits of clickstream analysis align with the syllabus goal of measuring website success. These
include:

1. Data-Driven Decision Making: Provides actionable insights to optimize marketing, design,

and content strategies.

2. Improved User Experience: Identifies navigation issues and tailors the website to user needs.

3. Increased Revenue: Boosts conversions and sales by addressing drop-off points.

4. Competitive Advantage: Helps businesses stay ahead by understanding user trends and
preferences.

5. Cost Efficiency: Optimizes marketing spend by focusing on effective channels and campaigns.
Web analytics is a cornerstone of Web Analytics 2.0, as outlined in the Web X.O syllabus, enabling
businesses to measure, analyze, and optimize website performance. The web analytics process
involves a systematic approach to collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data about user interactions
on a website to improve user experience, increase conversions, and achieve business goals. This
process is closely tied to clickstream analysis, which tracks the sequence of pages a user visits (the
clickstream), providing insights into user behavior and website effectiveness. By following a
structured process, businesses can make data-driven decisions to enhance their online presence,
aligning with the syllabus objective of measuring the success of a website.

The web analytics process consists of several key steps that transform raw data into actionable
insights. These steps ensure that businesses can understand user trends, identify bottlenecks, and
optimize their websites effectively. Below, we explore the steps involved in the web analytics process
in detail, with examples to illustrate their application.

Steps Involved in Web Analytics Process

The web analytics process typically includes the following steps, each playing a critical role in
understanding and improving website performance:

1. Define Goals and Objectives

The first step is to establish clear goals and objectives for the website, which guide the analytics
process. These goals should align with the business’s overall strategy, such as increasing sales,
improving user engagement, or generating leads. Specific metrics, known as Key Performance
Indicators (KPIs), are defined to measure success.

• Example: An e-commerce website like Flipkart might set a goal to increase product sales by
10% within a quarter. Relevant KPIs could include conversion rate (percentage of visitors who
make a purchase), average order value, and cart abandonment rate.

• Importance: Clear goals ensure that the data collected is relevant and focused on achieving
business outcomes.

2. Identify Data Sources and Metrics

Once goals are defined, the next step is to identify the data sources and metrics needed to track
user interactions. Data sources include web server logs, analytics tools (e.g., Google Analytics), and
clickstream data. Metrics are chosen based on the KPIs and may include page views, unique visitors,
time on site, bounce rate, and clickstream paths.

• Example: For Flipkart, clickstream data can reveal the path users take from the homepage to
the checkout page. Metrics like page load time (from traffic analytics) and conversion rate
(from e-commerce analytics) are tracked using Google Analytics.

• Importance: Selecting the right data sources and metrics ensures comprehensive and
accurate data collection.

3. Collect Data

The third step involves collecting data from the identified sources using web analytics tools. This
includes capturing clickstream data (e.g., pages visited, navigation order), user demographics,
referral sources (e.g., search engines, social media), and interaction data (e.g., clicks, form
submissions). Tools like Google Analytics, Adobe Analytics, or custom scripts are used to gather this
data at the server or client level.
 • Example: A news website collects data on how often users click the “Back” button or
abandon articles after a few seconds. This data, combined with clickstream paths (e.g.,
Homepage → Sports → Article), helps identify unpopular content.

• Importance: Accurate and consistent data collection forms the foundation for meaningful
analysis.

4. Process and Analyze Data

After collecting data, the next step is to process and analyze it to uncover patterns, trends, and
insights. This involves cleaning the data (e.g., removing duplicates or errors), aggregating it, and using
analytical techniques like segmentation, funnel analysis, or clickstream analysis to interpret user
behavior.

• Example: An online bookstore analyzes clickstream data to find that many users drop off at
the payment page. Funnel analysis reveals that a complex checkout process is causing
abandonment, prompting a redesign to simplify the flow.

• Importance: Analysis transforms raw data into actionable insights, such as identifying
navigation issues or popular pages.

5. Report Findings

The fifth step is to create reports that summarize the findings in a clear and visual format. Reports
typically include graphs, charts, and dashboards to present KPIs, trends, and user behavior insights to
stakeholders. These reports help communicate the effectiveness of the website and highlight areas
for improvement.

• Example: A travel booking site generates a report showing that 60% of users abandon the
booking process at the payment stage. A chart illustrates the clickstream path, highlighting
the drop-off point, and recommends adding a guest checkout option.

• Importance: Reports make complex data accessible to non-technical stakeholders, facilitating

decision-making.

6. Optimize and Implement Changes

The final step is to optimize the website based on the insights gained from the analysis and reports.
This involves implementing changes to improve user experience, increase conversions, or enhance
performance. The impact of these changes is then monitored through further analytics cycles.

• Example: Based on the bookstore’s analysis, the website introduces a one-click checkout
option, reducing cart abandonment. Subsequent analytics show a 15% increase in conversion
rates, validating the change.

• Importance: Optimization ensures that insights are translated into tangible improvements,
driving business success.

Role of Clickstream Analysis in Web Analytics

As highlighted in the provided theory, clickstream analysis is integral to the web analytics process,
particularly in the data collection and analysis steps. By tracking the clickstream (the path a user
takes through a website), businesses can:
 • Understand user behavior: Identify which pages are most visited and the sequence of
navigation.

• Measure website effectiveness: Use traffic analytics to monitor page load times and user
interactions (e.g., Back button usage) and e-commerce analytics to assess conversion rates.

• Identify trends and bottlenecks: For instance, frequent use of the Stop button may indicate
slow-loading pages, prompting performance optimizations.

Example: A fashion retailer uses clickstream analysis to discover that users often navigate from the
homepage to the “Sale” section but rarely proceed to checkout. This insight leads to a redesign of
the checkout page, resulting in higher sales.

Benefits of the Web Analytics Process

The web analytics process offers several benefits, aligning with the syllabus goal of measuring
website success:

1. Data-Driven Decisions: Provides insights to optimize marketing and design strategies.

2. Improved User Experience: Identifies navigation issues and tailors the website to user needs.

3. Increased Conversions: Addresses drop-off points to boost sales or sign-ups.

4. Competitive Advantage: Helps businesses stay ahead by understanding user trends.

TypeScript
S.
JavaScript (JS) TypeScript (TS)
No.

1 It is a scripting language. It is a superset of JavaScript.

No static typing – variables can hold Supports static typing – you must define variable
2
any type. types.

Errors caught at compile time, before running the

3 Errors found at runtime.
code.

4 Loosely typed, easy to make mistakes. Strongly typed, helps avoid mistakes early.

Does not support interfaces or Supports interfaces, generics, and enums for better
5
generics. structure.

6 Shorter and simpler code. Slightly more code due to type annotations.

7 Used mainly for frontend development. Used for frontend and large-scale backend apps.

8 No compilation step needed. Needs to be compiled (transpiled) to JavaScript.

9 Ideal for small to medium projects. Better for large, complex applications.

10 Supported in all browsers directly. Needs to be compiled to JS to run in browsers.

11 Easier to learn for beginners. Slightly harder due to strict rules and syntax.

Limited support for modern OOP

12 Supports full object-oriented programming (OOP).
features.

13 Maintained by many developers. Developed and maintained by Microsoft.

TypeScript Arrow Function (Lambda Function)

ES6 version of TypeScript provides an arrow function which is the shorthand syntax for defining the
anonymous function, i.e., for function expressions.

It omits the function keyword. We can call it fat arrow (because -> is a thin arrow and => is a "fat"
arrow). It is also called a Lambda function.

The arrow function has lexical scoping of "this" keyword.

The motivation for arrow function is:

1. When we don't need to keep typing function.

2. It lexically captures the meaning of this keyword.

3. It lexically captures the meaning of arguments.

Syntax We can split the syntax of an Arrow function into three parts :

Parameters: A function may or may not have parameters.

The arrow notation/lambda notation (=>).

Statements: It represents the function's instruction set. (parameter1, parameter2, ..., parameterN)
=> expression; If we use the fat arrow (=>) notation, there is no need to use the function keyword.
Parameters are passed in the brackets (), and the function expression is enclosed within the curly
brackets {}.

Arrow function with Parameter

The following program is an example of arrow function with parameters.

let sum = (x: number, y: number): number => {

return x + y;

console.log(sum(10, 20)); //returns 30

In the above example, sum is an arrow function.

(x:number, y:number) denotes the parameter types, :number specifies the return type.

The fat arrow => separates the function parameters and the function body. T

he right side of => can contain one or more code statements.

Arrow function without a parameter

The following program is an example of arrow function without parameters.

let Print = () =>console.log("Hello TypeScript");

Print(); //Output: Hello TypeScript

In the arrow function, if the function body consists of only one statement, then there is no need of
the curly brackets and the return keyword.

We can understand it from the below example.

let sum = (x: number, y: number) => x + y;

console.log(sum(3, 4)); //returns 7

What are Modules in TypeScript?

A module in TypeScript is a file or logical unit that encapsulates related code (e.g., variables,
functions, classes) and controls its visibility using export and import. Unlike global scope, where
variables are accessible everywhere, modules operate in a local scope, meaning their contents are
private unless explicitly exported. This modularity improves code organization, reusability, and
maintainability, especially in large applications with hundreds of files.

Modules rely on a module loader to locate and execute dependencies before running the module’s
code. Common loaders include:

• CommonJS: Used in Node.js (e.g., require/module.exports).

• AMD: Used in web applications via require.js.

• ES Modules: The modern standard (e.g., import/export), supported by browsers and Node.js.

TypeScript supports two types of modules:

1. Internal Modules (now namespaces): Used in earlier TypeScript versions for logical grouping.

2. External Modules (ES Modules): The modern standard, treating each file as a module.

Types of Modules

1. Internal Modules (Namespaces)

Internal modules, used in pre-ECMAScript 2015 TypeScript, group related code into a single unit
using the module keyword. Since ECMAScript 2015, they are called namespaces and use the
namespace keyword. Namespaces are now less common but supported for legacy code or specific
use cases (e.g., organizing utility functions). They allow exporting members to other modules or files.

Syntax (Internal Module/Namespace):

namespace Sum {

export function add(a: number, b: number): number {

return a + b;

Usage:

Sum.add(5, 3); // Output: 8

Explanation:

• The namespace Sum groups the add function.

• The export keyword makes add accessible outside the namespace.

• This is equivalent to the older module Sum syntax shown in the provided theory.
 • Namespaces are useful for small projects or when ES Modules are not needed.

2. External Modules (ES Modules)

External modules, also known as modules, are the modern standard in TypeScript and ECMAScript
2015 (ES6). Each TypeScript file is treated as a module by default, and developers use export to share
code and import to access it from other files. External modules are essential for large-scale
applications, as they manage dependencies across multiple files, ensuring scalability and
maintainability.

Example (External Module): Create two files to demonstrate external modules.

File: math.ts

export function add(a: number, b: number): number {

return a + b;

export function subtract(a: number, b: number): number {

return a - b;

export const PI: number = 3.14;

File: main.ts

import { add, subtract, PI } from './math';

console.log(add(10, 5)); // Output: 15

console.log(subtract(10, 5)); // Output: 5

console.log(`Value of PI: ${PI}`); // Output: Value of PI: 3.14

Explanation:

• math.ts: Exports two functions (add, subtract) and a constant (PI) using the export keyword.

• main.ts: Imports the exported members using the import keyword, specifying the file path
(./math).

• Type Safety: TypeScript ensures that add and subtract receive number parameters, catching
errors at compile time.

• Module Loader: At runtime, a loader (e.g., ES Modules in browsers or CommonJS in Node.js)

resolves the dependency (math.ts) before executing main.ts.

Benefits of Modules
Modules in TypeScript offer several advantages, aligning with the syllabus’s focus on code
organization:

1. Encapsulation: Local scope prevents global namespace pollution, reducing naming conflicts.

2. Reusability: Exported code can be reused across multiple files or projects.

3. Maintainability: Modular code is easier to update and debug, especially in large applications.

4. Scalability: External modules support complex applications with hundreds of files, as noted
in the theory.

5. Type Safety: TypeScript’s type checking ensures correct usage of imported members.
What is Inheritance?

Inheritance is a mechanism in OOP that enables a class to inherit members (fields, methods, and
properties) from another class. The base class provides reusable code, while the derived class can
extend or modify it by adding new members or overriding existing ones. In TypeScript, inheritance is
implemented using the extends keyword, and the super keyword initializes the parent class’s
constructor or calls its methods.

Key Features:

• Code Reusability: Derived classes reuse parent class members, reducing redundancy.

• Method Overriding: Derived classes can redefine parent class methods for customized
behavior.

• Type Safety: TypeScript ensures type consistency in inherited members, catching errors at
compile time.

Benefits of Inheritance

1. Code Reusability: The Car class reuses brand and stop from Vehicle, reducing code
duplication.

2. Polymorphism: Method overriding (e.g., start) allows customized behavior for derived
classes.

3. Maintainability: Changes to the base class (e.g., adding a new method) automatically apply
to derived classes.

4. Scalability: Inheritance supports hierarchical designs, ideal for complex applications like
Angular components.

What is Multilevel Inheritance?

Multilevel inheritance occurs when a derived class inherits from another derived class, creating a
chain of inheritance with multiple levels. In this hierarchy:

• The base class (top level) provides foundational properties and methods.

• An intermediate derived class inherits from the base class, adding or modifying members.

• A final derived class inherits from the intermediate class, further extending the functionality.

In TypeScript, multilevel inheritance is implemented using the extends keyword at each level, and the
super keyword ensures proper initialization of parent class properties. TypeScript supports multilevel
inheritance but not multiple inheritance (a class cannot inherit from multiple base classes).

Key Features:

• Hierarchical Structure: Each class builds on the previous one, like a family tree.

• Code Reusability: Lower-level classes reuse code from all parent classes.
 • Type Safety: TypeScript ensures type consistency across the inheritance chain.

Benefits of Multilevel Inheritance

1. Code Reusability: ElectricCar reuses move and refuel from its parents, reducing code
duplication.

2. Hierarchical Organization: The chain (Vehicle → Car → ElectricCar) mirrors real-world

relationships, improving code clarity.

3. Extensibility: Each level adds specific features (e.g., charge for electric cars) without
modifying parent classes.

4. Maintainability: Changes to Vehicle (e.g., adding a speed property) propagate to all derived
classes.
What is Single Inheritance?

Single inheritance is a type of inheritance where a derived class inherits properties and behaviors
from a single base class. This creates a direct parent-child relationship, allowing the derived class to:

• Reuse the base class’s fields, methods, and properties.

• Add new members (fields or methods) specific to the derived class.

• Override base class methods to customize behavior.

In TypeScript, single inheritance is implemented using the extends keyword to specify the parent
class. The super keyword is used in the derived class’s constructor to initialize the parent class’s
properties or call its methods. TypeScript supports only single and multilevel inheritance, not
multiple or hybrid inheritance, ensuring simplicity and type safety.

Key Features:

• Code Reusability: The derived class inherits existing code, reducing duplication.

• Polymorphism: Method overriding allows the derived class to provide specialized

implementations.

• Type Safety: TypeScript enforces type consistency for inherited members, catching errors at
compile time.

Benefits of Single Inheritance

1. Code Reusability: Rectangle reuses color and getDescription from Shape, avoiding redundant
code.

2. Polymorphism: Method overriding (e.g., draw) allows customized behavior for derived
classes.
3. Simplicity: Single inheritance keeps the class hierarchy straightforward, avoiding complexity
of multiple inheritance.

4. Maintainability: Changes to the base class (e.g., adding a border property) automatically
apply to derived classes.

5. Extensibility: The derived class can add new features (e.g., calculateArea) without modifying
the base class.
Q3A (10 marks): Illustrate the use of expressions in AngularJS with suitable example.

AngularJS is a front-end framework that allows you to create dynamic, single-page web applications.
One of the most powerful features in AngularJS is the use of expressions. These expressions allow
you to bind data from your application (also called the model) to your HTML (also called the view) in
a smooth and dynamic way.

1. AngularJS Expressions Are Like JavaScript Expressions but Simpler and Safer

AngularJS expressions are very similar to JavaScript expressions, but they are used in the HTML view
to display dynamic data. You write them inside double curly braces {{ expression }}. AngularJS will
evaluate the expression and replace it with the result.

For example, {{2 + 2}} will be evaluated as 4, and it will automatically appear in the browser.

However, AngularJS expressions are safer than JavaScript because they do not allow loops, conditions
(if, else), functions, or complex statements. This makes Angular expressions easy to use and prevents
misuse in the HTML.

2. AngularJS Automatically Updates Expressions When Data Changes (Real-Time Binding)

One of the biggest advantages of AngularJS expressions is that they are automatically updated
whenever the underlying data model changes. You do not need to refresh the page or write extra
code. Angular takes care of this using its internal data binding system.

For example, if a value {{username}} is used in the HTML and the username changes due to user
input or calculation, the new value is immediately shown on the web page without refreshing.

This real-time data binding makes AngularJS perfect for building responsive web apps where data
changes frequently.

3. Expressions Work with Variables, Arrays, Objects, and Different Data Types

AngularJS expressions can be used with all basic data types such as numbers, strings, booleans,
decimals, arrays, and objects. You can also use simple operators like +, -, *, / inside expressions.

To use variables in expressions, you can define them using the ng-init directive in the HTML.

Example:

html

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<div ng-app ng-init="name='Rahul'; marks=[90, 80, 70]; student={first:'John', last:'Doe'}">

Hello {{name}} <br>

Second Mark: {{marks[1]}} <br>

Full Name: {{student.first + " " + student.last}}

</div>

Output:

sql

CopyEdit

Hello Rahul

Second Mark: 80

Full Name: John Doe

This shows that AngularJS can access array elements, object properties, and concatenate strings —
all inside the curly braces.

4. AngularJS Expressions Can Perform Mathematical and String Operations

AngularJS expressions support arithmetic operations and string concatenation, just like in JavaScript.

Example of arithmetic operations:

html

CopyEdit

<div ng-app>

10 + 20 = {{10 + 20}} <br>

100 / 4 = {{100 / 4}} <br>

5 * 5 = {{5 * 5}}

</div>

Output:

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10 + 20 = 30

100 / 4 = 25

5 * 5 = 25

Example of string operations:

html

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<div ng-app>

Welcome Message: {{"Hello " + "World"}} <br>

Type Conversion: {{true + false}} <br>

 Decimal Addition: {{10.2 + 5.3}}

</div>

Output:

pgsql

CopyEdit

Welcome Message: Hello World

Type Conversion: 1

Decimal Addition: 15.5

AngularJS automatically converts data types where necessary. For example, true + false becomes 1 +
0 = 1.

5. Limitations of AngularJS Expressions Compared to JavaScript

Even though AngularJS expressions are powerful, they are restricted for security and simplicity. The
following features are not allowed in AngularJS expressions:

• You cannot use if, else, for, or while loops.

• You cannot define functions.

• You cannot use the return keyword or the void operator.

• You cannot use commas in expressions.

• You cannot execute multiple statements.

This limitation makes AngularJS expressions easier to read and debug, and also prevents misuse of
logic inside the HTML page.
Route

In AngularJS, directives like ng-route, ng-repeat, ng-style, and ng-view are very powerful and are
used to build single-page dynamic applications. These directives help in navigation, repetition,
styling, and displaying dynamic views without refreshing the page.

Let’s understand each of them one by one with simple examples.

1. Routing using ng-Route and ng-view

AngularJS supports Single Page Applications (SPA) using routing. The ngRoute module allows us to
switch between different views (HTML templates) based on the URL, without reloading the entire
page.

Key Concepts:

• ng-view: Placeholder where the routed template will be displayed.

• ngRoute: Module that must be included for routing to work.

• $routeProvider: Used to define routes and their corresponding templates.

Routing Example:

html

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<!DOCTYPE html>

<html ng-app="myApp">

<head>

<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/angularjs/1.6.9/angular.min.js"></script>

<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/angularjs/1.6.9/angular-route.js"></script>

<script>

var app = angular.module("myApp", ["ngRoute"]);

app.config(function($routeProvider) {

$routeProvider

.when("/home", {

template: "<h2>Welcome to Home Page</h2>"

})

.when("/about", {

template: "<h2>About Us Section</h2>"

})
 .otherwise({

redirectTo: "/home"

});

});

</script>

</head>

<body>

<a href="#!/home">Home</a> |

<a href="#!/about">About</a>

<div ng-view></div>

</body>

</html>

Explanation:

• ng-app="myApp": Defines the AngularJS app.

• ng-view: Acts like a container where different HTML fragments load based on the URL.

• #/home, #/about: When clicked, the content is dynamically loaded without reloading the
page.

2. Repeating Elements using ng-Repeat

The ng-repeat directive in AngularJS is used to repeat a set of HTML elements for each item in an
array or object.

Example of ng-repeat:

html

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<!DOCTYPE html>

<html ng-app>

<head>

<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/angularjs/1.6.9/angular.min.js"></script>

</head>

<body>
<div ng-init="students=['John','Alice','Ravi','Sneha']">

<h3>Student List:</h3>

<ul>

<li ng-repeat="name in students">

{{ $index + 1 }}. {{ name }}

</li>

</ul>

</div>

</body>

</html>

Output:

markdown

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Student List:

1. John

2. Alice

3. Ravi

4. Sneha

Explanation:

• ng-init initializes the array.

• ng-repeat="name in students" loops through each name in the array and displays it.

• $index gives the current loop index (starts from 0).

3. Dynamic Styling using ng-Style

The ng-style directive is used to apply inline CSS styles dynamically based on data or conditions.

Example of ng-style:

html

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<!DOCTYPE html>

<html ng-app>

<head>
<script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/angularjs/1.6.9/angular.min.js"></script>

</head>

<body>

<div ng-init="score=75">

<h3 ng-style="{'color': score >= 50 ? 'green' : 'red'}">

Your Score: {{score}}

</h3>

</div>

</body>

</html>

Output:

Text will appear in green color because the score is greater than 50.

Explanation:

• ng-style is used to apply conditional styles.

• If score is more than or equal to 50, the text becomes green, otherwise red.

4. ng-view Summary with Routing

The ng-view directive is always used along with ngRoute. It serves as the placeholder for templates
defined by the routing configuration. When the route changes, the corresponding template is
rendered inside the ng-view.

Let’s summarize how routing and view work together:

Directive Purpose

ng-route Enables routing in AngularJS

ng-view Container for dynamically loaded views

$routeProvider Defines different paths and templates to load

template: Defines the HTML content shown for a specific route

Conclusion

AngularJS directives like ng-route, ng-view, ng-repeat, and ng-style are very important for building
interactive, dynamic, and user-friendly applications.

• ng-route helps in building SPAs with multiple views.

 • ng-view is used to display templates as per route.

• ng-repeat is used to display arrays and objects repeatedly.

• ng-style helps in applying conditional CSS styles dynamically.

By using these directives, AngularJS helps developers write less code and build better applications
with clean separation of logic, UI, and data.
Q1b: Explain AngularJS Controller (5 Marks)

Introduction to AngularJS Controller

1. In AngularJS, controllers are the heart of the application's logic. An AngularJS application
mainly relies on controllers to control the flow of data between the HTML (view) and
JavaScript (model). They act like a bridge between what the user sees and how the data
behaves. Controllers are defined in JavaScript and used in HTML via the ng-controller
directive.

2. A controller is a JavaScript function that defines a scope object ($scope). This $scope object
is used to bind the data and functions to the view (HTML). In simple terms, $scope is the glue
between the controller and the HTML. It allows data binding so that any changes made in the
view are reflected in the model and vice versa.

How to Use AngularJS Controller

To define a controller in AngularJS, we follow these steps:

• Use the ng-controller directive in HTML to assign a controller to a specific part of the page.

• Define the controller as a JavaScript function with $scope as a parameter.

• Add properties and methods to $scope, which can then be used in the HTML.

Example of Declaring a Controller

html

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<div ng-app="" ng-controller="studentController">

...

</div>

In this example, we are declaring a controller named studentController using the ng-controller
directive. It tells AngularJS to use the logic of studentController for this <div> section.

JavaScript: Defining the Controller

html

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<script>

function studentController($scope) {

$scope.student = {
 firstName: "Sachin",

lastName: "Shah",

fullName: function() {

var studentObject;

studentObject = $scope.student;

return studentObject.firstName + " " + studentObject.lastName;

};

</script>

Here’s what happens in this code:

• The studentController is a JavaScript function.

• It accepts $scope as an argument, which AngularJS automatically provides.

• We define a student object inside $scope.

• The student object has two properties: firstName and lastName.

• It also has a function fullName() that returns the combined full name.

This student object becomes available to the HTML that uses this controller.

Binding the Controller to the View

We can now use the student object from the controller in the HTML using AngularJS expressions and
ng-model.

html

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Enter first name: <input type="text" ng-model="student.firstName"><br>

Enter last name: <input type="text" ng-model="student.lastName"><br><br>

You are entering: {{student.fullName()}}

• ng-model is used to bind input fields with student.firstName and student.lastName.

• {{student.fullName()}} displays the full name dynamically.

• Any change in the input fields immediately updates the output because of AngularJS two-
way data binding.
 Two-Way Data Binding with Controller

AngularJS controllers provide the feature of two-way data binding. This means that:

• When a user types in the input field (view), the value in the $scope variable (model) updates
automatically.

• Similarly, if the variable in the controller changes, the view updates automatically.

This makes AngularJS very interactive and responsive without needing to reload the page.
Q3b) Explain AngularJS Filters with Example (10 Marks)

Introduction to AngularJS Filters:

AngularJS filters are used to format data before displaying it to the user, without changing the
original data. Filters are typically used in templates, expressions, or directives using the pipe (|)
symbol.

Syntax of Filter:

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{{ expression | filterName:parameter }}

AngularJS provides several built-in filters to work with numbers, strings, arrays, objects, and dates.

Types of AngularJS Filters (with examples):

1. Number Filter

The number filter formats numerical values by adding commas and specifying decimal places.

Syntax:

nginx

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{{ number_expression | number:fractionSize }}

Example:

html

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100000 | number = {{ 100000 | number }}

amount | number:2 = {{ amount | number:2 }}

Output:

java

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100,000

100,000.00 (if amount = 100000)

2. Currency Filter
The currency filter converts a number into currency format. By default, it uses the system's locale
currency symbol. You can also specify custom symbols and decimal places.

Syntax:

nginx

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{{ expression | currency:'symbol':fractionSize }}

Example:

html

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{{ person.salary | currency:'Rs.':0 }}

Output:

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Rs.100,000

3. Date Filter

This filter formats date values into different readable formats like full date, short date, or custom
formats like year, month, etc.

Syntax:

bash

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{{ date_expression | date:'format' }}

Example:

html

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{{ person.DOB | date:'longDate' }}

{{ person.DOB | date:'yyyy' }}

Output:

yaml

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May 2, 1977

1977
4. Uppercase / Lowercase Filter

These filters are used to convert text to uppercase or lowercase.

Syntax:

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{{ expression | uppercase }}

{{ expression | lowercase }}

Example:

html

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{{ person.firstName + ' ' + person.lastName | lowercase }}

{{ person.firstName + ' ' + person.lastName | uppercase }}

Output:

nginx

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sachin shah

SACHIN SHAH

5. Filter (Search)

The filter filter is used to search and filter data in an array based on a condition or keyword.

Syntax:

php

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{{ array | filter:criteria }}

Example:

html

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<input type="text" ng-model="searchCriteria">

{{ myArr | filter:searchCriteria }}

If the array contains: ['Sachin', 'Altab', 'Ram']

And you type "Ram", it will return ['Ram'].
6. orderBy Filter

This filter is used to sort an array by a specific property, either in ascending or descending order.

Syntax:

lua

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{{ array | orderBy:'predicate':reverse }}

Example:

html

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<select ng-model="SortOrder">

<option value="+name">Name (A-Z)</option>

<option value="-name">Name (Z-A)</option>

</select>

<ul ng-repeat="person in persons | orderBy:SortOrder">

<li>{{ person.name }} - {{ person.phone }}</li>

</ul>

If SortOrder is set to +name, it will display the names alphabetically.

Q1d: Explain Features of MongoDB (10 Marks)

MongoDB is a NoSQL, document-oriented database that stores data in a flexible, JSON-like format.
Unlike traditional relational databases, MongoDB allows developers to handle large volumes of
unstructured data with high performance and flexibility. Below are the key features of MongoDB
explained in detail:

1. Support for Ad-hoc Queries

One of the strongest features of MongoDB is its ability to handle ad-hoc queries. This means you can
perform field-specific searches, range queries, and even use regular expressions to filter and fetch
data dynamically based on real-time needs. This makes MongoDB very powerful for analytics and
reporting, as you don’t need predefined queries — you can write custom queries on the fly.

For example, you can filter records where age is greater than 25 and less than 40, or find all users
whose email contains “gmail.com”.

2. Efficient Indexing

MongoDB allows the creation of indexes on any field in a document. Indexing is extremely important
to optimize query performance. MongoDB supports single field indexes, compound indexes,
hashed indexes, and even text indexes for full-text search.

Without indexing, MongoDB would have to scan every document in a collection to match a query,
which would be slow for large datasets. With proper indexing, queries run faster and more
efficiently.

3. Replication for High Availability

MongoDB supports replication to improve data availability and fault tolerance. A MongoDB replica
set consists of a primary node and one or more secondary nodes. The primary node handles all
write operations and replicates the data to the secondaries in real time.

If the primary node fails, automatic failover takes place, and one of the secondary nodes becomes
the new primary. This ensures that the application continues to run without any disruption or data
loss.

4. Sharding for Horizontal Scalability

When databases grow beyond the capacity of a single server, MongoDB supports sharding, which is a
method of distributing data across multiple machines.

Each shard in a MongoDB cluster holds a portion of the data, making the system horizontally
scalable. This enables MongoDB to handle massive volumes of data and high throughput operations
efficiently.
5. Load Balancing

MongoDB supports automatic load balancing by spreading data across multiple servers using
replication and sharding. This ensures that no single server is overwhelmed with too many requests,
improving the performance and reliability of the database.

This makes MongoDB suitable for high-traffic applications like e-commerce websites, online gaming,
social media platforms, etc.

6. High Scalability

MongoDB is highly scalable, making it ideal for applications with fast-growing datasets. Organizations
can run clusters with hundreds of nodes and store millions of records without any performance
issues.

Its architecture supports both vertical scaling (adding more power to existing machines) and
horizontal scaling (adding more machines to the cluster).

7. Aggregation Framework

MongoDB has a powerful Aggregation Framework that acts like an ETL (Extract, Transform, Load)
tool. It allows developers to process data and return computed results using pipelines and operators.

Instead of writing complex code or using external tools for data transformation, MongoDB provides
built-in aggregation methods such as $group, $sum, $avg, $sort, and $match.

8. Security Features

Security is a core concern in MongoDB. It supports both:

• Authentication – verifying user identity using usernames, passwords, or external services.

• Authorization – determining what actions a user is allowed to perform using role-based

access control (RBAC).

In addition, MongoDB supports encryption at rest, TLS/SSL for encrypted connections, and auditing
to monitor access and changes to data.

9. JSON Format for Documents

MongoDB stores data in a format called BSON (Binary JSON), which is similar to JSON but allows
more data types. JSON is widely used in web development and APIs, so developers find it easier to
work with MongoDB because it natively supports JSON-like documents.

This also simplifies data exchange between the frontend and backend, making MongoDB very
suitable for modern web applications.
10. MapReduce Support

MongoDB supports MapReduce, which is a powerful feature used to perform batch processing and
data analysis on large volumes of data. It’s useful for building custom data pipelines and performing
operations such as summing, counting, and grouping records.

While the aggregation framework is more commonly used today, MapReduce is still available for
complex tasks that need more control and customization.
Q2 (10 Marks): Explain Accessing and Manipulating Databases Commands in MongoDB

MongoDB is a NoSQL database that stores data in the form of documents using collections instead
of traditional rows and columns like relational databases. Accessing and manipulating databases in
MongoDB is easy and efficient through a rich set of commands and methods that work in the
MongoDB shell or drivers like Python, Node.js, etc.

In this answer, we will go through various important commands used to access and manipulate
databases in MongoDB with explanations and examples.

1. Accessing Databases in MongoDB

To begin working with MongoDB, we first need to list, create, and switch between databases.

a) show dbs

This command displays all the databases present in the MongoDB server.

js

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show dbs

Example Output:

pgsql

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admin 0.000GB

local 0.000GB

students 0.002GB

b) use <database_name>

This command is used to switch to a specific database. If the database doesn’t exist, MongoDB
creates it when data is inserted into it.

js

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use school

This command switches to the school database. If school doesn’t exist, it will be created upon
inserting data.

c) db

Displays the current database in use.

js

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db

Output:

nginx

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school

2. Creating Collections

In MongoDB, collections are like tables in SQL. They store multiple documents.

a) db.createCollection("collection_name")

Explicitly creates a new collection.

js

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db.createCollection("students")

Output:

json

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{ "ok" : 1 }

Note: MongoDB creates collections automatically when you insert a document.

3. Inserting Data

You can insert a document (record) into a collection using the insertOne() or insertMany() methods.

a) insertOne()

Inserts a single document into a collection.

js

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db.students.insertOne({

name: "John",

age: 22,

course: "Computer Science"

})

b) insertMany()
Inserts multiple documents at once.

js

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db.students.insertMany([

{ name: "Alice", age: 21, course: "Math" },

{ name: "Bob", age: 23, course: "Physics" }

])

4. Reading Data (Querying Documents)

To fetch data from a collection, MongoDB provides the find() and findOne() methods.

a) find()

Returns all documents that match the query.

js

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db.students.find()

Output:

json

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{ "_id" : ObjectId("..."), "name" : "John", "age" : 22, "course" : "Computer Science" }

{ "_id" : ObjectId("..."), "name" : "Alice", "age" : 21, "course" : "Math" }

b) findOne()

Returns the first document that matches the query.

js

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db.students.findOne({ name: "Alice" })

5. Updating Documents

MongoDB allows updating existing documents using updateOne(), updateMany(), and replaceOne().

a) updateOne()

Updates the first document that matches the filter.

js
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db.students.updateOne(

{ name: "John" },

{ $set: { age: 23 } }

b) updateMany()

Updates all documents that match the filter.

js

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db.students.updateMany(

{ course: "Math" },

{ $set: { course: "Mathematics" } }

c) replaceOne()

Replaces an entire document.

js

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db.students.replaceOne(

{ name: "Bob" },

{ name: "Bob", age: 24, course: "Chemistry" }

6. Deleting Documents

MongoDB allows deleting one or many documents from a collection.

a) deleteOne()

Deletes the first matching document.

js

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db.students.deleteOne({ name: "Alice" })

b) deleteMany()

Deletes all matching documents.

js

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db.students.deleteMany({ course: "Physics" })

7. Dropping Collections and Databases

a) Drop Collection

Deletes an entire collection and its documents.

js

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db.students.drop()

Output:

arduino

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true

b) Drop Database

Deletes the current database.

js

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db.dropDatabase()

Output:

json

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{ "dropped": "school", "ok": 1 }

8. Some Useful Additional Commands

a) show collections

Lists all the collections in the current database.

js

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show collections

b) db.collection.stats()
Provides statistics about a collection.

js

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db.students.stats()

Conclusion

MongoDB provides a simple yet powerful set of commands to access, create, update, delete, and
manage databases and their data. Since MongoDB uses a document-based model, manipulating
data becomes flexible and intuitive, especially for developers used to working with JSON. These
commands make MongoDB a great choice for modern applications that demand speed, flexibility,
and scalability.
Q4a: Explain REST API in Detail (10 Marks)

What is REST API?

REST stands for Representational State Transfer. It is an architectural style used for designing web
services that communicate over HTTP. A REST API (Application Programming Interface) allows two
systems to talk to each other using standard web protocols.

For example, when you open a weather app on your phone, it sends a request to a REST API which
fetches the latest weather data from a server and returns it to your app.

Key Concepts of REST API

1. Resources

In REST, everything is considered a resource, and each resource is identified by a URI (Uniform
Resource Identifier). For example:

• https://api.example.com/users – represents a list of users.

• https://api.example.com/users/101 – represents a user with ID 101.

These resources are typically represented in JSON or XML format.

2. HTTP Methods (CRUD Operations)

REST APIs use standard HTTP methods to perform actions on resources:

HTTP Method Action Description

GET Read Retrieve data from the server

POST Create Add new data/resource to the server

PUT Update Modify an existing resource

DELETE Delete Remove a resource

Example:

http

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GET /students/101 → Get details of student with ID 101

POST /students → Add a new student

PUT /students/101 → Update data of student 101

DELETE /students/101 → Delete student 101

Features of REST API

1. Statelessness

Each request from a client to a server must contain all the necessary information. The server does
not remember the state of previous requests. This improves scalability and simplifies the design.

2. Client-Server Architecture

REST separates the client (frontend like a mobile app or web browser) and the server (backend
database or service). This allows both parts to be developed and scaled independently.

3. Uniform Interface

REST APIs follow a consistent set of rules and conventions using HTTP methods and resource URIs.
This makes APIs easy to understand and use.

4. Cacheable

Responses from REST APIs can be cached to improve performance. For example, responses for GET
requests can be stored temporarily to avoid multiple calls for the same data.

5. Layered System

REST APIs support multiple layers like authentication layers, security layers, etc., between the client
and server. These layers work independently to improve performance and security.

Advantages of REST API

1. Easy to Learn and Use: REST uses standard HTTP methods, making it simple for
developers to understand and implement.

2. Platform Independent: A REST API can be used across platforms and devices like web,
Android, iOS, etc.

3. Scalable and Performant: Due to statelessness and caching, REST APIs scale well under
heavy loads.

4. Flexible Data Format: Although JSON is widely used, REST APIs can also return data in
XML, HTML, or plain text.

5. Separation of Concerns: Client and server are independent, so they can evolve
separately.

Example of a REST API

Imagine a simple Student Management System:

API Endpoints:

Action HTTP Method Endpoint

List all students GET /students

Action HTTP Method Endpoint

Get one student GET /students/101

Add new student POST /students

Update student PUT /students/101

Delete student DELETE /students/101

 Flask Mod
5-9 for flask template

Q5b: How to Set, Access, and Delete Cookies in Python Flask (10 Marks)

Introduction to Cookies in Flask

Cookies are small pieces of data stored on the client’s browser by the server to remember
information across multiple pages or sessions. They help in tracking user behavior, storing login
information, preferences, and enhancing the overall user experience.

In Flask, cookies are used to:

• Store user-specific data (e.g., username, theme).

• Maintain session-based behavior.

• Show personalized content.

Cookies are stored as key-value pairs and are automatically sent by the client (browser) with every
request made to the same server.

Setting a Cookie in Flask

In Flask, we use the set_cookie() method from the response object to set cookies on the user's
browser.

Syntax:

python

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response.set_cookie(key, value="", max_age=None)

• key: (Required) Name of the cookie.

• value: (Optional) Data you want to store in the cookie. Default is an empty string.

• max_age: (Optional) Lifespan of the cookie in seconds. If not provided, the cookie expires
when the browser is closed.

Example: Setting a Cookie

python

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from flask import *

app = Flask(__name__)

@app.route('/cookie/')

def cookie():

if not request.cookies.get('saidham'):

res = make_response("Setting a cookie")

res.set_cookie('saidham', 'sairam', max_age=60*60*24*365*2) # lasts for 2 years

else:

res = make_response("Cookie already exists")

return res

if __name__ == '__main__':

app.run(debug=True)

Explanation:

• The route /cookie/ checks if the cookie saidham is already set.

• If not, it sets the cookie with value 'sairam' and an expiry of 2 years.

• If already present, it notifies the user that the cookie exists.

Accessing Cookies in Flask

To access a cookie in Flask, we use the request.cookies dictionary-like object which stores all cookies
sent by the browser.

Example: Accessing Cookie Value

python

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@app.route('/show-cookie/')

def show_cookie():

cookie_value = request.cookies.get('saidham')

return f"The value of cookie 'saidham' is: {cookie_value}"

Explanation:

• The request.cookies.get('saidham') fetches the cookie named 'saidham'.

• This value is then displayed in the response.

 Viewing Cookies in Browser

To check cookies that are set:

• Open your browser (e.g., Firefox).

• Press Shift + F9 to open the Storage Inspector.

• Click on the "Cookies" section from the left panel.

• Click on the URL http://localhost:5000/ to view all cookies set by your Flask app.

Deleting Cookies in Flask

To delete a cookie, we simply set the cookie with the same name and set its max_age value to 0.

Example: Deleting a Cookie

python

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@app.route('/delete-cookie/')

def delete_cookie():

res = make_response("Cookie Removed")

res.set_cookie('saidham', 'sairam', max_age=0) # deleting cookie

return res

Explanation:

• The cookie 'saidham' is overwritten with the same name and value.

• The max_age=0 tells the browser to immediately delete it.

When you visit:

http://localhost:5000/delete-cookie/,
The cookie saidham will be deleted from the browser.

Summary: Cookie Handling in Flask

Operation Function Used Description

Set a cookie res.set_cookie() Stores a cookie on the client’s browser

Read a cookie request.cookies.get() Fetches cookie value sent by browser

Delete a cookie res.set_cookie(..., max_age=0) Expires the cookie immediately

 Real-World Use Cases

1. User Authentication – Store login sessions or tokens.

2. Theme Settings – Remember user preferences like dark/light mode.

3. Shopping Cart – Temporarily store items in cart without logging in.

4. Personalized Messages – Greet users by name when they revisit.

Conclusion

Cookies in Flask play an essential role in web development by allowing servers to store data on the
client’s browser for persistent interactions. Using simple methods like set_cookie() and accessing
them via request.cookies, developers can easily manage cookies to enhance user experience.
Whether it is setting user preferences, maintaining login sessions, or deleting temporary data, cookie
handling is a fundamental part of modern web applications.
Features

Flask is a lightweight and minimalistic framework that allows developers to build web applications
without the need for large or complex tools. This makes it fast to set up and easy to understand for
beginners while still being powerful enough for professionals to use in larger projects.

It gives full control to the developer, meaning you are free to choose the structure, tools, libraries,
and components of your web application. Unlike larger frameworks that impose certain restrictions
or project layouts, Flask lets you decide everything from routing to template handling.

Flask provides a built-in development server and debugger, which makes the development process
smoother. If your application has any bugs or errors, the debugger shows detailed error messages
and even lets you run interactive code in the browser to test and fix problems quickly.

Flask uses the Jinja2 template engine, which makes it easy to create dynamic HTML content. Jinja2
allows you to use variables, conditions, loops, and template inheritance, which helps in keeping your
web pages well-structured and easy to manage.

It is WSGI (Web Server Gateway Interface) 1.0 compliant, which means it can work seamlessly with
most Python-compatible web servers. This standardization ensures that your Flask application can be
deployed on various server environments without compatibility issues.

Flask comes with built-in support for unit testing. This makes it easier for developers to write test
cases and check the functionality of different parts of the application during development. Unit
testing ensures the code remains stable and bug-free when changes are made.

A wide range of extensions are available for Flask, which can be easily integrated into the
application. These extensions provide extra functionalities such as database connectivity (Flask-
SQLAlchemy), user authentication (Flask-Login), form validation (Flask-WTF), sending emails (Flask-
Mail), and more.

Flask supports secure cookies, which are cookies that are encrypted to prevent unauthorized
access or modification. This is useful for storing session data securely on the client side and helps
enhance the security of the web application.

Flask allows easy URL routing, where each web page or view in your application is associated with
a unique URL using decorators. This makes navigation between pages simple and organized and gives
you control over how your users interact with different parts of your app.

Unicode support is built-in within Flask, which allows developers to build applications that can
support multiple languages and handle various character sets. This is especially useful for building
international or multilingual web applications.

Flask supports powerful request dispatching. You can easily handle different HTTP methods like
GET, POST, PUT, DELETE, and more within your route functions. This flexibility lets you manage how
your application reacts to user inputs, form submissions, or API calls in a clean and manageable way.
Flask provides a powerful function called url_for() that is used for dynamic URL building in web
applications. This means that instead of writing or “hardcoding” the URL links manually into your
HTML or Python scripts, you can use url_for() to generate them automatically based on the function
names defined in your application. This helps make your code more flexible, organized, and error-
free.

The url_for() function takes the function name as the first argument, and if the function has any
variables or parameters in its route, you can pass them as keyword arguments.

Why Use url_for()?

In many web applications, developers often hardcode links like /admin, /profile/username, etc. This
can become a problem when you want to rename or reorganize routes. If you forget to update every
link manually, the application will break. Flask’s url_for() solves this issue by dynamically creating
URLs based on your view function names. This means you only need to make changes in one place —
the route function — and all links using url_for() will still work perfectly.

Syntax of url_for():

python

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url_for('function_name', **kwargs)

• function_name is the name of the route function.

• kwargs are the arguments for dynamic URL parts (like user names or IDs).

Example:

Let’s understand it with the help of a practical example:

python

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from flask import Flask, redirect, url_for

app = Flask(__name__)

@app.route('/admin')

def admin():

return 'This is admin page'

@app.route('/librarian')

def librarian():

return 'This is librarian page'

@app.route('/student')

def student():

return 'This is student page'

@app.route('/user/<name>')

def user(name):

if name == 'admin':

return redirect(url_for('admin'))

elif name == 'librarian':

return redirect(url_for('librarian'))

elif name == 'student':

return redirect(url_for('student'))

if __name__ == '__main__':

app.run(debug=True)

Explanation:

In this example, we have a Library Management System with three types of users:

• Admin

• Librarian

• Student

Each user type has its own view function:

• /admin → admin()

• /librarian → librarian()

• /student → student()

The fourth function, user(name), takes a user’s role as input from the URL. Depending on the role
entered in the URL (like /user/admin), the function redirects to the corresponding page using the
url_for() function.
So, when the URL http://localhost:5000/user/admin is accessed, Flask redirects the user to
http://localhost:5000/admin.

Output Examples:

• URL: http://localhost:5000/user/admin → Redirects to http://localhost:5000/admin

• URL: http://localhost:5000/user/librarian → Redirects to http://localhost:5000/librarian

• URL: http://localhost:5000/user/student → Redirects to http://localhost:5000/student

Benefits of Using url_for():

1. Avoids Hardcoding: Instead of writing the URLs manually, you use the function names. This
makes the code cleaner and easier to maintain.

2. Automatic Updates: If you change the route or path in your Flask app, you do not have to
update it everywhere. url_for() will automatically generate the correct URL.

3. Escaping Special Characters: It handles special characters, spaces, and Unicode characters
correctly in the URL.

4. Always Absolute Paths: It generates absolute URLs, so you don’t face problems with relative
links (which may behave differently depending on the current page).

5. Works with App Subdirectories: If your Flask app is hosted at /myapp instead of the root /,
then url_for() handles it properly and ensures the generated URLs are still correct.
Q5a: What are the HTTP Methods provided by Python Flask?

(10 Marks)

In web development, HTTP methods are essential for communication between the client (browser)
and the server (Flask application). Flask is a micro web framework in Python that provides support
for various HTTP methods as defined by the HTTP protocol. These methods help in performing
specific actions when a request is made to the server. They are essential for building dynamic,
interactive web applications.

When a user interacts with a website (such as submitting a form, fetching data, updating records,
etc.), the browser sends a request using an HTTP method, and the Flask server responds based on
that method.

Common HTTP Methods in Flask

Flask supports the following primary HTTP methods:

1. GET

2. POST

3. PUT

4. PATCH

5. DELETE

Each of these methods serves a specific purpose in the client-server interaction.

1. GET Method

• The GET method is used to retrieve data from the server.

• It sends the data through the URL query string, meaning the data is visible in the address
bar.

• It is a read-only method, which means it should not be used to update or delete any server-
side data.

• Example use-case: Searching a product, fetching user details, etc.

html

CopyEdit

<form action="/login1" method="get">

<input type="text" name="uname">

<input type="password" name="pass">

<input type="submit">

</form>
python

CopyEdit

@app.route('/login1', methods=['GET'])

def login():

uname = request.args.get('uname')

password = request.args.get('pass')

...

Advantages of GET:

• Simple and quick.

• Can be bookmarked.

• Useful for read-only operations.

2. POST Method

• The POST method is used to send data to the server to create or update a resource.

• It sends data via the request body, not the URL.

• It is used when you submit sensitive or large information such as forms, passwords, images,
etc.

• Example use-case: Submitting a form, user registration, logging in.

html

CopyEdit

<form action="/login" method="post">

<input type="text" name="uname">

<input type="password" name="pass">

<input type="submit">

</form>

python

CopyEdit

@app.route('/login', methods=['POST'])

def login():

uname = request.form['uname']

password = request.form['pass']
 ...

Advantages of POST:

• Data is not visible in the URL.

• No size limitations.

• Secure for sensitive data.

3. PUT Method

• The PUT method is used to update or create a resource at a specific URL.

• If the resource exists, it is updated; otherwise, a new one is created.

• Data is sent in the request body like POST.

python

CopyEdit

@app.route('/update/<id>', methods=['PUT'])

def update_data(id):

new_data = request.json

...

Use-case Example: Updating a user’s profile data.

4. PATCH Method

• Similar to PUT but used to partially update an existing resource.

• It modifies only the fields specified in the request.

python

CopyEdit

@app.route('/update-field/<id>', methods=['PATCH'])

def patch_data(id):

partial_data = request.json

...

Use-case Example: Updating only the user’s email or password.

5. DELETE Method

• The DELETE method is used to delete the resource from the server.
 • It is used when you want to remove an item, user, or record from the database.

python

CopyEdit

@app.route('/delete/<id>', methods=['DELETE'])

def delete_data(id):

...

Use-case Example: Deleting a blog post or account.

How to Use Multiple Methods in Flask

By default, Flask routes respond to GET requests. To allow other methods like POST, PUT, etc., you
must specify them in the @app.route() decorator using the methods parameter.

python

CopyEdit

@app.route('/login', methods=['GET', 'POST'])

def login():

if request.method == 'POST':

...

else:

...

Summary Table of HTTP Methods in Flask

HTTP Method Action Data Sent In Use Case

GET Retrieve data URL parameters Search, Fetch data

POST Create new data Request body Form submission, Registration

PUT Create or replace full resource Request body Updating records

PATCH Update part of a resource Request body Change email or name only

DELETE Delete a resource Request body/URL Delete user, remove post

Conclusion

Flask provides a powerful and flexible way to handle all standard HTTP methods that are essential for
building modern web applications. These methods allow developers to structure their applications
efficiently based on the RESTful architecture and make them more interactive, responsive, and
dynamic.

By understanding and using HTTP methods appropriately, developers can ensure better security,
scalability, and functionality in their Flask-based applications.